FUNDAMENTALS OF POLITICAL SCIENCE

ELECTION AND
REPRESENTATION
INTRODUCTION

Political parties are indispensable for the working of modern

representative democracy. They have made their way into vast
majority of countries of the world and in most political systems.
Nature of these parties may differ widely‐they may be democratic
or authoritarian; they may seek power through elections or
through revolutions; and may be ideologically as varied as left,
right or center.
DEFINITION
According to R N Glichrist: “A political party is an organized group of
citizens who profess to share the same political views and who by
acting as a political unit try to control the government”

According to R.G. Gettle: ”A political party consists of group of citizens,

more or less organized, who acts as a political unit and who by the use
of their voting power, aim to control the government and carry out
their general policies”

According to R.M. MacIver: “A political party is an association organized

in support of some principles or policy which by constitutional means in
endeavors to make the determinant of government”
BASIC FEATURES OF POLITICAL PARTIES
ORGANISATION

MEMBERS MUST AGREE ON PRINCIPLES

FORMULATE CLEAR PROGRAMMMES

A POLITICAL SHOULD ADOPT ONLY CONSTITUTIONAL AND PEACEFUL

MEANS TO CAPTURE POWER AND FORM GOVERNMENT

A POLITICAL PARTY MUST PROMOTE NATIONAL INTEREST

A POLITICAL PARTY SHOULD AIM TO CAPTURE POWER

BASIS OF POLITICAL PARTIES

Political parties are based on human nature

Economic interest is one major reason for the formation of political

parties

Political parties may be formed on the basis of ideology

Religion, caste and communal sentiments also play a part in the

formation of political parties

Environment also induces an individual to seek the membership of

one party or other
TYPES OS POLITICAL PARTIES
CADRE AND MASS PARTIES - The cadre party originally meant a ‘party of notables’,
dominated by an informal group of leaders who saw little point in building up a
mass organization. The distinguishing feature of cadre parties is their reliance on
a politically active elite, that is capable of offering ideological leadership to the
masses. Chinese communist party, Nazi party in Germany, Fascist Party in Italy
are examples of cadre parties.

REPRESENATATIVE AND INTEGRATIVE PARTIES - Representative parties attempts

to reflect, rather than shape public opinion. Primary function of these parties is to
secure as many votes as possible in elections. In this respect they place
pragmatism before principle. Integrative parties, on the other hand, adopt
proactive, rather than reactive political strategies. These parties emphasis on
mobilizing people and they try to educate the masses, rather than merely
responding to their concerns
TYPES OS POLITICAL PARTIES
CONSTITUTIONAL AND REVOLUTIONARY PARTIES - Constitutional parties acknowledge the rights and
entitlements of other parties, and thus operate within a framework of rules and constraints. These
parties understand that there is division between the party and state, between party in power and
state institutions, that enjoy formal independence and political neutrality.

Revolutionary parties, on the other hand are anti‐system or anti‐constitutional parties, either of the
left or the right. Revolutionary parties aim to seize power, by overthrowing the existing
constitutional structure through insurrection and popular revolution or through quasi‐legalism as
was practiced by Nazis and Fascists.

LEFT-WING AND RIGHT-WING PARTIES - Left parties (progressive, socialist and communist parties)
stands committed to change, in the form of either social reform or whole scale economic
transformation. These parties have traditionally drawn their support from the ranks of the poor and
disadvantaged sections of the society.

Right ‐ wing parties (conservative and fascist parties in particular) generally uphold the existing
social order and stands for continuity. Their supporters usually include business interest and the
materially contented middle class..
FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES
Political parties unite, simplify and stabilize the political process. They bring together
sectional interest overcome geographical distances, and provides coherence to
divisive governmental structures.

Representation is often seen as the primary function of political parties

Political parties help to aggregate and articulate various interest found in society

Political parties act as a link between the government and the people

Political recruitment is an important function performed by political parties

Political parties are important agents of political education and socialisation

Political parties also perform social welfare functions

POLITICAL PARTY SYSTEM
An easy and common way of classifying party systems are on the basis of number of parties competing for power. On this basis Maurice
Duverger distinguish between ‘one party’, 'two‐ party’, and ‘multi‐ party systems.

ONE-PARTY SYSTEMS / SINGLE PARTY SYSTEMS - One‐Party or Single Party System is one in which a single party enjoys the monopoly of
power, through the exclusion of all the other parties. Here one party dominates the politic of a country. There may be other parties but
they are insignificant players, as they do not get enough votes to form a government or an effective opposition. Two different types of
single party systems can be identified:
The first type is found in state socialist regimes where communist parties have directed and controlled virtually all the institutions and
aspects of society
The second type of one party system is associated with anti‐colonial nationalism and state consolidation in the developing world. Here
‘ruling’ party developed out of an independence movement that proclaimed the need for nation‐building and economic development.

TWO PARTY SYSTEMS / BI-PARTY SYSTEMS - Two‐party system or Bi‐party system is one in which two ‘major’ parties dominates the politics of
a country and have equal prospect of forming governments. Two party systems can be identified by three distinct criteria:
Though a number of minor parties exist, only two parties enjoy sufficient electoral and legislative strength for winning government
power.
One party is able to rule alone and the other party becomes the opposition
Power alternates between these two ‘major’ parties; both parties are electable and the opposition serving as ‘government in the wings’.

MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM - Multi party systems is characterized by the existence of three or more parties which regularly, secure substantial
number of votes and are able to share power. Parties are well organized and they are able to exert considerable influence on the politics of
a country. In multi‐party systems, usually single parties are not able to secure absolute majority and form governments, and the result is
the formation of coalitions governments .Smaller parties may form coalitions and form governments by excluding the major parties
MAURICE DUVERGER'S ANALYSIS OF POLITICAL PARTY

French scholar Maurice Duverger’s study of the organization and working of a political
party has given us some useful insights about a political party. For him “Political party is
not a community, but a collection of communities, a union of small groups dispersed
throughout the community (branches, caucuses, local association etc.) and linked by
coordinate institutions.”

A. CAUCUS - It is like a small unit like clique, core committee, coterie etc., where the size
is deliberately kept small. Its strength depends not on the size but on the quality of its
members. Caucus play a very important part in the decision‐making process, though its
activity reaches its peak on the eve of elections.

B. BRANCH - It is largely an invention of socialist parties which desires to maintain

intimate touch with the people. It is less centralized than the caucus and appreciates its
growing proximity with the masses. Leaders of the socialist party often visit branch
members and free exchange of ideas takes place between the leaders and the branch
members.
MAURICE DUVERGER'S ANALYSIS OF POLITICAL PARTY

C. CELL - It is an invention of fascist and communist parties. The units of a party are
scattered in every nook and corner of the country and every cell has a much greater hold
on its members than the caucus or a branch. The members of the
cell carry much importance than other members of the party. The entire network of the
cell is controlled by the highest unit of the party composed of the real decision‐makers at
the top.

D. MILITIA - Fascist and communist parties have a military wing under their command
like the Shock Troops of Mussolini, or the Red Guards of Mao. The members of these
organizations remain civilians, though they are given military training. The members
wear prescribed uniforms, hold party flags and act at the behest of the party leaders
working under the supreme commander of the chief of the organization.
MAURICE DUVERGER'S ANALYSIS OF POLITICAL PARTY

C. CELL - It is an invention of fascist and communist parties. The units of a party are
scattered in every nook and corner of the country and every cell has a much greater hold
on its members than the caucus or a branch. The members of the
cell carry much importance than other members of the party. The entire network of the
cell is controlled by the highest unit of the party composed of the real decision‐makers at
the top.

D. MILITIA - Fascist and communist parties have a military wing under their command
like the Shock Troops of Mussolini, or the Red Guards of Mao. The members of these
organizations remain civilians, though they are given military training. The members
wear prescribed uniforms, hold party flags and act at the behest of the party leaders
working under the supreme commander of the chief of the organization.
INTEREST AND PRESSURE GROUPS

Apart from political parties there are various associations and groups exiting in almost
all countries of the world. A group has an interest of its own and it also represent a
pattern of process rather than a static form. A group can emerge, only when the
interactions among its members are relatively frequent and sufficiently patterned to
produce directional activity.

Interest is the main reason for the organization of groups. People holding similar views
and interest may form groups for the realisation of their interest. The shared interest
may be political, religious, occupational, cultural etc.

Hitchner and Harbold describe pressure groups as “any collection of persons with
common objectives who seek their realization through political action to influence public
policy”.
MAIN FEATURES OF PRESSURE GROUPS (INTEREST GROUPS)

A. SELF INTEREST - elf interest is guiding force for the formation of a pressure group.
Individuals having common interest come together to form groups to fight for their
interest.

B. NO OPEN ALIGNMENT WITH POLITICS - Pressure groups are not organizations without
politics, but at the same time they do not prefer to have open alignment with politics.

C. PRESSURE GROUPS DIFFER FROM POLITICAL PARTIES - political parties are generally
bigger associations and represent the interest of various sections of a society. Pressure
groups on the other hand are comparatively smaller groups and have specific interest to
pursue

D. UNIVERSALITY - pressure groups enjoy universality. They are formed in all parts of the
world. They include organizations catering to the interest of various sections of the
society. These include business, labor, farm cooperative, church and other organizations.
TYPES OF INTEREST AND PRESSURE GROUPS
A. SECTIONAL AND PROMOTIONAL GROUPS - Sometimes referred as protective or
functional groups. They strive to advance or protect the interest of their members. Trade
unions, business corporations, trade associations and professional bodies are the prime
examples of this group. Their ‘sectional’ character is derived from the fact that they
represent various sections of society; workers, employers, consumers and ethnic or
religious groups , etc,.

B. PROMOTIONAL GROUPS - are groups that are set up to advance shared values, Ideas
or principles. These are groups that aim to help groups other than their own members.
They espouse many causes like campaigns favoring civil liberties, protest against
pollution, defense of traditional or religious values etc. When involved in international
politics these groups are called nongovernmental organizations or NGOs.

The alternative system of classification is based on the status that group have in relation
to government and the strategies they adopt in order to exert pressure. One such
classification is ‘insider groups’ and ‘Outsider groups.
TYPES OF INTEREST AND PRESSURE GROUPS
INSIDER GROUPS - have regular privileged and institutionalized access to government
through routine consultation or representation in government bodies. Insider and
sectional groups classification do often overlap. This is because of the ability of powerful
sectional groups like those in the business and trade to impose sanctions, if their views
are ignored by the government. Government may also consult groups that possess
specialist knowledge and information that may be of help in the formulation of various
policies.

OUTSIDER GROUPS - are either not consulted by the government or are consulted only
irregularly. Outsider groups, since they lack formal access to government are often
forced to ‘go public’, so as to indirectly influence the policies of the government. Radical
protest groups (espousing the cause of animal rights, environment protection etc.) have
little choice than being outsiders as their causes are often not the goal or priorities of
the government.
G.A ALMOND'S CLASSFICATION OF PRESSURE GROUPS

INSTITUTIONAL GROUPS - This category includes departments of the state like

legislature, executive, bureaucracy and judiciary in the category of pressure
groups.

ASSOCIATIONAL GROUPS - This category includes all the leading pressure groups of
a country like the organizations of businessmen, workers, farmers professionals
etc.,

NON-ASSOCIATIONAL GROUPS - In this category Almond includes groups having

informal organization. These are based on factors of kingship, religion, tribal
loyalties and the like.

ANOMIC GROUPS - This category includes all those organizations whose behavior is
unpredictable. Such organizations often act spontaneously and indulge in activities
of violence and extremism
TACTICS OF PRESSURE GROUPS
LOBBYING - This is the common and an effective strategy adopted by the pressure groups. Here
pressure groups resort to relentless persuasion on the public authorities to make them act according
to their wishes

PUBLIC OPINION - Opinion‐Creating favorable public opinion for ones cause is a sure way of influencing
the policy of the government in modern democracies. Pressure groups use the tactics of publicity to
call attention to their appeals.

POLITICAL ALLEGIANCE - Some pressure groups actively associate with political parties. They exert
influence on the political party they associate with to achieve their objectives. They even try to get one
of their members nominated in the elections or even in the ministry.

ELECTIONEERING - Some pressure groups , though they do not openly align with any political parties,
yet they support candidates who can be relied upon in the time of elections.

STRIKE - Strike is the temporary stoppage of work. Generally pressure group resort to strike only when
they have failed to achieve their objectives through the above mentioned(Lobbing, public opinion,
political allegiance etc.) tactics
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION
The principle of Proportional Representation is that parties should be represented in the parliament in direct
proportion to their overall electoral strength. It means a political party should be represented in parliament in
proportion to its share of the popular vote. The assumption here is that, if a party secures 10% of the votes , then
that party should get exactly 10% of seats in the parliament. This ensures representation to all sections and
interest in proportion to the numerical strength of their votes, and also ensures that no vote is wasted.

THE HARE SYSTEM - In Hare system, the constituencies are multimember with at least three seats. No maximum
is prescribed for the number of seats. Regardless of the number of representatives to be elected, each voter has
only one vote. However, voters can indicate on the ballot paper his preference or choice‐ first preference, second
preference, and so on by marking the figures 1,2,3, against the name of the candidates.

He can vote for as many candidates as there are seats to be filled from that constituency by denoting his
preference. A candidate to be declared elected requires to get a certain quota of votes. Different methods are
followed to determine the quota. The simplest method is to divide the number of votes cast by the number of
seats to be filled from the constituency, and the quotient is taken as the quota or the number of votes necessary
to elect a candidate. The formula is this:

total no. of votes

Quota = +1
number of seats + 1
PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION

THE LIST SYSTEM - is a variant of proportional representation. In this system, candidates are grouped in
list according to their party labels and every party offers a list of its candidates up to the number of
seats to be filled for each constituency. Here, voters vote for party and not for candidates. When a
voter votes for the party he automatically votes for the list submitted by that party and the candidate
thereon in the list given by that party.

The list system is a simple method as the voter need only to select the party and by selecting it, he
votes for the entire list of candidates given by the party. But, a major drawback of bound list system is
that voters cannot choose a candidate of their choice. Moreover, list system gives undue importance
to party leaders as they have a major say in the selection of the party list.
OTHER SCHEMES OF MINORITY REPRESENTATION
Apart from proportional representation, there are also other schemes of minority representation. All these
schemes device some methods of minority representation but are not necessarily in proportion to their
numerical voting strength.

THE LIMITED VOTE PLAN - This method is intended to give only limited representation. It does not work
when there are many parties. Moreover, this system secures representation only for fairly large minorities
and also does not allow proportional representation

THE CUMULATIVE VOTE SYSTEM - The main advantage of this method is that it enables even a small minority
to elect at least one member, by cumulating all the votes on one candidate. But for this to happen,
minorities must be well organized. It also requires strict party discipline and proper instructions on how
they are to distribute their votes

THE SECOND BALLOT SYSTEM - In this system a candidate can win only with majority support and thus, he
will need to get the support of the minority, even though they may not be contesting the second ballot. This
allows the minority to play a larger role in the political arena. This system does not provide proportional
representation and is not fair to ‘third’ parties as they are kept out from the second ballot.
OTHER SCHEMES OF MINORITY REPRESENTATION
THE ALTERNATE VOTE OR CONTINGENT VOTE - The main advantage of this method is that it enables even a small
minority to elect at least one member, by cumulating all the votes on one candidate. But for this to happen,
minorities must be well organized. It also requires strict party discipline and proper instructions on how they are
to distribute their votes

SEPERATE ELECTORATE SYSTEM - In this system constituencies are delimited on the basis of religion. Minorities
were assured of representation, but it had
some serious defects. Most importantly, people were divided on communal lines and national feelings were hurt.
People becomes more narrow minded and paved the way for the rise of communalism.

JOINT ELECTORATE WITH RESERVED SEATS - In this system seats are reserved for minorities in the legislature, but
constituencies are not made on a communal basis. In this system all communities can participate in the election--
creating a spirit of unity and nationalism among the people