Nama : Refin Ananda

NIM : 3.32.17.0.20
Kelas : EK-3A
INDIVIDUAL PRESENTATION 2
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
1. The Meaning of ADC
Stands for "Analog-to-Digital Converter." Since computers only
process digital information, they require digital input. Therefore, if an analog input is sent
to a computer, an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) is required. This device can take an
analog signal, such as an electrical current, and digitize it into a binary format that the
computer can understand.
From the name itself it is clear that it is a converter which converts the analog
(continuously variable) signal to digital signal. This is really an electronic integrated
circuit which directly converts the continuous form of signal to discrete form. It can be
expressed as A/D or A-to-D or A-D or ADC. The input (analog) to this system can have
any value in a range and are directly measured. But for output (digital) of an N-bit A/D
converter, it should have only 2N discrete values. This A/D converter is a linkage
between the analog (linear) world of transducers and discreet world of processing the
signal and handling the data. The digital to analog converter (DAC) carry out the inverse
function of the ADC.
2. Type of ADC
a. Successive Approximation ADC
 This converter compares the input signal with the output of an internal DAC at each
successive step. It is the most expensive type. A successive-approximation ADC uses
a comparator to successively narrow a range that contains the input voltage. At each
successive step, the converter compares the input voltage to the output of an internal
digital to analog converter which might represent the midpoint of a selected voltage
range. At each step in this process, the approximation is stored in a successive
approximation register (SAR). For example, consider an input voltage of 6.3 V and
the initial range is 0 to 16 V. For the first step, the input 6.3 V is compared to 8 V (the
midpoint of the 0–16 V range). The comparator reports that the input voltage is less
than 8 V, so the SAR is updated to narrow the range to 0–8 V. For the second step, the
input voltage is compared to 4 V (midpoint of 0–8). The comparator reports the input
voltage is above 4 V, so the SAR is updated to reflect the input voltage is in the range
4–8 V. For the third step, the input voltage is compared with 6 V (halfway between 4
V and 8 V); the comparator reports the input voltage is greater than 6 volts, and
search range becomes 6–8 V. The steps are continued until the desired resolution is
reached.
b. Dual-slope ADC
It have high accuracy but very slow in operation. The analog part of the circuit
consists of a high input impedance buffer, precision integrator and a voltage
comparator. The converter first integrates the analog input signal for a fixed duration
 and then it integrates an internal reference voltage of opposite polarity until the
integrator output is zero. The main disadvantage of this circuit is the long duration
time. They are particularly suitable for accurate measurement of slowly varying
signals such as thermocouples and weighing scales.
c. Sigma Delta
It has high resolution but slow due to over sampling.A sigma-delta ADC (also
known as a delta-sigma ADC) oversamples the desired signal by a large factor and
filters the desired signal band. Generally, a smaller number of bits than required are
converted using a Flash ADC after the filter. The resulting signal, along with the
error generated by the discrete levels of the Flash, is fed back and subtracted from
the input to the filter. This negative feedback has the effect of noise shaping the error
due to the Flash so that it does not appear in the desired signal frequencies. A digital
filter (decimation filter) follows the ADC which reduces the sampling rate, filters off
unwanted noise signal and increases the resolution of the output (sigma-delta
modulation, also called delta-sigma modulation).

3. Function of ADC
An ADC converts a continuous-time and continuous-amplitude analog signal to a
discrete-time and discrete-amplitude digital signal. The conversion involves
quantization of the input, so it necessarily introduces a small amount of error or noise.
Furthermore, instead of continuously performing the conversion, an ADC does the
conversion periodically, sampling the input, limiting the allowable bandwidth of the
input signal.
There are mainly two steps involves in the process of conversion
a. Sampling and Holding
In the process of Sample and hold (S/H), the continuous signal will gets sampled
and freeze (hold) the value at a steady level for a particular least period of time. It
is done to remove variations in input signal which can alter the conversion process
and thereby increases the accuracy. The minimum sampling rate has to be two
times the maximum data frequency of the input signal.
b. Quantizing and Encoding
 Quantizing: It is the process in which the reference signal is partitioned into
several discrete quanta and then the input signal is matched with the correct
quantum.
 Encoding: Here; for each quantum, a unique digital code will be assigned and
after that the input signal is allocated with this digital code

4. Characteristic ADC
a. Linear ADC
is an ADC having steps ideally of equal width excluding the steps at the two ends
of the total range of analog input values. Ideally, the width of each end step is one
half the width of any other step.
Example: for a hypothetical 3-bit linear ADC, step widths of all steps may be 1 V
excluding the steps at the two ends of the total range of analog input values and the
width of each end- step is 0.5 V.
b. Non linear
 Nonnlinear ADC/DAC is ADC/DAC with a specified nonlinear input/output
transfer diagram or transfer function between the nominal mid-step/step values
and the corresponding step widths/heights. The function may be continuously
nonlinear or piecewise linear.
c. Full scale
for a device refers to that step within the input/output transfer diagram or transfer
function whose nominal mid-step/step value has the highest absolute value.
Example: for a hypothetical 3-bit unipolar DAC full-scale may be 7 V and refers
to a step with input code (111) and output 7 V

5. Application ADC in the electronics circuit

a. Music recording
Analog-to-digital converters are integral to 2000s era music reproduction technology
and digital audio workstation-based sound recording. People often produce music on
computers using an analog recording and therefore need analog-to-digital converters to
create the pulse-code modulation (PCM) data streams that go onto compact discs and
digital music files. The current crop of analog-to-digital converters utilized in music can
sample at rates up to 192 kilohertz. Considerable literature exists on these matters, but
commercial considerations often play a significant role. Many recording studios record
in 24-bit/96 kHz (or higher) pulse-code modulation (PCM) or Direct Stream Digital
(DSD) formats, and then downsample or decimate the signal for Compact Disc Digital
Audio production (44.1 kHz) or to 48 kHz for commonly used radio and television
broadcast applications because of the Nyquist frequency and hearing range of humans.
b. Rotary encoder
Some non-electronic or only partially electronic devices, such as rotary encoders, can
also be considered ADCs. Typically the digital output of an ADC will be a two's
complement binary number that is proportional to the input. An encoder might output a
Gray code