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AE1205 Python Tutorial v5

Programming and Scientific Computing in Python for AE1 (Technische Universiteit Delft)

StudeerSnel wordt niet gesponsord of ondersteund door een hogeschool of universiteit

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Programming and Scientific Computing in

3
for Aerospace Engineers

AE Tutorial Programming Python

v5.0
Jacco Hoekstra

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print("Hello world.")

>>> Hello world!

if language==python:
programming = fun

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Table of Contents
1. Getting started ......................................................................................................................... 9
1.1 What is programming? .......................................................................................................... 9
1.2 What is Python? .................................................................................................................. 10
1.3 Installing Python ................................................................................................................. 12
1.3.1 Windows ...................................................................................................................... 12
1.3.2 Linux ............................................................................................................................ 14
1.3.3 Apple ............................................................................................................................ 14
1.3.4 Explanation of the installed modules ........................................................................... 16
1.3.5 Configuring Python IDLE............................................................................................ 16
1.3.5 Working environments: IDLE, PyCharm and Spyder ................................................. 18
1.3.6 Documentation ............................................................................................................. 20
1.4 Sneak preview: Try the Python language yourself ............................................................. 21
1.4.1 Temperature conversion: (PRINT, INPUT statement, variables) ................................ 21
1.5 Variables and assignment statement ................................................................................... 22
1.6 Finding your way around: many ways in which you can get help ................................. 25
2. Variable assignment and types.............................................................................................. 29
2.1 Example: a,b,c formula solver (IF statement, Math functions) ...................................... 29
2.1 Assignment and implicit type declaration........................................................................... 30
2.2 Short-hand when using original value with an operator ..................................................... 31
2.3 Number operations in Python ............................................................................................. 32
2.4 Floats: variable type for floating point values .................................................................... 32
2.5 Integers: variable type for round numbers like counter or index) ...................................... 33
2.6 Complex numbers ............................................................................................................... 35
2.7 String operations ................................................................................................................. 35
2.8 Booleans and logical expressions ....................................................................................... 38
2.9 List type: collection of items ordered in a table .................................................................. 39
2.9.1 What are lists? .............................................................................................................. 39
2.9.2 Indexing and slicing, list functions and delete ............................................................. 40
2.9.3*** Lists are Mutable: risks with multiple dimensions list creation ............................ 41
2.9.4 List methods ................................................................................................................. 44
2.10 Some useful standard, built-in functions .......................................................................... 45
3. Python syntax: Statements .................................................................................................... 46
3.1 Assignment ......................................................................................................................... 46
3.2 Print statement ................................................................................................................ 49

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3.2.1. Using print .................................................................................................................. 49

3.2.2. Formatting your output ............................................................................................... 50
3.3 Input function ...................................................................................................................... 51
3.4 If-statement ......................................................................................................................... 52
3.5 For-loop............................................................................................................................... 53
3.6 WHILE-loop ....................................................................................................................... 56
3.7 Loop controls: Break and Continue .................................................................................... 57
4. Making your code reusable and readable.............................................................................. 59
5. Using modules like the math module.................................................................................... 63
5.1 How to use math functions ................................................................................................. 63
5.2 List of math module functions and constants ..................................................................... 65
5.3 The module random ............................................................................................................ 66
5.4 Explore other modules ........................................................................................................ 66
6. Defining your own functions and modules ........................................................................... 67
6.1 Def statement: define a function ......................................................................................... 67
6.2 Multiple outputs .................................................................................................................. 68
6.3 Function with no outputs .................................................................................................... 68
6.4 Using one variable in definition as input and output is not possible .................................. 69
6.5 Using functions defined in other modules: managing a project ......................................... 71
7. Using logicals, example algorithm: Bubblesort .................................................................... 73
8. File input/output and String handling ................................................................................... 76
8.1 Opening and closing of files ............................................................................................... 76
8.2 Reading from a text file ...................................................................................................... 76
8.3 Writing to files .................................................................................................................... 77
8.4 Reading a formatted data file .............................................................................................. 78
8.5 List of some useful string methods/functions ..................................................................... 81
8.6 Genfromtxt: a tool in Numpy to read data from text files in one line ................................ 82
9. Matplotlib: Plotting in Python .............................................................................................. 85
9.1 Example: plotting sine and cosine graph ............................................................................ 85
9.2 More plots in one window and scaling: ‘subplot’ and ‘axis’ .............................................. 87
9.3 Interactive plots ................................................................................................................... 89
9.4 3D and contour plots ........................................................................................................... 91
9.5 Plotting on a map ................................................................................................................ 93

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9.6 Overview of essential matplotlib.pyplot functions ............................................................. 94

10. Numerical integration ........................................................................................................ 95
10.1 Falling ball example .......................................................................................................... 95
10.2 Two-dimensions and the atan2(y,x) function ................................................................... 96
10.3 Program structure of numerical integration and simulation ............................................. 97
11. Numpy and Scipy : Scientific Computing with Arrays and Matrices .............................. 99
11.1 Numpy, Scipy ................................................................................................................... 99
11.2 Arrays .............................................................................................................................. 100
11.3 Logic and Arrays (vectorizing instead of if-then)........................................................... 102
11.4 Speeding it up: vectorizing your software with numpy .................................................. 104
11.5 Matrices and Linear algebra functions ............................................................................ 107
11.6 Scipy: a toolbox for scientists and engineers .................................................................. 112
11.7 Scipy example: Polynomial fit on noisy data ................................................................. 113
11.7 Jupyter: the iPy Notebook ............................................................................................... 116
12. Tuples, classes, dictionaries and sets ............................................................................... 118
12.1 New types........................................................................................................................ 118
12.2 Tuples .............................................................................................................................. 119
12.3 Classes and methods (object oriented programming) ..................................................... 120
12.4 Dictionaries & Sets ......................................................................................................... 123
13. Pygame: animation, visualization and controls ............................................................... 125
13.1 Pygame module ............................................................................................................... 125
13.2 Setting up a window........................................................................................................ 126
13.3 Surfaces and Rectangles ................................................................................................. 128
13.4 Bitmaps and images ........................................................................................................ 129
13.5 Drawing shapes and lines................................................................................................ 130
13.6 When our drawing is ready: pygame.display.flip() ........................................................ 131
13.7 Timing and the game-loop .............................................................................................. 132
13.8 Input: keyboard, mouse and events ................................................................................. 135
13.9 Overview of basic pygame functions .............................................................................. 137
14. Exception Handling in Python ......................................................................................... 139
15. Distributing your programs using PyInstaller .................................................................. 141
15.1 Making an .exe of your program..................................................................................... 141

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15.2 Making a setup program with e.g. Inno Setup ................................................................ 143
16. Version Control ..................................................................................................................... 144
16.1 Managing development of larger projects ...................................................................... 144
16.2 Basic concepts of version control ................................................................................... 144
Repository, working copy ................................................................................................... 144
Revision, commit, check-out .............................................................................................. 144
Comparing source code....................................................................................................... 145
Distributed and centralized ................................................................................................. 146
Branches, and merging........................................................................................................ 147
16.3 Subversion....................................................................................................................... 148
16.4 Git ................................................................................................................................... 149
17. Go exploring: Some pointers for applications of Python beyond this course.................. 151
17.1 Alternatives to pygame for 2D graphics ......................................................................... 151
17.1.1 Tkinter canvas (included in Python) ........................................................................ 151
17.1.2 Tkinter canvas (included in Python) ........................................................................ 151
17.1.3 Arcade ( http://arcade.academy/ ) ............................................................................ 151
17.1.4 Miscellaneous .......................................................................................................... 154
17.1.5 Using Python Console in GIMP .............................................................................. 154
17.2 Animated 3D graphics .................................................................................................... 155
17.2.1 VPython or Visual Python: easy 3D graphics.......................................................... 155
17.2.2 Panda3D ................................................................................................................... 156
17.2.3 Open GL programming ............................................................................................ 156
17.2.3 Blender (www.blender.org) ..................................................................................... 157
17.2.4 Physics Engine: PyODE (http://pyode.sourceforge.net/)......................................... 157
17.3 User interfaces: windows dialog boxes, pull-down menus, etc. ..................................... 158
17.3.1 Tkinter ...................................................................................................................... 158
17.3.2 PyQt ......................................................................................................................... 161
17.3.4 wxPython ................................................................................................................. 163
17.3.5 GLUT ....................................................................................................................... 163
17.3.6 Glade Designer for Gnome ...................................................................................... 163
17.4 Reading from and writing to Excel sheets ...................................................................... 165
17.5 Interfacing with hardware ......................................................................................... 167
17.5.1 Raspberry Pi ............................................................................................................. 167
17.5.2 MicroPython ............................................................................................................ 168
Appendix A Overview of basic Python statements .................................................................... 171
Appendix B Overview of functions and special operators ......................................................... 172
Appendix C Example piece of code............................................................................................ 173
Appendix D Solutions to exercises ............................................................................................. 174

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Preface
This first version of this reader was developed for, and during the pilot of, the Programming
course in the first year of the BSc program Aerospace Engineering at the Delft University of
Technology in 2012. Originally it was written for Python 2 and then converted to Python 3.

The goal of the Python programming course is to enable the student to:
- write a program for scientific computing
- develop models
- analyze behavior of the models using e.g. plots
- visualize models by animating graphics
The course assumes some mathematical skills, but no programming experience whatsoever.

This document is provided as a reference for the elaboration of the assignments. The reader is
encouraged to read through the relevant chapters applicable to a particular problem. For later
reference, many tables, as well as some appendices with quick reference guides, have been
included. These encompass the most often used functions and methods. For a complete overview,
there is the excellent documentation as provided with Python in the IDLE Help menu, as well as
the downloadable and on-line documentation for the Python modules Numpy, Scipy, Matplotlib
and Pygame.

Also, the set-up of the present course is to show the appeal of programming. Having this
powerful tool at hand allows the reader to use the computer as a ‘mathematical slave’. And by
making models, one basically has the universe in a sandbox at one’s disposal: Any complex
problem can be programmed and displayed, from molecular behavior to the motion in a complex
gravity field in space.

An important ingredient at the beginning of the course is the ability to solve mathematical
puzzles and numerical problems. Also the very easy to use graphics module Pygame module has
been included in this reader. This allows, next to the simulation of a physical problem, a real-
time visualization and some control (mouse and keyboard) for the user, which also adds some
fun for the beginning and struggling programmer in the form of visual feedback.

Next to the mathematical puzzles, challenges (like Project Euler and the Python challenge) and
simulations and games, there is a programming contest included in the last module of the course
for which there is a prize for the winners. Often students surprise me with their skills and
creativity in such a contest by submitting impressive simulations and games.

Also check out the accompanying videos: Search for “AE1205” on Youtube.

Many thanks to the students and teaching assistants, whose questions, input and feedback formed
the foundation for this reader.
Prof.dr.ir. Jacco M. Hoekstra
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering
Delft University of Technology

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1. Getting started

1.1 What is programming?

Ask a random individual what programming is and you will get a variety of answers. Some love
it. Some hate it. Some call it mathematics, others philosophy, and making models in Python is
mostly a part of physics. More interestingly, many different opinions exist on how a program
should be written. Many experienced programmers tend to believe they see the right solution in a
flash, while others say it always has to follow a strict phased design process, starting with
thoroughly analyzing the requirements (the ‘bookkeeper’ style). It definitely is a skill and
personally I think a well written, easy to read and effective piece of code with a brilliant
algorithm, is also a piece of art. Programming does not require a lot of knowledge, it is a way of
thinking and it becomes an intuition after a lot of experience.

This also means that learning to program is very different from the learning you do in most other
courses. In the beginning, there is a very steep learning curve, but once you have taken the first
big step, it will become much easier and a lot of fun. But how and when you take that first hurdle
is very personal. Of course, you first need to achieve the right rate of success over failure,
something you can achieve by testing small parts during the development. For me, there aren’t
many things that give me more pleasure than to see my program (finally) work. The instant,
often visual, feedback makes it a very rewarding activity.

And even though at some stage you will also see the right solution method in a flash, at the same
time your program will almost certainly not work the first time you run it. A lot of time is spent
understanding why it will not work and fixing this. Therefore some people call the art of
programming: “solving puzzles created by your own stupidity”!

While solving these puzzles, you will learn about

logic, you will learn to think about thinking.

The first step towards a program is always to

decompose a problem into smaller steps, into ever
smaller building blocks to describe the so-called
algorithm. An algorithm is a list of actions and
decisions that a computer (or a person) has to go
through chronologically to solve a problem.

This is often schematically presented in the form of

a flow chart. For instance, the algorithm of a
thermostat that has to control the room temperature
is shown in figure 1.1.

Figure 1.1: Flow chart of ‘thermostat’ algorithm.

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Another way to design and represent algorithms is using simplified natural language. Let’s take
as an example the algorithm to “find the maximum value of four numbers”. We can detail this
algorithm as a number of steps:

Let’s call the 4 numbers a,b,c and d

if a >b then make x equal to a, else make x equal to b

if c < d then make y equal to c, else make y equal to d

if x < y then make x equal to y

show result x on screen

Going through these steps, the result will always be that the maximum value of the four numbers
is shown on the screen. This kind of description in natural language is called “pseudo-code”.

This pseudo-code is already very close to how Python looks, as this was one the goals of Python:
it should read just as clear as pseudo-code. But before we can look at some real Python code, we
need to know what Python is and how you can install it. After that, we will have a look at some
simple programs in Python, which you can try out in your freshly installed Python environment.

1.2 What is Python?

Python is a general purpose programming language. And even though until a few years ago
Python was used more in the USA than in Europe, it has been developed by a Dutchman, Guido
van Rossum. It all started as a hobby project, which he pursued in his spare time while still
employed at the so-called Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) in Amsterdam in 1990.
Python was named after Monty Python and references to Monty Python in comments and
examples are still appreciated. The goals of Python, as Guido van Rossum has formulated them
in a 1999 DARPA proposal, are:

- an easy and intuitive language just as powerful as major competitors

- open source, so anyone can contribute to its development
- code that is as understandable as plain English
- suitable for everyday tasks, allowing for short development times

Guido van Rossum was employed by Google for many years, as this is one of the many
companies that use Python. He is currently working for another user of Python: Dropbox. He still
is the moderator of the language, or as he is called by the Python community: the “benevolent
dictator for life”.

A practical advantage of Python is that it supports many platforms (Windows, Apples, Linux)
and that it is free, and so are all add-ons. Many add-ons have been developed by the large
(academic) Python community. Some have become standards of their own, such as the scientific
package Numpy/Scipy/Matplotlib. These scientific libraries (or modules as they are called in
Python), in syntax(grammar) heavily inspired by the software package MATLAB, are now the

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standard libraries for scientific computing in Python. IEEE has named Python as the de facto
standard programming language for data analysis.

Up to Python 3 all versions were downwards compatible. So all past programs and libraries will
still work in a newer Python 2.x versions. However, at some point, Guido van Rossum, being the
BDFL (Benevolent Dictator For Life) of Python, wanted to correct some fundamental issues,
which could only be done by breaking the downward compatibility. This started the development
of Python 3.0. For a long time Python 2.x was also still maintained and updated. This has
stopped around 2018.

An example of a difference between the two versions is the syntax of the PRINT-function, which
shows a text or a number on the screen during runtime of the program:

In Python 3.x: print(“Hello World!”)

In Python 2.x: print “Hello world!”

(Another major difference applies to integer division and the input( ) function, but we need to
know more about data types to understand that.)

Python is called a scripting language. This means that the Python source is interpreted when you
run the program as opposed to needing to compile all program files first, then link them together
with the correct libraries to make an executable and then run this. This is very user-friendly:
there is no need to compile or link files before you can run the same program on any operating
system: Windows, Apple’s Mac OS or Linux. Many Python libraries are platform dependent, but
most are available on all three supported platforms.

The penalty for this is, depending on your program structure, sometimes some execution speed.
Some runtime, often seconds or milliseconds, are traded for shorter development times, which
saves time in the order of days or weeks. Note that Python libraries like Numpy and Scipy use
very fast low-level modules, resulting in extremely fast execution times for scientific computing.
By using a similar syntax, this is replacing MATLAB (which also uses a small scripting
language) worldwide. Using vectorized programming and the numpy librarie make runtimes
comparable with optimized C++ and Fortran for the scientific computing. The same mechanism
allows fast graphics. For example for 2D graphics the Pygame graphics library, which is a layer
over the very fast and famous SDL library, is also extremely fast.

Using an interpreter instead of a compiler, means you need to have Python, with its interpreter,
installed on the computer where you run the Python program. Would you ever want to make an
executable to avoid this requirement, there are modules, like distutils, or add-ons, like called
Py2exe creating self-contained application which does not need Python installed. Such an
executable will only run on the OS under which it was compiled. How this should be done, is
covered by a separate chapter of the reader, called ‘Distributing your Python program’. Using the
Inno Setup tool, you can make a installer for your application on Windows for example. This
tool converts the complete folder with data and the program into one setup executable file, which
is also covered in this chapter.

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1.3 Installing Python

1.3.1 Windows
Go to Python.org and download the latest version of Python 3 64-bits.
(You can also check it out at Youtube: https://youtu.be/-P7dVLJPows )

If you’re installing it a second time, then make sure you have uninstalled/removed any other
versions of Python, using the Add/Remove Apps/Programs from the Settings/Configuration
panel of Windows.

Run the installer:

1. Choose the option of ‘Add to Path’! (Oterwise PIP will not work.)
2. Choose Customized Installation
3. Choose all options, especially: Install for all users

Then select Install to do a full install, so select all options in the installer see figures below.

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Now you have pip installed, which makes it relatively simple to install the other packages. Pip
makes sure to download the exactly right version for your installation of Python and OS and will
install it.

Now we install the additional modules which we will use in this course. In the Windows Start
Menu, Search for ‘Command prompt’ and if the window below does not appear, right click it.

Then select Run as Administrator and type the following commands:

pip install scipy matplotlib pygame spyder

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Python includes the editor IDLE, which we will use mostly in the course. But for larger projects
you can use more advanced editors like PyCharm, Visual Code with Python extension, Sublime,
etc.

1.3.2 Linux

Open a terminal, then type follow two lines (replace 'apt' with 'zypper' on for RPM based Linux):

sudo apt install python3 python3-pip

pip install numpy scipy matplotlib pygame spyder

1.3.3 Apple

Installing python3 and all the required packages on macOS takes a little more effort. Since
python2 is part of the operating system on your Mac, the installation of both python2 and
python3 can cause conflicts on your laptop.

Make sure that you follow this manual explicitly when installing python3. If you have installed
python2 previously, make sure you completely remove any python2 installation before you
proceed.

1. Download Anaconda for Mac from the following link. Make sure you select the Python
3.* version. https://www.anaconda.com/download/#macos

2. Open de .pkg file you just downloaded and follow the installation instructions. Anaconda
will install most packages that are required for this course for you, but Pygame is one of
the packages that have to be installed at a later stage.

3. After the installation you can find the ‘Anaconda-Navigator’ in your Applications folder.
Open the Anaconda-Navigator

4. On the left of the screen that appears you can see a menu with “Home” and
“Environment” being the most important. If you go to “Environment” you can see which
packages are installed in this conda installation. Next to this, you can also install new
packages that are in the conda library. In the “Home” screen you can launch different
apps that come preinstalled with Anaconda, the one you will be using is Spyder. Launch
Spyder now.

5. Once you have launched Spyder, you have one setting that you have to change. Go to
‘python’ in the top left corner of your Mac and select ‘preferences’. Select the ‘iPython
console’ menu, go to ‘graphics’ and make sure you change the Graphics Backend from
‘inline’ to ‘Qt5’. This ensures that your plots show up nicely when using plotting tools
later on in this course.

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6. Now you only have to install pygame. Go to your Applications folder and open
‘Terminal’. Type pip install pygame. This will ensure the correct version of pygame is
installed and linked to your Anaconda installation. To check if everything is functioning
properly, please go to the iPython console in spyder and type ‘import pygame’. If you do
not get an error and see the ‘Hello from the community’ message, your installation is
completed!

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1.3.4 Explanation of the installed modules

The description above installs a number of modules:
- Scipy will also install Numpy, giving you many tools for scientific calculations, also
with large table or matrices.
- Matplotlib is a very useful plotter, which contains an interactive plot window from
which you can save image to be used in your publications
- Pygame is a 2D graphics library, which allows you to make real-time animations using
both shapes and image file, read individual keys from the keyboard, process mouse input,
generate sound and play music files. It is compatible with Numpy, and many other
packages. It is easy to use and uses graphics acceleration hardware if available, but will
also work without.
- Spyder is a working environment mainly to used for interactively doing scientific
computing (iPython)

If you ever want to install a package which is not found by pip, it might be useful to download
the .whl (wheel file) which is used by pip, yourself from this site:

https://www.lfd.uci.edu/~gohlke/pythonlibs/

Download the correct wheel file yourself, open a Command prompt, go to the downloads folder
(with cd command) and type “pip install” in the folder with this file followed by the filename,
for example:

pip install example-py36-x64-filename.whl

1.3.5 Configuring Python IDLE

First: Change Working Folder to My Documents\Python

In Windows, IDLE will by default start in the Python program directory (folder) and this will
therefore also be your default working directory. This is dangerous because you may overwrite
parts of Python when you save your own programs. Therefore make a shortcut on your Desktop
in which we change the working folder to a more appropriate one. Right-click in the Start Menu
on IDLE, select Copy and then Paste it on to your Desktop. Then right click Properties of this
Shortcut and change the working directory to the folder where you want to keep your
Python code (e.g. My Documents\Python).

Add links to your documentation of the Help menu

Start IDLE. Then if you have not already done so, select in the menu of the IDLE window,
Options>Configure IDLE > General to add additional Help sources in the lower part of the
property sheet. Download the documentation for Scipy (CHM files) and use the link to the
pygame/docs site as well as the Matplotlib gallery.

Using IDLE: your first program

In the IDLE window, named Python Shell, select File > New Window to create a window in
which you can edit your first program. You will see that this window has a different pull-down

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menu. It contains “Run”, indicating this is a Program window, still called Untitled at first. Enter
the following lines in this window:

print(“Hello World!”)
print(“This is my first Python program.”)

Note: Python is case sensitive, so it matters that you use lower case for the print command.

Now select Run > Run Module. You will get a dialog box telling you that you have to Save it
and then asking whether it is Ok to Save this, so you click Ok. Then you enter a name for your
program like hello.py and save the file. The extension .py is important for Python, the name is
only important for you. Then you will see the text being printed by the program which runs in
the Python Shell window.

After File>New Window, IDLE shows an editor window (right) next to the Shell window(left)

Switching off the annoying dialog box “Ok to Save?”

By default, IDLE will ask confirmation for Saving the file every time you run it. To have this
dialog box only the first time, goto Options>Configure IDLE>General and Select “No Prompt”
in the line: At Start of Run (F5). Now, on a Windows PC, you can run your programs by
pressing the function key F5. Now only the first time you run your program, it will prompt you
for a locations and filename to save it, the next time it will use the same name automatically.

Note: Be careful not to use program names which are identical to modules that you import. So
avoid calling your program “python.py” or “numpy.py” or”math.py” etc. Also for every new
assignment or set of exercises make a new folder to keep your files well organized.

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1.3.5 Working environments: IDLE, PyCharm and Spyder

A working environment, in which you edit and run a program is called an IDE, which stands for
Integrated Development Environment. Which one you use, is very much a matter of taste. In the
course we will use as an editor and working environment the IDLE program, because of its
simplicity. This is provided with Python and it is easy to use for beginners and advanced
programmers. Since it comes with Python, it is hence also available in both distributions.

For more larger projects, there are many other IDEs, for example PyCharm. You try any of these.
At the exam IDLE will be sufficient and Spyder is also available. So it is advised to learn how to
use IDLE for the exam.

Though IDLE is a very useful IDE (Interactive Development Environment), there are some
limitations:
- With large projects and many files it can become cumbersome to switch between
different files
- Debugging facilities are limited

For this reason often other IDEs are used for larger projects. There are many on the web.

The screenshot on the next page shows PyCharm, a very popular versatile IDE. The community
version, which we use, is freely available from Jetbrains:
https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/download/

Comparable options are Sublime and Atom.

PyCharm IDE

For scientific purposes a very popular one is Spyder, as it reminds many older users of the
Matlab tool for scientific computing which they used before. An example of a screenshot of
Spyder with some explanation is given below:

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Spyder screenshot

Other features include inspecting data arrays, plotting them and many other advanced debugging
tools.

Make sure to change the settings of file in the dialog box which will pop up the first time you run
the file to allow interaction with the Shell. Then you have similar features to which IDLE allows:
checking your variables in the shell after running your program or simply to testing a few lines
of code.

Spyder has chosen to stop offering a standard Python console, so they only have an iPython
console. By tweaking the run setting per file, it is still possible to run your script in an external
Python console. But this would still be a reason to prefer PyCharm as it is more versatile and
focused on Standard Python applications not just the interactive iPython.

My advice would be to first keep it simple and use IDLE for the basics. Use the print( ) function
and the shell (to inspect variables) as debugger and occasionally www.pythontutor.com. Then
later, and only for larger or more complex problems switch to PyCharm or Sublime (or
optionally Spyder).

On the exam, only IDLE and Spyder will be available.

There are many IDEs, here are some you could try out:
- PyCharm
- Sublime
- VSCode
- Atom (open source shareware, multi-platform)
- Eclipse
- Wing
- PyDev

A different environment especially for Scientific Computing, using iPython is Jupyter, which
creates Python Notebooks, a beautiful blend between a document, spreadsheet and Python.

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1.3.6 Documentation
IDLE, our default editor supplied with Python, has an option to Configure IDLE and add items to
the Help menu. Here a link to a file or a URL can be added as an item in the Help pull down
menu.

The Python language documentation is already included,select them with F1, on-line they can be
found at:

https://docs.python.org/3/

For Scipy and Numpy, downloading the .HTML files of the reference guides onto your hard disk
and linking to these files is recommended. They are available for download at:

http://docs.scipy.org/doc/

For Matplotlib both an online manual as well as a pdf is available at:

http://matplotlib.sourceforge.net/contents.html

Also check out the Gallery for examples but most important: with the accompanying source code
for plotting with Matplotlib:

http://matplotlib.sourceforge.net/gallery.html

For Pygame, use the online documentation, with the URL:

http://www.pygame.org/docs/

Another useful help option is entering ‘python’ in the Google search window followed by what
you want to do. Since there is a large Python user community, you will easily find answers to
your questions as well as example source codes.

Other useful resources:

Search on Youtube for the course code AE1205 for some videos or the Python 3 playlist:
https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=ae1205

Stackoverflow contains many answers and will often show up in your Google results:
https://stackoverflow.com/questions/tagged/python-3.x

A nice tutorial and reference can also be foind at:

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/python3/index.htm

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1.4 Sneak preview: Try the Python language yourself

1.4.1 Temperature conversion: (PRINT, INPUT statement, variables)

In the IDLE window, named Python Shell, select File > New Window to create a window in
which you can edit your program. You will see that this window has a different pull-down menu.
It contains “Run”, indicating this is a Program window, still called Untitled at first.

Enter the following lines in this window and follow the example literally.

print("Temperature conversion tool")

tempf = float(input("Enter temperature in degrees Fahrenheit:"))

tempc = (tempf-32.0)*5.0/9.0

print(tempf,"degrees Fahrenheit is about",round(tempc),"degrees Celsius")

Exercise 1: If you want to make it a bit more interesting, and harder for yourself, you could make
a variation on this program. In much the same fashion, you could try to make a saving/debt
interest calculator where you enter start amount, interest rate in percentage and number of years.
To raise x to the power y, you use x**y)

Exercise 2: Make a program that computes the overall resistance for the
circuit shown at the right, where your inputs are the three resistances (RA,
RB, RC).

(Solutions to exercises can be found in Appendix D)

Now select Run > Run Module. Depending on your settings, you might get a dialog box telling
you that you have to Save it and then asking whether it is Ok to Save this, so you click Ok. Then
you enter a name for your program like temperature.py and save the file. The extension .py is
important for Python, the name is only important for you. Then you will see the text being
printed by the program, which runs in the window named “Python Shell”:

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Now let us have a closer look at this program. It is important to remember that the computer will
step through the program line by line. So the first line says:

print("Temperature conversion tool")

The computer sees a print( ) function, which means it will have to output anything that is entered
between the brackets, separated by commas,) to the screen. In this case it is a string of characters,
marked by a “ at the beginning and the end. Such a string of characters is called a text string or
just string. So it put this on the screen. The computer will also automatically add a newline
character to jump to the next line for any next print statement (unless you specify otherwise,
which will be explained later).

Then this line is done, so we can go to the next one, which is slightly more complicated:

tempf = float(input("Enter temperature in degrees Fahrenheit:"))

Then this line is done, so we can go to the next one, which is slightly more complicated:

The next seciton anlyzes what is happending here.

1.5 Variables and assignment statement

This first part of this line, until the “=”,should be read as: “let tempf be”. This is a so called
assignment statement, indicated by the “=” symbol. In general, it has the following structure:

variablename = expression

In our example it tells the computer that in the computer’s memory a variable has to be created
with the name tempf. (If the variable name is already in use, it will be overwritten by this result
at the end.)

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To be able to do this, the computer first evaluates the expression on the other side of the “=” sign
to see what the type of this variable has to be. It could for example be a floating point value
(float type) or a round number (integer type), a series of characters (string) or a switch (boolean
or logical). It then reserves the required amount of bytes, stores the type and the name. If the
name already exists, then this old value and type are first to avoid problems later on.

The computer evaluates the expression. The outcome is stored in memory and can be used later
in other expressions by using the variable name on the left side of the equal sign. To do this, the
computer saves the name in a table associated with this module. This table contains information
on the type of variable and points to a computer memory address where the value is stored.

name ‘a’
type Integer 4 bytes
memory address 1625981072
… ….
a = 2
Address Byte value
1625981072 2
1625981073 0
1625981074 0
1625981075 0

For numbers, three basic types of variables exist, each stored binary in a different way:
- Integers: 2
- Floats: 2.0
- Complex: 2.0+0j

Integers are whole numbers, used to count something or as an index in a table or grid. Floats are
numbers with a floating point and can have any real value. Complex numbers refer to the
mathematical definition of ‘complex’, which have a real part and an imaginary part. They are
like floats but can have an imaginary part next to the real part. Each type is stored in a different
way.

Python looks at the expression to determine the type:

2 => integer type

-4 => integer type
3*4 => integer type

2.0 => float type

0. => float type
1e6 => float type (equivalent to 1000000.)
3*4. => float type

3+4j => complex type

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2+0j => complex type

1j => complex type

In chapter 2 the assignment statement, as well as the different types ofvariables are discussed in
detail.

Now let us have a look at the expression in our example program. This is not a simple one. The
expression in our example has a combination of twice the following structure :

functionname ( argument )

Python knows this is a function because of the brackets. In our example case, there are two
functions float( ) and input(). As the result of the input-function is needed as input of the
float-function, the input function is called first. Both are standard functions included in the
Python language. (Later we will also use functions which we have defined ourselves!)

Most functions do some calculations and yield a value. Example of these functions are abs(x)
for the absolute value (modulus) of x or int(x) which will truncates the float x to returns an
integer type. The int( ) function is one of the type conversion functions:

int(3.4) => integer with value 3

int(-4.315) => integer with value -4
float(2) => float with value 2.0
float(0) => float with value 0.0

But some functions are complete little programs in itself. The input-functions for example does
more: it can be called with one argument, which will be printed on the screen, before the user is
prompted to enter a value. When the user presses enter, the value is read, the type is determined
and this is returned as the result by the input function. So in our case, the text Enter
temperature in degrees Fahrenheit: is printed and the user enters something
(hopefully a number) and this is then stored as an integer or floating point number in a memory
location. We call this variable tempf.

The next line is again an assignment statement as the computer sees from the equal sign “=”:

tempc = (tempf-32.0)*5.0/9.0

Here a variable with the name tempc is created. The value is deduced from the result of the
expression. Because the numbers in the expression on the left side of the equal sign are spelled
like “5.0” and “32.0”, the computer sees we have to use floating point calculations. We could
also have left out the zero as long as we use the decimal point, so 5./9. would have been
sufficient to indicate that we want to use floating point values.

If we would leave them out, so using 5/9 would strictly speaking refer to dividing two integers.
In Python 2 the result will hence be zero. However, in Python 3, this is converted to a float, as it
often led to errors. Integer division is still available, but requires two slashes: 5//9 will yield

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zero as result in integer arithmetic. (See sections 2.4 and 2.5 for a detailed discussion of the
difference between integers and floats).

When this expression has been evaluated, a variable of the right type (float) has been created and
named tempc, the computer can continue with the next line:

print(tempf,"degrees Fahrenheit is",round(tempc),"degrees Celsius")

This line prints four things: a variable value, a text string, an expression which needs to be
evaluated and another text string, which are all printed on the same line as with each comma a
space character is automatically inserted as well. The round function means the result will be
rounded off.

Try running the program a few times. See what happens if you enter your name instead of a
value.

1.6 Finding your way around: many ways in which you can get
help

Using help(“text”) or interactive help()

If you wonder how you could ever find all these Python-functions and function modules, here is
how to do that.

There are many ways to get help. For instance if you need help on the range function, in the
Python shell, you can type:
help(“range”)

Which calls the help-function and uses the string to find appropriate help-information. Similarly
to find methods of the list or string type, use:

help(“list”)

You can also use help interactively by typing help(), without arguments, and then type the
keywords at the “help>” prompt to get help, e.g. to see which modules are currently installed.

>>>help()
help>math

And you will see an overview of all methods in the math module. There are some limitations to
this help. When you will type append, you will not get any results because this is not a separate
function but a part of the list object, so you should have typed

>>> help("list.append")
Help on method_descriptor in list:

list.append = append(...)
L.append(object) -- append object to end

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>>>

or list.append in the interactive help:

>>> help()
Welcome to Python 3.6’s help utility.
…..
help> list.append
Help on method_descriptor in list:

list.append = append(...)
L.append(object) -- append object to end

help>

Python documentation in Help Pull-down menu

So anther way is to use the supplied CHM-file, (compiled HMTL) via the Help-menu of the
IDLE-windows: Select Help>Python Docs and you will find a good set of documentation, which
you search in the “Index” or do a full text search (“Search”), see the screenshots on the next page:

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Using the huge Python community

Python has a very large user community: conservative estimates say there are 3 to 5 million
Python users and it’s growing fast as MIT, Stanford and many others use Python in their
programming courses and exercises. It is also the most popular language among PhDs. IEEE
calls it the standard language for scientific computing and data analysis.

So simply Googling a question (or error message) with the keyword Python (or later Numpy) in
front of it as an extra search term will quickly bring you to a page with an example or an answer.
For basic questions this might bring you to the same documentation as in the Help-menu which
is at http://docs.python.org . You will also see that www.stackoverflow.com is a site, which will
often pop-up, and where most questions you might have, have already been posed and answered:

For instance, for “python append to a list” you will find:

http://stackoverflow.com/questions/252703/python-append-vs-extend

(Which shows that next to append() there apparently is another method called extend() is
available, which works with a list as an argument and apparently appends each element to the
list.)

In general, thanks to the interactive Python Shell window, simply trying statements or program
lines in the Python shell is a way to try what works as you intended. Or to check the value of
variables after your still incomplete program has run.

To find bugs in your program, for small programs http://www.pythontutor.com can be helpful to
see what is going on inside the computer when your program runs. And of course using the print
statement to see what a variable is, or where the computer gets stuck in your program, is always
the first thing to try.

Be prepared that in the beginning the level of frustration might be high, but so is the reward
when your program runs. And when you get experience, you will see how fast you can make
working programs, not because you won’t create bugs, but because you will immediately
recognize what went wrong. The nice thing of software is that it can always be fixed, so “trial
and error” is an accepted way to develop programs. So do not be afraid to try things and play
around with Python to get acquainted with the way it works.

In appendix A and appendix B a short overview of the Python statements and most important
functions is given. Having a copy of these pages at hand may be handy when starting Python. It
will provide the keywords for you to look into the help-functions of Google searches. Appendix
C given some example source code.

Although we already touched upon most basic elements of the Python language, we have not
seen all statements and types yet, so first go through the next chapters (discover the very useful
while-loop, the string type and its methods and the Boolean/logical and slicing of strings and lists
etc.). Just glance over these chapters to get the essence and then start making simple programs
and study the paragraphs in more detail when you (think you) need them. Programming has a
steep learning curve at the beginning, so good luck with making it through this first phase. Once
you have passed this, things will be a lot easier and more rewarding. Good luck!

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2. Variable assignment and types

2.1 Example: a,b,c formula solver (IF statement, Math functions)

Below is an example program to solve a second order polynomial equation. We will use this
example to discuss the use of variables in systematic fashion.

import math

print("To solve ax2 + bx + c = 0 :")

a = float(input("Enter the value of a:"))

b = float(input("Enter the value of b:"))
c = float(input("Enter the value of c:"))

D = b**2 - 4.*a*c

x1 = (-b - math.sqrt(D)) / (2.*a)

x2 = (-b + math.sqrt(D)) / (2.*a)

print("x1 =",x1)
print("x2 =",x2)

But first some notes about this program. Run this program and you will see the effect.

- note how ** is used to indicate the power function. So 5**2 will yield 25. (Using 5*5 is
faster by the way.)

- the program uses a function called sqrt() This is the square root function. This function is
not a standard Python function. It is part of the math module, supplied with Python.
Therefore the math module needs to be imported at the beginning of the program. The
text math.sqrt() tells Python that the sqrt() function can be found in the imported math
module

- After you have run the program, you can type D in the shell to see the value of the
discriminant. All variables can be checked this way.

Also, note the difference between text input and output. There is no resulting value returned by
the print function, while the input function does return a value, which is then stored in a
variable. The argument of the input-function calls is between the brackets: it’s a prompt text,
which will be shown to the user before he enters his input.

There is one problem with our program. Many times it will stop with an error because the
discriminant D is negative, resulting in an error with the square root function.

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To solve this, we need an extra statement, called IF. This will be discussed in the next chapter.

In this chapter we describe the building blocks which you need to write a program. First we have
a look at variables. A variable is used to store data. But there are different types of data: numbers
or bits of text for instance. There are also different data types of numbers Of course there are
more data types than just text and numbers, like switches (called “booleans” or “logicals”) and
tables (“lists”). The type of variable is defined by the assignment statement, the programming
line giving the variable its name, type and value. Therefore we first concentrate the assignment
statement and then the different data types are discussed.

2.1 Assignment and implicit type declaration

A variable is a reference by name to a memory location with a value and a type. You define a
variable when you assign a value or expression to it. This expression also determines the type.
The assignment statement is very straightforward:

variablename = expression

Example assignment statements for the four main types (which will be discussed in detail in the
following sections):

Integers, only whole numbers, using digits and the sign:

i = 200
a = -5

Floats, contain a decimal point or “e” to indicate the exponent of the power of 10:
in = 2.54
ft = .3048
lbs = 0.453592
spd = 4.
alt = 1e5

Logicals:
swfound = True
alive = False
forward = (v > 0.0)
onground = h <= 0.0 and abs(v) < eps
running = (forward or alive) and not onground

Strings (starting and ending with single or double quotes):

name = "Ian " + "McEwan"
txt = "I’m afraid I can't do that, Dave."
s = 'HAL'

Python even allows multiple assignments at once when the values are separted by a comma:

a,b,c = 1. , 3. , 5
a,b = b,a # swap two variables

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What really happens is that the expression first becomes a type of list (a tuple to be exact) which
is then unpacked. The example below shows that this principle also works with a list, which is
defined by a serie of variables within square brackets:

lst = [9 , 2 , 5]
a,b,c = lst

2.2 Short-hand when using original value with an operator

The “=” in an assignment means: “make equal to”. To increase the integer variable i with one,
we normally type:

i = i + 1 # increase i with one

Mathematically speaking this statement would be nonsense if we would read the equal sign as
‘being equal to’. But as an assignment statement, this simply evaluates the expression on the
right side, which is the content of variable i to which one is added, and the result is stored in the
variable i again. The effect is thus that i is increased with 1. Here are a few other example with
the same logic:

j = j – 1 # decrease j with one

n = n*2 # doubles n
x = x/2 # halves x
a = a*k # a will be multiplied by k

As especially the increase or decreases with one occurs often, there is a shorthand notation for
things:

“ i = i + ” => “ i +=”

So the examples above can also be coded, like this:

i += 1 # increase i with one

j -= 1 # decrease j with one
n *= 2 # doubles n
x /= 2 # halves x
a *= k # a will be multiplied by k

This short-hand is the same as in the programming language C (and C++), a language which is
well known for how short code can be written (often with an adverse effect on the readability).
Also in this example, the benefit is mainly for the programmer who saves a few keystrokes, there
is no execution time benefit as the operations done are the same. This short-hand hence increases
the distance from pseudo-code. Whether you use it is a matter of personal preference.

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2.3 Number operations in Python

For the number types float, integer (and complex) the following operators can be used

+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
// Floored or integer division (rounded off to lower round number)
% Modulo, remainder of division
** Power operator x**y is x to power y, so x**2 is x2
-x Negated value of x
+x Value of x with sign unchanged

As well as the fillowing standard functions:

abs(x) Absolute value of x , |x|

pow(x,y) Power function, same as x**y
divmod(x,y) Returns both x//y and x%y

2.4 Floats: variable type for floating point values

Floating point variables, commonly referred to as floats, are used for real numbers with decimals.
These are the numbers as you know them from your calculator. Operations are similar to what
you use on a calculator. For power you should use the asterisk twice, so xy would be x**y.

They are stored in a binary exponential way with base 2 (binary). This means that values which
are round values in a decimal systems sometimes need to be approximated. For insatcne if you
try typing in the shell:

>>> 0.1+0.2

The result will be:

0.30000000000000004

Often this is not a problem, but it should be kept in mind, that float are always approximations!

One special rule with floats in programming is that you never test for equality with floats. So
never use the condition “when x is equal to y” with floats, because a minute difference in how
the float is stored can result an inaccuracy, making this condition False when you expected
otherwise. This may not even be visible when you print it, but can still cause two variables to be
different according to the computer while you expected them to be the same. For example:
adding 0.1 several times and then checking whether it is equal to 10.0 might fail because the
actual result is approximated by the computer as 9.99999999 when it passes the 10. So always

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test for smaller than (<) or larger than (>). You can also use “smaller or equal to” (<=) and
“larger or equal to” (<=), but do not forget that a floating point variable is always an
approximation due to the binary storage limitations (which is different from a decimal notation),
so it may be off by a small value. A way to avoid it is to test for closeness:

# Test for equality with floats

eps = 1e-7 #value depends on scale you’re looking at

if abs(x-y)<eps:
print(“x is equal to y”)

Floating point values can also be rounded off using the round(x) or round(x,n) function. With the
second argument n, you can specify the amount of decimals. When the second argument isnot
used, the result will be rounded off to the nearest value and converted to the type integer
automatically.

>>> round(10/3)
3
>>> round(10/3,4)
3.3333
>>> round(10./3.,0)
3.0

Try adding 0.1 to a variable for more than 1000 times (use a for-loop or while-loop) and check
the variable value to see this effect.

2.5 Integers: variable type for round numbers like counter or index)
Integers are variables used for whole numbers. They are used for example as counters, loop
variables and indices in lists and strings. They work similar to floats but division results will be
of the type float. For example:

a = 4
b = 5
c = a/b
print(c)

This will print 0.8 (in Python2 it would always floor this to an integer, but in Python 3, this has
been changed). If you want to use integer division, use a double slash:
a = 4
b = 5
c = a//b
print(c)

This will print 0, the result of the integer division.

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A very useful operator, especially with integers, is the ‘ %’ operator. This is called the modulo
function. You could also call it “the remainder” because it gives only remainder of a division.
For example:

27%4 = 3
4%5 = 4
32%10 = 2
128%100 = 28

So to check whether a number is divisible by another, checking for a remainder of zero is

sufficient:
if a%b==0:
print("a is a mulptiple of b")

You can convert integers to floats and vice versa (since they are both numbers) with the
functions int() and float():

a = float(i)
j = int(b) # Conversion cuts of behind decimal point
k = int(round(x)) # Rounded off to nearest whole number
# ..and then converted to an integer type

The int() function will cut off anything behind the decimal point, so int(b) will give the
largest integer not greater than b . These functions int() and float() can also take strings
(variables containing text) as an argument, so you can also use them to convert text to a number
like this:

txt = "100"
i = int(txt)
a = float(txt)

Note th different function related to division in the example below:

n = 20
i = 3
a = n/i
print(“a =”,a)

j = n//i # floor division

k = int(n/i) # rounded off to below and converted to int
m = round(n/i) # rounded off to nearest integer value
print(“j,k,m =”,j,k,m)

The output of this program will be:

a = 6.666666666666667
j,k,m = 6 6 7

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As we can see from the missing decimal points in the second output line, the variable j, k, m
all are integers. This can also be verified in the shell by using the type( ) function:

>>> type(m)
<class 'int'>

2.6 Complex numbers

Python also has complex numbers built-in as a standard type. In many other languages one
would have to treat this as two float numbers, the real part and the imaginary part, but in Python
the j directly after a number signals an imaginary art and will change the resulting type to
complex.

c = 3+4j
print (“Length of”,c,”is”,abs(c))

Will give the following output:

Length of (3+4j) is 5.0

To access the different components, use the following method:

c = 3+0j
a = c.real
b = c.imag
print(“c has”,a,”as real part and”,b,”as imaginary part”)

Will give the following output:

c has 3.0 as real part and 0.0 as imaginary part

All other operations work as expected:

>>> e = 2.718281828459045
>>> pi = 3.141592653589793
>>> e**(1j*pi)
(-1+1.2246467991473532e-16j)

Which demonstrates Euler’s equation and also shows the rounding off problems in the imaginary
part, which is practically zero. Both e and pi were binary approximations, as are all floats and
complex numbers.

2.7 String operations

Strings are variables used to store text. They contain a string of characters (and often work
similar to a list of characters). They are defined by a text surrounded by quotes. These quotes can
be single quotes or double quotes, as long as you use the same quote-character to start and end
the string. It also means you can use the other type of quote-symbol inside the text. A useful

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operator on strings is the “+” which glues them together, Which can be very useful, e.g in
functions which expect one string variable (like the input function).
Example assignments:

txt = "abc"
s = ""
name = "Jacco"+" M. "+"Hoekstra" (so the + concatenates strings)
words = 'def ghi'
a = input("Give value at row"+str(i))

Some useful basic functions for strings are:

len(txt) returns the length of a string

str(a) converts an integer or float to a string
eval(str) evaluates the expression in the string and returns the number
chr(i) converts ASCII code i to corresponding character (see table on next page)
ord(ch) returns ASCII code of the character variable named ch

Using indices in square brackets [ ] allows you to take out parts of a string. This is called slicing.
You cannot change a part of string but you can concatenate substrings to form a new string
yielding the same effect:

c = "hello world"
c[0] is then "h" (indices start with zero)
c[1:4] is then "ell" (so when 4 is end, it means until and not including 4)
c[:4] is then "hell"
c[4:1:-1] is then "oll" so from index 4 until 1 with step -1
c[::2] is then "hlowrd"
c[-1] will return last character "d"
c[-2] will give one but last character "l"
c = c[:3]+c[-1] will change c into "hel"+ "d"="held"

the string variable also has many functions built-in, the so-called string methods. See some
examples below (more on this in chapter 8).

a = c.upper() returns copy of the string but then in upper case

a = c.lower() returns copy of the string but then in lower case
a = c.strip() returns copy of the string with leading and trailing spaces removed
sw = c.isalpha()returns True if all characters are alphabetic
sw = c.isdigit()returns True if all characters are digits
i = c.index("b") returns index for substring in this case “b”

For more methods see chapter 8 or 5.6.1 of the Python supplied reference documentation in the
Help file.

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Strings are stored as lists of characters. Characters are stored as numbers,using Unicode. This
encoding is an extension of the ASCII codes. See the table below:

ACII codes can be dereived using the ord(txt) function, similarly the character for an ASCII
code i can be retrieved hsing the chr(i) function
Special characters in a string are: \n (newline) or \t (tab)
In Windows/DOS text files the newline is indicated by characters: both a Carriage Return &
Line Feed: chr(13)+chr(10). While in Linux/Apple it is only a newline character chr(10)

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2.8 Booleans and logical expressions

Booleans (or logicals) are two names for the variable type in which we store conditions. You can
see them as switches inside your program. Conditions can be either True or False, so these
are the only two possible values of a logical. Mind the capitals at the beginning of True and
False when you use these words: Python is case sensitive. Examples of assignments are given
below:

found = False
prime = True
swlow = a<b
outside = a>=b
swfound = a==b
notfound = a!=b ( != means: not equal to)
notfound = a<>b ( <> also means: not equal to, but is old notation)
outside = x<xmin or x>xmax or y<ymin or y>ymax
inside = not outside
out = outside and (abs(vx)>vmax or abs(vy)>vmax)
inbetween = 6. < x <= 10.

Conditions are a special kind of expressions used in statements like if and while to control the
flow of the execution of the program. In the above statements, often brackets are used to indicate
it is a logical expression.

To test whether two variables are the same, you have to use two equal signs. Two equal signs
will check the condition and one equal sign assigns an expression to a variable name. For “is not
equal to” both != as well as <> can be used, but != is preferred. With combined conditions
with many “and”, “or” and “not” statements use brackets to avoid confusion:

not((x>xmin and x<xmax) or (y>ymin and y<ymax))

You can use logicals as conditions in if and while statements:

if inside:
print(“(x,y) is inside rectangle”)

while not found:

i = i + 1
found = a==lst[i]

Note that if inside basically means: if inside==True and similarly while not
found means while found==False. This is why Boolean are never compared with ture
or false as this serves no function.

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2.9 List type: collection of items ordered in a table

2.9.1 What are lists?
Lists are not really an independent type but a way to group variables together. This allows you to
repeat something for all elements of a list by using an index as a counter or by iterating through
the list with the for-statement. This could be a repetitive operation, a search or a sorting action.
Often it is useful to have a series of variables. Look at it as a table. An element of a list could be
of any type, it can be an integer, float, logical, string or even a list! Special for Python is that you
can even use different types in one list; in most programming languages this would not be
possible. Both to define a list, as well as to specify an index, square brackets are used as in
strings.

a = [ 2.3 , 4.5 , -1.0, .005, 2200.]

b = [ 20, 45, 100, 1, -4, 5]
c = ["Adama", "Roslin","Starbuck","Apollo"]
d =[["Frederik",152000.], ["Alexander",193000.],
["Victor",110000.]]
e = []

This would make the variable a a list of floats, b a list of integers, c a list of strings. A list of
lists as defined in d is basically a way to create a two-dimensional list. Finally e is an empty list.
Accessing elements from the list is done as indicated below. Another way to make a list of
numbers is using the so-called range function. This is an iterator function used primarily in loops,
but it can also be converted to a list. The range function can contain one two or even three
arguments:

range(stop)
range(start,stop))
range(start,stop,step))

In all these cases start is the start value (included), stop is the value for which the block is not
executed because for will stop when this value is reached. So it is an inclusive start but
excludes stop. Another option is to enter a third argument, which is then is the step. The default
start is 0, the default step is 1. Note that range( ) only works with integers as arguments:

list(range(5)) gives [0,1,2,3,4]

list(range(5,11)) gives [5,6,7,8,9,10]
list(range(5,11,2)) gives [5,7,9]

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2.9.2 Indexing and slicing, list functions and delete

Let's use the following list:

lst = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]

If we now print elements we can use the indices in many ways. Using one index, indicating a
single element:

lst[0] which holds value 1

lst[1] which holds value 2

lst[9] which holds value 10

lst[-1] last element, which holds the value 10

lst[-2] one but last element which holds the value 9

Here it can be seen that indices start at 0, just as with strings. And similar to strings, the function
len( ) will give the length of a list and thus the not to reach maximum for the list. Slicing lists
with indices also works just as for strings, with three possible arguments: start, stop and step.
Only one index refers to one single element. Two arguments separated by a colon refer to start
and stop. A third can be used as step. If you look at the lists that were made in the previous
paragraph about lists you can see that:

a[1] will return a float 4.5

b[1:4] will return a list [45, 100, 1]
d[1][0] will return "Alexander" (do you see the logic of the order of the
indices for the different dimensions: second element of main list, then first
element of that list?)

Adding and removing elements to a list can be done in two ways the “+” operator or the
append/extend functions:
a = a+[3300.] will add 3300. at the end of the list
a = a[:-2] will remove the last two elements of the list (by first
copying the complete list without the last two elements, so
not very efficient for large lists)
a = a[:i]+a[i+1:] will remove element i from the list,
when it’s not the last one in the list
a = b + c will concatenate (glue together) two lists if b and c are lists

Another way is to use the del (delete command) and/or functions which are a part of the list
class. You call these functions by variablename.functionname( ) so a period between
variablename and functionname. Some examples:

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a.append(x) add x as a list element at the end of the list named a, equivalent with:
a = a + [x]
a.extend(b) extend the list with another list b, equivalent with:
a=a+b
a.remove(3300.) removes the first element with value 3300.
del a[-1] removes the last element of a list named a
del a[3:5] removes the 4th till the 6th element of a list named a
a = a[:3]+a[4:] will remove the 4rd element of the list named a

Slicing
The last example line uses the slicing notation (which can also be used on strings!). Slicing, or
cutting out parts of a list is done with the colon. The notation is similar to the range arguments:
start:stop and optionally a step can be added as third: start:stop:step. If no value is enter as start,
the default value is zero. If no value is added as end the default value is the last. De default step
is 1. Negative values can be used to point to the end (-1 = last element, -2 is one but last etc.).

Using the original definition of lst this will give:

lst = [1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10]

lst[:3] first three element index 0,1,2: [1,2,3]

lst[:-2] all except last two elements
lst[4:] all elements except the first four: except elements nr 0,1,2,3
lst[::2] every second element so with index 0,2,4, until the end

Other useful functions for lists:

b.index(45) will return the index of the first element with value 45
len(d) will return the length of the list
min(a) will return the smallest element of the list variable a
max(a) will return the largest element of the list variable a
sum(a) will return the sum of the elements in the list variable a

2.9.3*** Lists are Mutable: risks with multiple dimensions list creation

You can quickly build a one dimensional list with 5 elements like this:

>>> a=5*[0]
>>> a
[0, 0, 0, 0, 0]
>>> a[1]=1
>>> a
[0, 1, 0, 0, 0]
>>>

Warning: This only works with one dimensional arrays, see what happens when you try it with
lists of lists, so two dimensional lists:

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>>> a=3*[3*[0]]
>>> a
[[0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]]
>>> a[0][1]=1
>>> a
[[0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 0]]
>>>

So we only change the second element of the first row, but surprisingly all rows (all lists) have
their second element changed into 1!

In general you could say, simply avoid this. But for the people who really want to know what is
going on: In www.python.tutor.com we can see the difference. Imagine we will run the following
code:
a = 3*[0]
b = 3*[a]
c = 3*a
d = 3*[3*[0]]

Then in the computer’s memory, this is the result:

When using one dimensional lists with the asterisk (star) (so for example *a or *[0]), it will
be an expression, evaluated and taken as a value and hence create a new list. Examples of this
are how the list a and d are created. But normally in Python a list is seen as an object, which
means it will just be copied by reference (a pointer to the same object, to the same memory
location) will be used. So wo variables can point to the same object, hence the same memory
location. This can cause behaviour which may seem strange at first sight.

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To avoid this confusion (and ignore this difference), it is better to build a two dimensional array
with append and values in a for-loop:

a=[]
for i in range(3):
a.append(3*[0])
a[0][1] = 1
print(a)

Which will result in the following output:

[[0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]]

But this code:

a=[]
b=[0,0,0]
for i in range(3):
a.append(b)
a[0][1] = 1
print(a)

This only slightly different code will result in the problematic output again:
[[0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 0], [0, 1, 0]]

So 3*[0] is an expression, just like integer variables and float variables. But because b is a list-
object and passed on by reference to the memory location, later referencing a will affect b.

In general, using append with non-list arguments is a safe method. This is because most variable
types (floats, integers, strings) are passed on as value. They are called immutable. Expressions
are also passed on as a value. List objects (like most objects) are called mutable and will be
passed on as a reference to a memory location and hence can be changed by the function that is
called.

Here are two ways to quickly create a two-dimensional list without the risk of creating pointers
to the same list:

First create a one dimensional list, then replace each element by a list:

a=3*[0]
for i in range(3):
a[i]=3*[0]

a[0][1] = 1
print(a)

Or with nested loops, create a fresh, new list (as a row) and then append this:

a=[]

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for i in range(3):
row = []
for j in range(3):
row.append(0)
a.append(row)
a[0][1] = 1
print(a)

Both will give this output, indicating that a indeed consists of three independent lists:

[[0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 0], [0, 0, 0]]

So creating the variable row, ,or the list-element a[i] every time from scratch, is the safest way
to avoid all appended lists pointing to the same memory location. If you are not sure, test a
simple example in the above way: change one element and see the effect by printing the list. Or
use www.pythontutor.com to see what is going on in the computer’s memory.

2.9.4 List methods

An advantage of lists are the methods that come with it. These are functions which you call with
a period after the variable name (just like append). An example is the sort function:

>>> a=[2,10,1,0,8,7]
>>> a.sort()
>>> a
[0, 1, 2, 7, 8, 10]

As we can see the function sort() (recognizable as a function because of the brackets) sorts the
list a. This is a special function in that it changes the actual source list instead of creating a sorted
copy. Most methods will give the result of the function and leave the original intact. Example are
the method index and count. Index will give the index of the first occurrence of the given value.
Count will give the total number of occurrences:

>>> a = [3,1,8,0,1,7]
>>> a.count(1)
2
>>> a.index(1)
1
>>> a.index(9)

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "<pyshell#23>", line 1
a.index(9)
ValueError: 9 is not in list
>>>

How would you make a program which will print the index of the first occurrence but also
avoids the error message if it is not found by simply printing -1?

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Exercise 1:
Make a program which calculates effect of a yearly the interest rate (entered by the suer) on
start sum (also entered by the user). Print the amount after each year.

Exercise 2: Make a list of e.g. airplane companies by using the append( ) function, then print
them below each other with the length of each word.

Exercise 3: You can also make a list which consist of different list, each with a different length,
as shown here:
values = [[10, 20], [30, 40, 50, 60, 70]]
Print the length of each list and all the values it contains

2.10 Some useful standard, built-in functions

As we have already seen in the examples, Python has a number of built-in function which you
can use in the right side of assignment statement on any expression using values and variables:

float(i) converts an integer or string(text) to a float

int(x) converts a float to an integer (whole number rounded to lowest integer)
round(x) rounds off to nearest round number and converts to integer
round(x,n) rounds off a float n decimals, result is still float
str(x) converts a number into a string(text)
eval(txt) converts a text to a number
bool(x) convert x to a Boolean (typically non zero is True)
repr(x) generates a string with a printable content of x
list(txt) converts x to a list type (e.g. splits string in single characters)
chr(i) gives character for ascii code i (look up ascii table to see codes)
ord(c) gives acsii code of character c (a string with length one)
len(txt) gives length of the string txt
len(lst) gives length of the list lst
abs(x) absolute value of x (modulo/length for complex numbers)

range(stop) give a list [0,1,…stop-1] so stop is not included

range(start,stop) give a list [start, startt+1,…stop-1] so start is included!
range(start,stop,step) give a list [start, start+step,…] stop is not included

sum(a,b,c,d…) total sum of variables a,b,c,d…

sum(lst) total sum of the list elements in lst
max(a,b,c,d,.) maximum value of a,b,c,d…
max(lst) maximum value in the list lst
min(a,b,c,d…) minimum value of a,b,c,d…
min(lst) minimum value in the list lst

input(txt) prints txt, asks user for input, returns user input as a text string

help(txt) for use in shell: prints help on Python or installed function, module or
statement, e.g. help(‘math’) or help(‘input’)

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3. Python syntax: Statements

3.1 Assignment

In thischapter we discuss the basic Python statements: commands that you use in a program
which often do something with the data. A one page summary of the basic python statements can
be found in Appendix A.

We already discussed the assignment statement at the beginning of the previous chapter. The
assignment statement is one of the most simple statements in Python:

variablename = expression

In this statement the expression on the right hand side is evaluated and the stored in the variable
with the name as given left of the equal sign. The expression determines the type and value of
the variable and the left side, the variablename, the name.

It is possible to overwrite a variable, even when it is used in the expression on the right side. This
is because the computer first evaluates the expression and only then stores the result in the
variable, overwriting anything that was previously stored in that variable.

Some examples of how you can use the assignment are given below:

a = 4.5 will create a float with name a and value 4.5

i = 100 will create an integer with value 100 and name i

total = 0 will create an integer with value 0 and name total
i = i + 1 will increase the value of i with 1
i += 1 equal to previous line
total = total + i will add i to the variable total
total += i equal to previous line

txt = “ea” will create a string with name txt containing “ea”
txt = txt + “sy” will change it into “easy”

serie = [] will create an empty list

serie = serie + [i] will add an element with value i to the list serie

Here it should be noted that a statement as i=i+1 may seem mathematically incorrect, but in
programming this simply means that the expression i+1 is evaluated with the old value of I and
the resulting value is then stored in i as this is the variable on the left side of the equal sign. So
‘=’ means ‘will become’ instead of ‘is equal to’ (for which we use ‘==’ in Python, for example
when we test a condition in an if-statement). Also note the short-hand notation “+=”, which has
been discussed extensively in section 2.1 already.

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Adapting our example program from the previous chapter, we add some logic. Edit the program
to match this example precisely, note the margin jumps (use TAB-key) in the IF statement,
which is called indentation. Hagin the same margin, or indentation level, is what Python uses to
mark blocks of code that belong together, for example because they are part of an IF-branch or a
loop (see later sections on FOR and WHILE loops).

from math import sqrt

print("To solve ax2 + bx + c = 0")

a = float(input("Enter the value of a:"))

b = float(input("Enter the value of b:"))
c = float(input("Enter the value of c:"))

D = b**2 - 4.*a*c

if D<0:
print("This equation has no solutions.")

else:
x1 = (-b - sqrt(D)) / (2.*a)
x2 = (-b + sqrt(D)) / (2.*a)

print("x1 =",x1)
print("x2 =",x2)

Now the program first checks whether D is negative. If so, it will tell you that there are no
solutions.

- Note the structure and syntax(=grammar) of the if-else statement. A colon ( : ) indicates a
block of code will be given, so it acts as a ‘then’. The block is marked by the indented
part of the code,.

- When it jumps back to the margin of the beginning to indicate the end of this block of
code, an ‘else’ follows, again with a colon and an indented block of code.

- It also uses a different way to import the sqrt function from the math module. Note the
difference in syntax in both the line with the import statement as well as the line where
the sqrt function is used.

Exercise 1.1:
Adapt the program so that it calculates the hypotenuse c of a rectangular triangle for
rectangular sides a and b as entered by the user, using Pythagoras formula.

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Exercise 1.2:
See the flow chart on the right.

Using this flow chart, make a program that

determines the maximum value of given
numbers a ,b, c and d as entered by the user,
using a number of if-else-statements to find
the maximum value of these four variables.

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3.2 Print statement

3.2.1. Using print

The print function generates text output in the console. It can print texts, variables and
expressions. To print several things on one line use a comma to separate them. A space will be
inserted automatically between the arguments. The space is the default so-called ‘separator’
symbol. After each call to print automatically a newline character is printed, so the next print call
will start at a new line. A print-statement without any arguments, prints an empty line, or a
newline character to be exact.

As example, three ways, which will result in the same output, it will print Hello world on
one line:

print(“Hello world”)
print(“Hello”,”world”,sep=""))
print("Hello","world",end="\n")
print("Hello",end="")
print(”world”)

The above examples also use the use of the ‘sep’ and ‘end’ keyword, which can be used to use a
different separator character or a different end of line.

The print statement can print one or more texts, variables expressions and the outcome of
functions. Basically anything can be printed. Apart from generating output for the user, print is
also very useful when trying to find bugs in your program. Every experienced programmer puts
in a temporary print statement after each ten lines of code to check if everything works as
intended. These are then later deleted or commented out with the hash symbol.

Other examples of valid print statements with other arguments than strings:
print("Program to solve 2nd order equations. ")
print("The solutions are",x1,"and",x2)
print("Discriminant is",b*b-4.*a*c)
print("List of names",lst)
print()
print("Ready. ")

Next to ‘sep=’ and ‘end=’, there is also the keyword ‘file=’, which can be used to print to a file
instead of to the screen (see chapter 8 for more information on how to read and write text files).
This file needs to be opened first with the open function. This function returns a file-object. The
next example shows how this can be used to print to:

f = open('testje.dat','w') # Open file for writing (see ch 8)

print("abc",file=f)

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print("def",file=f)
f.close() # Close file

Note how the hash symbol ( # ), indicates the start of the comments, this symbol and everything
after it is ignored by the Python interpreter when the program is executed.

3.2.2. Formatting your output

Sometimes more control over how the data is printed is needed. For instance how many decimals
are printed or to line up a serie of numbers using the decimal point in a more table-like fashion.
Or when you want to right align a number of integers, or add leading zeros. For that you can use
the format function of shorter, the f-string. Let’s first look at the f-string as this has become the
easiest and most commonly used method ever since it was introduced for the first time with
Python 3.6:

from math import *

i = 5
j = 10
x = sqrt(7)
txt = "Hello"

#--------- Default method since Python 3.6: f-strings --------------

print(f"An example of float is: {x}")

print(f"An example of formatted float is: {x:5.2f}") # 5 places, 2 decimals
print(f"An example of formatted floats is: {x:.2f}") # 2 decimals
print(f"An example of a formatted integer is: {i:3d}") # 3 places
print(f"A formatted integer with leading zeros is: {i:03d}") # leading zeros
print(f"And a string stays the same: {txt}")

Below the resulting output is shown:

An example of float is: 2.6457513110645907

An example of formatted float is: 2.65
An example of formatted floats is: 2.65
An example of a formatted integer is: 5
An example of a formatted integer with leading zeros is: 005
And a string stays the same: Hello

The above syntax is actually a short-hand fversion for using the format function which you can
also use. See the example below, using the same data:

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#--------- Method 1: Format-function (value, formatstring)

# "5.2f" means: length = 5 characters, 2 decimals, floating point
# (so for x=1.2 there will be one leading space, as it is right aligned)

y = sqrt(3)
print("Result is",format(x,"5.2f"))
print("Position is ("+format(x,"5.2f")+","+format(y,"7.4f")+").")
print("Number of iterations:",format(j,"5d"))# Length 5 so 2 leading spaces

#--------- Method 2: Format string method: " ...{:f7.3}....".format(y)

print("i is{:>2d}".format(i)) # Adds space on left side: i is 5

print(f"i is{i:>2d}") # Adds space on left side: i is 5
print("j is {:04d}".format(j)) # Add zeros on left side: j is 0010

# Floating point: number of digits (optionally: dot number of decimals)

print("x is {:4.2f}".format(x)) # x is 2.65
print("x,y is {:3.2f},{:3.2f}".format(x, y)) # x,y is 2.65 , 1.7

# Strings
print("Look at this: {}".format(txt))
print("Look {} times at this:{}".format(i, txt))

# Format can also use names to refer to variables:

print("x,y is {xcoor:3.2f},{ycoor:3.2f}".format(xcoor=x, ycoor=y))

3.3 Input function

With the function input( ) the user can be asked to input values during runtime of the
program. Input is not really a statement, but a function in an assignment line. It returns the text as
entered by the user during runtime. As input argument, it takes one string, which is used as the
prompt by the function: it will print this text just before the user can give the input. Some
examples:
name = input(" What is your name: ")
ans = input(" Do you want to continue? (Y/N) ")

The input function will always return a string. When another type of variable is needed as input,
the converter functions can be used to get the right type

x = float(input("Give value for x: "))

i = int(input("Give number of values: "))

In some cases this might not work, for instance when we want to enter an expression (maybe
even using variable names). It will also not work when a list of values is entered by the user. In
bith cases conversion by using the alternative method for the conversion of the string: with the
evaluation function eval() is an option.This call to eval() will evaluate any expression and
determine the type in the same as the assignment function would do it:

xlst = list(eval(input("Give values for x:")))

a,b,c = eval(input("Enter a,b,c: "))

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The eval function could also be used in the examples above, but there is a risk of the type ending
up different from what you expected. Users will not always add a decimal point when entering a
float for instance.

Note the difference between print and input, when ouptu text. Input only takes one argument:

print(“Enter the value of coordinate”,i,”:”,end=”’)

x[i] = input()

instead of printing with input which requires one string as output (two methods):

x[i] = input(“Enter the value of coordinate”+str(i)+”:”)

x[i] = input(f“Enter the value of coordinate {i} :”)

For the second, using f-strings, see the previous section on formatting your print output, which is
even more usefull in input as you cannot use multiple argument here.

3.4 If-statement
The if statement has the following syntax:

if condition :
statement 1
statement 2

statement 3

In this example above, only if the condition is True, the statements statement 1 and statement 2
are executed. If the condition is False it will automatically jump to statement 3 without executing
statement 1 and statement 2. The conditional lines of code are marked byincreasing the margin,
which is called indenting the lines after the colon. Lines with the same indentation level, so the
same margin, is called a block of code. In Python a code block is marked only by this same
margin. One indentation step is set to four spaces by default in IDLE but any number of spaces
will do, as long as all statements in one block have the same indentation. In many other
languages, you need extra brackets { } or being end statement to mark a block of code.

Because statement 3 starts at the beginning of the line again, so un-indented, Python knows that
this is the end of the conditional block. One of the statements inside the if-statement could be
another if-statement, which would mean that another set of conditional statement would be
indented one more time (nested if-loops).

Optionally the if-statement can be expanded with an else-branch or one or more else-ifs which
are spelled as elif in Python. As many elif-branches can be added as necessary. Only one
else can be added, always at the end of the if branche(s).

An example:

if x<xmin:
x = xmin

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vx=-vx
print(" Ball left via left side of screen. ")

elif x>xmax:
x = xmax
vx = -vx
print(“Ball left via right side of screen.”)
else:
print(“Ball still on screen.”)

x = x + vx*dt

In this example the condition x>xmax is only checked if x<xmin is False. Which probably is
not a problem in this case. In the above example the assignment statement to update the variable
x is always executed because it is not indented.

3.5 For-loop
The for loop is a very convenient loop, especially when it is used in combination with the
range()function. For example:

for i in range(10):
print(i)

print("Ready. ")

If you try this code, you will see that it prints the numbers 0 to 9. The range(10) function results
in a list: [0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9] through which the variable i is iterated. This means: The indented
block of code (one statement in this case) is executed ten times, once for each value of i.
Another example:

total = 0

for i in range(1,11):
print(i)
total = total + i*i

print(total)

In this example, a variable total is initialized as zero just before the loop. But then in every
execution of the loop i*i is added to total. Since i runs from 1 until but, not including, 11 in
this code, the result is that total will be equal to 1*1 + 2*2 +3*3+ …+ 9*9 + 10*10 .

Instead of using range( ) to generate a range of integers, any list can be used:

fellowship = ["Frodo","Sam","Merry","Pippin","Gandalf", \
"Legolas","Gimli","Aragorn","Boromir"]

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for name in fellowship:

print(name)

If you need to loop floats e.g. from 0. to 10. with step of .1, you can also use the following
construction. This example will print these values:

for i in range(101):
x= i*0.1
print(x)

When setting up loops (while or for), use print statements first (e.g. with a small number of
iterations) to see whether your loop does what you intend it to do.

Tools for for-loops: Itertools

The module itertools has a lot of iteration tools which are very useful in cobinaiton with a for-
loop. It can be used to get any permutation or combination of elelements for a loop. This can
save a lot of programming time compared to when you would have to make that yourself.

For example, this bit of codeuses the permutations iterator function, which takes a list as input:

from itertools import permutations

lst = [1,2,3]

for a in permutations(lst):
print (a,end=" ")

Will generate this output:

(1, 2, 3) (1, 3, 2) (2, 1, 3) (2, 3, 1) (3, 1, 2) (3, 2, 1)

And to take all possible selection of n combinations out of a list lst, the function
combinations( lst , n) can be used:

from itertools import combinations

lst = [1,2,3,4,5]

for a in combinations(lst,2):
print (a,end=" ")

Which will print:

(1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (3, 4)
(3, 5) (4, 5)

There are many more useful funcitons in itertools, like cycle, product, etc. In the python shell,
type help("itertools") to see the complete overview.

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Exercise 1: Make a program that prints all the prime numbers till a certain value,
(recall that a prime number is not divisible by any number except itself and 1).

Exercise 2: Write a Python program to construct the pattern on the right.

Exercise 3: Write a Python program that accepts a string and counts the number
of digits and letters in the string.

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3.6 WHILE-loop
A more versatile loop is the while-loop. It is a sort of a combination between an if-statement and
a for-loop. A block of statements is executed for as long as a given condition is True. The block
is repeated until the condition becomes False. The syntax is:

while condition:
statement 1
statement 2
statement 3

The while is just like the if, used to control the flow of a program based on a condition. The
difference is that in this case it is automatically repeated.

An example:

h0 = [0.0, 11000., 20000., 32000., 47000., 51000., 71000.]

hmax = h0[-1]
h = float(input(“Enter altitude”))
h = min(h,hmax)
i= 0
while h>h0[i+1]:
i = i+1

When you use this as a sort of “repeat until”, you have to prepare the condition which is tested
by while in such a way that the first time it will be true, so the loop as entered at least once. You
can see this in the second example below, where found is set to False first.

Another example:

import math

n = int(input("Give a value of n: "))

i = 1
vn = int(math.sqrt(n))

found = False

while i<= vn and not found:

if n%i==0:
found = True

i = i+1

if found:
print(n, "is divisible by",i)
else:
print("No factors of",n, "found.")

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While can also be used to wait for a valid answer when using input:

choice = -1
while not(0 <= choice <= 3):
choice = int(input("Enter your choice (1,2,3 or 0):"))

print("The user chose",choice,".")

print("Computer says: no.")

In this example the computer will keep asking the question until a valid choice 0, 1, 2, 3 is
entered.

The two most important things need to be addressed when using while-loops:

- Often (not always) an initialization is required to make sure that the first time the
condition in the while-loop is True, such that the while-loop starts running.

- Within the while- loop, the block of code has to assure that the condition becomes False
at some point, avoiding an endless loop.

3.7 Loop controls: Break and Continue

Even though it is not considered a good programming style to use it as regular way to control the
flow of your program, it is possible to make exceptions to the normal execution of the for- or
while-loop. Two statements can do this: break and continue.

The command line break will break out of the current loop and continue with the next
statement after the loop. The command line continue will also skip the remainder of the block
of code in the loop but in contrast to the break command, it will return to the beginning of the
loop to the test in the while-line (in a for-loop it will thus return to the beginning of the loop,
taking the next value of the iterator).

Example of the break command within a while-loop:

while True:
…
if keypressed == ESCkey:
break
…

Example of the continue command within a for-loop:

for i in range(100):
…
if i%4==0:
continue

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Note that continue and break can be used in both loop-types: so both can be used in for- and
while-loops.

Using these two commands on a regular basis is considered to be a bad programming habit, as a
clever definition of the loop can avoid these unpleasant disruption of the flow of the program.
Also, take into account that an if-then statement could also do the job. The break and continue
statements however, can make the code more readable since less indentations are required
compared to the if-then statements.

Summarizing the difference:

continue skip the rest of the code in the block inside the loop and go to the line with the
while or for statement. So in case of a for-loop the next value of the list will be
used.

break jump out of the loop and proceed with the code after the loop

Programming language purists do not like these commands as they disrupt the flow of a program
and can be used to create real “spaghetti-code”, so only use them when there is no other neater
way to achieve the same goal, e.g. to avoid too many indentations in the margin.

Exercise 1: We can make our prime number generator faster by means of the break command,
make again a prime generator till a certain value. But now ‘break’ when a value is devisable by
another value then itself or 1.

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4. Making your code reusable and readable

When writing a piece of code it is important to make sure your code looks understandable to the
outsider or to yourself when you look at the code in one year from now. You do not want to
write code that you can only use once, so get used to this and do it all the time. Some suggestions:

- At the top of your script, write a small summary explaining the function of your code
using comment lines. Also add your name and the date of editing.

- Use empty lines to create “paragraphs” indicating which parts belong together. Also
use spaces in your line, they have no effect during runtime but can increase the
readability

- Also use a comment line just before such a piece of code indicating in plain language
what the meaning of the code is. Comments can be inserted when you start the line with
a hash-character: #. The hash-sign can also be used to add comments at the end of the
line (such as units of variables). An example:

#Initialize atmospheric values at sea level

p0 = 101325. # [Pa]
rho0 = 1.225 # [kg/m3]
T0 = 288.15 # [K]

If you have a line which becomes very long, continue on the next line. Often Python will
understand this because you are in the middle of a list or function call, but otherwise you may
end the line with a backslash as a continuation character. Then Python will know that the next
line needs to be added behind this line before it executes the command.

p0 = [101325., 22632., 5474.9, 868.02,\

110.91, 66.939, 3.9564 ]

Tip: Since it is often not very motivating to add comments afterwards, you can also do it in the
other way around: When you have to design an algorithm, you first have to decompose the
problem into smaller steps. Use comment lines to break your problem down in smaller steps and
write in natural language what each step should do. Then all you have to do is fill in the gaps
between the comment lines with the actual code and you have developed and commented your
source code at the same time.

An example of the same code, both badly and well formatted, is given on the next page (pass is
a statement which does nothing, sometimes used temporary before filling in final code):

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In this case the function is extremely simple, but imagine a more complex function: You would
never be able to understand it or use it again a few months or years later, when coded in the
format of the first example. When you make a habit of doing this while you code, it not an extra
effort and it even saves you the effort of memorizing which part does what and what the
variables mean during the debugging.

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The small summary at the beginning of your code is called the header of a source file. A very
good habit is to add this header at the beginning of each Python file. In this you can quickly
describe the purpose of the program or the inputs and output of a function for potential users. For
this you often want to use multiple lines with comments. You could of course do that using the
hash sign:

#
# Main module of BlueSky Open ATM Simulator
#
# Start this module to start the program
#
# Created by : Jacco M. Hoekstra (TU Delft)
# Date : September 2013
#
# Modification :
# By :
# Date :
#

But another way to add multiple line comments is the triple quote:

"""
Main module of BlueSky Open ATM Simulator

Start this module to start the program

Created by : Jacco M. Hoekstra (TU Delft)

Date : September 2013

Modification :
By :
Date :

"""

Using this format will also make sure that python recognizes this as documentation for the
function and will return it if the help function is called for your function. This is called the
docstring. See below for an example:
def complex(real=0.0, imag=0.0):
"""Form a complex number.

Keyword arguments:
real -- the real part (default 0.0)
imag -- the imaginary part (default 0.0)

"""
if imag == 0.0 and real == 0.0: return complex_zero

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(Also note how default values are given to the arguments when this function is defined. When no
argument is give, these values will be used).

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5. Using modules like the math module

5.1 How to use math functions

As we already saw in the first chapter, Python’s mathematical functions are defined in a math
module which is one of the many modules that comes with Python. The math module contains:
 math functions e.g.: sqrt() (=square root) sin() (=sine of an angle in radians), asin()
(=arcsine or inverse sine, returns the angle again in radians),
 angle unit conversion functions: degrees( ) and radians()
 constants like pi and e.

If you use a function that has been defined in a module you first have to input that module once
at the beginning of the python script file in which you use the functions. This is done by typing:

import math

When we want to use a function from this module, we type the name of the module, math in this
case, in front of the name of the function followed by a period (.) followed by the name of the
function. For example:

x1 = (-b + math.sqrt(b*b-4.0*a*c)) / (2.0*a)

BC = k * math.sin(a)
alpha = math.asin(BC/AC)

The math module also contains the constants pi and e. These are used in the same way as the
functions, with the module name in front of the constant’s name:

bdeg = b/math.pi*180.0
y = math.e**x

Note that with logarithmic functions log(x) means ln(x), so base e and not base 10! To use a
logarithmic function with base 10, use the function log(x,10.) or the special function log10(x) .

As it may be cumbersome to type ‘math.’ before these very common functions there are ways to
import the names from the module into the namespace of the module. This means you don’t have
to put ‘math.’ in front of the function names every time, but you can use the function names as if
they were defined inside your module. There are two ways to do this. Look at the examples
below.

Method 1 to avoid this is directly importing selected functions from the module math:

from math import asin,pi

alpha = asin(BC/AC)
bdeg = b/pi*180.0

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or easier, just import all functions from the math module with the asterisk symbol:

from math import *

alpha = asin(BC/AC)
bdeg = b/pi*180.0

In the first example the names are explicitly imported. This has two advantages: the reader of the
source can tell from which module which function was imported. This is important if you use
more than one module. Secondly, you prevent problems, which might arise if you use a variable
name which happens to be the same as some function somewhere in the imported module.

Still, if there is any module where you could use the asterisk-import method, it would be the
math module, since the names in there are well-known. In many other languages, these math
functions are also reserved names and part of the so-called ‘namespace’ of the language.

A nice feature of the “from … import” way of importing functions is the option to rename
functions:

from math import sqrt as wortel

x = wortel(9)

(This example will result in x being a float with value 3.0 as the sqrt() function converts the type
to a float. )

On the next pages an overview is given of the main functions in math. There are a few extra in
the actual module; e.g. those functions show how numbers are represented on a binary scale. If
you’re interested in these, use help (‘math’) in the shell or look up the math module in the
Python Docs via the IDLE Help menu.

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5.2 List of math module functions and constants

Constants
math.pi The mathematical constant pi (= 3.1415926535897931)
math.e The mathematical constant e (= 2.7182818284590451)

Power and logarithmic functions

math.exp(x) Return e**x.
math.log(x) Natural logarithm of x (to base e), so ln x
math.log(x,a) Logarithm of x to base a, so alog x (equals log(x)/log(a) )
math.log1p(x) Natural logarithm of 1+x (so to base e), but then accurate for x near zero.
math.log10(x) Base-10 logarithm of x. This is usually more accurate than log(x, 10).
math.pow(x, y) x raised to the power y (same as x**y)
math.sqrt(x) Square root of x. So this calculates x

Trigonometric functions
math.sin(x) Return the sine of x radians.
math.cos(x) Return the cosine of x radians.
math.tan(x) Return the tangent of x radians.

math.acos(x) Arc cosine of x (i.e. the inverse cosine), resulting angle is in radians
math.asin(x) Arc sine of x (i.e. the inverse sine), resulting angle is in radians
math.atan(x) Arc tangent of x (i.e. the inverse tangent), resulting angle is in radians.

math.atan2(y, x) Same as atan(y / x), in radians but now the result is between -pi and pi. The
vector in the plane from the origin to point (x,y) makes this angle with the positive X
axis. The point of atan2() is that the signs of both inputs are known to it, so it can
compute the correct quadrant for the angle.
math.hypot(x, y) The Euclidean norm, sqrt(x*x + y*y). This is the length of the vector from the
origin to point (x, y).

math.degrees(x) Converts angle x from radians to degrees.

math.radians(x) Converts angle x from degrees to radians.

Hyperbolic functions

math.sinh(x) Hyperbolic sine of x.

math.cosh(x) Hyperbolic cosine of x.
math.tanh(x) Hyperbolic tangent of x.

math.asinh(x) Inverse hyperbolic sine of x.

math.acosh(x) Inverse hyperbolic cosine of x.
math.atanh(x) Inverse hyperbolic tangent of x.

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Number functions

math.ceil(x) Ceiling of x as a float, the smallest integer value greater than or equal to x.
math.copysign(x, y) Returns x with the sign of y ( so abs(x)*y/abs(y) )
math.factorial(n) n! or the factorial of n (in Dutch: faculteit n)
math.floor(x) Floor of x as a float, the largest integer value less than or equal to x.
math.fmod(x, y) Modulo fmod(x,y), returns x - n*y for some integer n such that the result has
the same sign as x and magnitude less than abs(y).This function fmod() is
generally preferred when working with floats, while Python’s x%y is preferred when
working with integers.
math.fsum(iterable) More accurate summing for floats than sum( )
math.modf(x) The fractional and integer parts of x. Both float results carry the sign of x.
math.trunc(x) Return the Real value x truncated to an Integer (usually a long integer)

5.3 The module random

Another often used module is a module which generates (seemingly) random numbers. This can
be used for random initial conditions, dice or noise etc.

To find more information on the functions in this module, go to “Python docs” in the Help pull
down menu in IDLE, we type random in the Search window.

Clicking on the first result brings us to chapter 10.6 Pseudo random generator. This section
discusses the functions inside the random module.

After a lot of complex information (which we skip) we also see some useful functions:

random.random() Return the next random floating point number in the range
[0.0, 1.0)

random.randint(a, b) Return a random integer N such that a <= N <= b.

random.randrange([start], stop[, step]) - Return a randomly selected element from

range(start, stop, step). This is equivalent to choice (range(start,
stop, step)), but doesn’t actually build a range object but will
result in one ‘random’ integer.

5.4 Explore other modules

To see which other modules are installed, you can type help(‘modules’) in the Shell, but with
Python(x,y) installed this quickly becomes too much (and takes too long). More info on specific
modules supplied with Python can be found in the Python documentation. For instance check out
the simple modules like os, sys and time, or more advanced like urllib or Tkinter! You’ll find a
treasure box of goodies. This is what is meant with when they say Python comes “with batteries
installed”.

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6. Defining your own functions and modules

Using and making functions can make programming and debugging a lot easier. This is because
it will make your main code shorter. It is also very useful when using the same calculation
multiple times or to use the preprogrammed calculations.

6.1 Def statement: define a function

With Python you can define your own functions and in this way basically extend the language
with your own commands. The statement def is used to define a function. The syntax of this
statement is as follows:

def functionname(arg1,arg2,arg3) :

statement1
statement2
statement3

return resultvalue

Examples:

def fibo(n):

# Generate fibonacci serie until value n

serie = [a,b]

while serie[-1]<=n:
x = serie[-2]+serie[-1]
serie.append(x)

# remove last element which was larger than n

del s[-1]

return serie

Functions can be complete programs or simple one-liners. Another example with a very short
function:

from math import sin

def f(x):
return x*sin(x)

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Be aware that the def statement does not yet execute the function, it merely defines it. The code
inside the function will only be executed when you call the function, after it has been defined
with def. So always call it, could be done manually from the interpreter to check the syntax and
working of your newly defined function.

6.2 Multiple outputs

As you have seen in the formatting example, you can output several different values from your
function. You can do this as a list, defined with the square brackets or as a tuple (a constant list )
with the round brackets or a tuple by leaving out the brackets.

When you call the function you can store the result in a list/tuple or in different variables. The
latter is done in the example below, which explains how to output more than one value of a
function.

6.3 Function with no outputs

When your function merely does something to the screen but there is no need to return a value,
just use the return without a value. In the calling program, you can use this function just as
you would use a statement.

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6.4 Using one variable in definition as input and output is not possible
In some languages, a function can do something to the input variable without returning a value.
This is not the case with the standard data types in Python, except for the list type.

In Python most data types are immutable, which means they are passed on as a value of the
object, which is then used in the function. But since there is no reference to the memory location
of the original variable in the calling module will not be changed by anything the function does.
See the example below. Most types of variables (floats, integers, strings, booleans) are
immutable because they are passed on by value. Others (lists) are passed on as reference to a
memory location, then they would change as the function increases it. These are called mutable
variables.

Mind you, this use of one variable as input and output at the same time in the definition of a
function is considered very bad programming practice anyway in the procedural programming
style in the languages where this is possible. Yet at the same time, it is common practice in
object oriented programming, also in Python! It would then be called a method of the variable a
and called as: a.increaseit()

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6.5 Using functions defined in other modules: managing a project

As you have already seen with the math functions in the previous chapter, they are defined in a
separate file(module) math.py and to use them, you first need to import this module.

You can also use this principle of defining functions in different files for large programs where
you want to keep an oversight by storing different sets of functions in different files, or as we say
in Python: in different modules. In this case the module file needs to be in the same folder so
Python can find it.

Suppose you have defined a function fibo in the file series.py , and you want to use it in
your own program test.py . Then you need to import your module series. We usually do
this at the beginning of the source, since you need to do this only once. Because once the
function is defined, you can use it as many times as you want. There are now many ways in
which you can import and call this function:

Method 1:
import series
s = series.fibo(10)

Method 2:
from series import fibo
s = fibo(10)

Method 3:
from series import fibo as fibonacci
s = fibonacci(10)

Method 4 which I would discourage: you do not know which other names now suddenly have a
special meaning, it also makes it harder to trace where functions are defined (I only use this with
math and sometimes with Numpy for the math functions):

from series import *

s = fibo(10)

On the internet you can find many 3rd party modules which extend the functionality of Python to
do a range of things. Once they are installed it is very easy to use them: just add an import call at
the beginning of your script and all functions inside that module are available to you.

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Exercises chapter 6

Exercise 1: Make a function that counts the words in a sentence and print the last word.

Exercise 2: Make four functions which calculate respectively the surface and volume of a sphere
and the surface and volume of a cone.

Exercise 3:
Write a function:

def changestring(string, n, delim):

This function repeats string ‘string’ n times, separated by the string ‘delim’.

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7. Using logicals, example algorithm: Bubblesort

In this chapter to apply the logic and the loops we’ve described so far, we will have a look at the
Bubblesort example. The first task is to generate a program that generates 50 random numbers
under 100.

Here randint, see the chapter on the random module, can be used to make an unsorted list:

from random import randint

# Make an unsorted list

numbers = []

for i in range(50):
numbers.append(randint(1,100))

print("Before sort:",numbers)

This prints an unsorted array of 50 random numbers under 100. Now we will sort it with the
famous Bubblesort algorithm:

1. check all consecutive pairs in the list

2. if a pair is in the wrong order swap the places of the elements
3. keep checking all pairs until no swap is needed anymore

If we want to add this then we have to add the code on the following page:

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# Make sure we enter while loop first time

swapped = True

while swapped:

# Now assume everything is done unless proven otherwise

swapped = False

# Check all pairs by running index to one but last

for i in range(len(numbers)-1):

# If they are in the wrong order: swap

if numbers[i]>numbers[i+1]:
a =numbers[i]
numbers[i] = numbers[i+1]
numbers[i+1] = a

# and set switch indicating that we swapped

swapped = True

# Loop end when swapped is False and no swaps were performed anymore
print()
print("After sort:")
print(numbers)

Let’s investigate this code:

The key line is this:

if numbers[i]>numbers[i+1]:
a =numbers[i]
numbers[i] = numbers[i+1]
numbers[i+1] = a

First we check whether these elements are in the wrong order. When they are the same we should
not swap them (it would keep doing this forever then). If wrong, we save the value of numbers[i]
in the variable a, then we overwrite this with the value of numbers[i+1]. And then we use our
saved value in a to put in numbers[i+1] resulting in a swap of places.

For this to work we need to let i run from 0 till the last place minus 1. Otherwise the
numbers[i+1] will result in an error. So the for-loop reads:

for i in range(len(numbers)-1):

Now all we need to do is add some logic to detect whether we are done. We can use a logical
swap to detect any swapping. For this we first set it to False outside the for-loop and as soon as
we swap two variables we set it to True.

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Then we add a while loop around this which will keep repeating our for-loop until swap remains
False and hence no swap was performed. To make sure we enter the while loop the first time, we
have to set it to True outside the while loop.

This is the order in which this program was made: from the inside out. First putting in
elementary operations and then using a logical to add some logic.

The end result is an already complex looking construction. Look at the three indent levels: while,
for and if are inside each other or nested as we call this in programming.

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8. File input/output and String handling

8.1 Opening and closing of files

To read from a file you first have to make it accessible for the program. For this you use the
open-statement. It opens the file and connects a variable of the type ‘file’ to it. This variable is
not the content of the file, it is merely a ‘handle’ to do something with the file:

f = open(“test.dat”,”r”) # Open file for reading

g = open(“test.dat”,”w”) # Open file for writing
h = open(“test.dat”,”a”) # Open file for appending

As soon as your done with the file, you need to release it again with the close statement.:
f.close()
g.close()
h.close()

This will not only release the file for use by other programs but also empty any read/write
buffers which may be in use and whose content might get lost if the program ends abruptly
without closing (and releasing) the files.

8.2 Reading from a text file

You can use two functions to read from a file: readline() or readlines(). As the name
suggests, the first reads only one line and returns one string containing the text of this line. The
second function readlines(), reads all lines of the file and returns a list of strings, one string per
line read.

You can use the file handle variable in a while-statement when reading files:

The easiest way is to store it in a list of lines directly and use this list in the for-loop:

# Read a file
f = open(“test.dat”,”r”) # Open file for reading
lines = f.readlines()
f.close()

for s in lines:
…. Do something with the string variable s……

The file object will return False when the end of the file is reached. This is an example of how
you can read lines from a text file using this feature:

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# Read a file
f = open(“test.dat”,”r”) # Open file for reading

while f:
line = f.readline()
f.close()

Or use readlines() with a for-loop:

# Read a file
f = open(“test.dat”,”r”) # Open file for reading

for line in f.readlines():

…. Do something with the string variable line……

f.close()

8.3 Writing to files

There are two ways you can write to a file: in the overwrite mode or in the append mode. When
you open the file with the string ‘w’ as second argument, you open it in the overwrite-mode. So
the existing content will be deleted and replaced by what you write to the file between the open
and the close statement in the current program. When you use the file in to write in the append-
mode, so opened with as second argument ‘a’, you start to write at the end of the last line of the
file. This you can use for log-files or error messages or to collect all output data. It appends
anything you write at the end of the file (more precisely: at the end of the last line in the file).

Some examples of how you can write to a file:

f = open("test.dat","w") # Open file for writing

for i in range(len(xtab)):
line = str(xtab[i])+”,”+str(ytab[i])+”\n”
f.write(line)

f.close()

Note the newline character at the end of the line: \n .

(On Windows PCs, you will often find the so-called DOS newline characters: which is
+chr(13)+chr(10) = CR LF = Carriage return + Line Feed).

Similarly as with readline() and readlines(), there is here also a writelines(), which will write a
complete list of strings to a file. See the following example code:

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a = ["The Expanse\n",
"A TV-serie by SyFy set in a future in which\n",
"mankind has started exploring the solar system\n",
"beyond the planet earth.\n"]

f = open("expanse.dat","w")
f.writelines(a)
f.close()

You can also write to a text file using print:

f = open("hello.dat","w")
print(“Hello major”,file=f)
f.close()

See also the section on formatting your output in the section on how to output data in a formatted
way in the pargraph on using print.

8.4 Reading a formatted data file

Often text files are formatted in a way which inhibits a straight read into a float or integer
variable. Extra comment lines, text on the same line are very useful when a human reads the file,
but often a burden when you have to read it with a computer program.

Let’s look at an example: a data file (text format), which is named “test.dat”:

C--- Flight angles

alpha = 5.224 [deg]

beta =-0.0112 [deg]
gamma= -2.776 [deg]
theta = [deg]

Suppose we want the program to read this file and store the result in a two-dimensional list with
strings for the label and floats for the value per variable. So in this example, the text file should
result in the following list:

[['alpha', 5.2240000000000002],
['beta', -0.0112],
['gamma', -2.7759999999999998]]

Before starting to write the program, already note that:

- The program should recognize comment lines because these start with a C-character.

- When no value is provided (as in the example with theta), it should also not appear in the list.

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- Empty lines should have no effect, similarly whitespaces in the lines should not be critical
(see gamma in example)

As a first step, we read the lines into a list of strings (see previous chapter):

# Read a file
f = open(“test.dat”,”r”) # Open file for reading
lines = f.readlines()
f.close()

Now we have to process these strings. And then find the labels, strip the superfluous characters
and lines and read the values in the list. This is achieved by the following program, which we’ll
briefly discuss below.

# Check every line in the list lines

for line in lines:

# Make case-tolerant: make lower case

txt = line.lower()

# Check for comment line or a blank line

if txt[0]<>'c' and not txt.strip()=="":
words = txt.split("=")

label = words[0].strip() # remove spaces at the start

value = words[1].strip() # and end of string

# Lots of checks for “[ ]” and “\n” at end of line

i = value.find('[')
if i>=0:
value = value[:i]
else:
if value[-2:]=="\n":
value = value[:-2]

# if a value is given: read it

if value<>"":
x = float(value)
print(label," = ",x)
nlist.append([label,x])

The for-loop makes sure the indented block of code will be executed for every string in the list
variable lines.

To prevent that any further checks will not work because a lower case ‘c’ is used or somebody
starts every name with a capital character, we change the whole line to lower case with the string
method lower. Since it is not a general function but a method of the string type, we use the
variablename.methodname(arguments if any) notation. Similar to the “append” method with
lists.

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Before we read the data two things are done: it is checked whether it is not an empty line or
comment line and then the line is split up and cut using a combination of the split-method, the
find-method and slicing.

There is a long list of string methods which can be handy. A selection is shown on the following
page.

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8.5 List of some useful string methods/functions

A complete list, as well as more detail per function, can be found in the Python Docs in the
chapter on built-in types (6.6.1) or by typing help(‘string’) in the shell window.

These are methods, which are functions that are part of the type string. This means they are
called in a special way: by using the name of the string input variable instead of str, so followed
by a period and then the name of the function. As the string is an immutable type, so passed only
by its value, these functions return something as output: e.g. an altered copy of the string, an
integer value or a logical.

line = line.strip() # To change variable line itself

lowline = line.lower() # Copy result to other variable
n = line.count("b")# Result is an integer

str.count(ch, i , j) Number of occurrences of substring ch in str[i:j], (using i,j is optional.)

str.find(ch) Index of first occurrence of ch in str, return -1 if not found
str.index(ch) Index of first occurrence of ch in str, (error if not found) See also rindex( )

str.replace(old,new) Return copy of str with all occurrences of substring old replaced by new
str.join(lst) Return one string, with the strings from the list, separated by the character
in str
str.startswith(ch) Returns True if string str begins with the substring ch
str.endswith(ch) Returns True if string str ends with the substring ch

str.split(sep) Returns a list of strings: the words in str as separated by sep substring
str.splitlines( ) Returns a list of strings: str is split using the newline character

str.strip(ch ) Remove character ch from begin and end of str, default ch is a space. See
also rstrip( ) and lstrip( ) for stripping only one side of str
str.expandtabs(n) Replace tab-character by n spaces. If n is not provided 8 spaces are used.

str.lower( ) Returns copy of string str with all alphabetic characters in lower case
str.upper( ) Returns copy of string str with all alphabetic characters in upper case
str.title( ) Returns Copy Of String str But Then In Title Case, Like This
str.capitalize( ) Returns copy of string str with the first character capitalized

str.islower( ) Returns True if all characters in the string str are lower case
str.isupper( ) Returns True if all characters in the string str are upper case
str.istitle( ) Returns True If The String str Is In Title Case, Like This

str.isalpha( ) Returns True if all characters in the string str are alphabetic characters
str.isdigit( ) Returns True if all characters in the string str are digits
str.isalnum( ) Returns True if all characters in the string str are digits or alphabetic
str.isspace( ) Returns True if all characters in the string str are whitespace

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8.6 Genfromtxt: a tool in Numpy to read data from text files in one line

To use genfromtxt(), the Numpy module has to be imported (by the way, it is also included in
Scipy):

import numpy as np

Reading data from text file with genfromtxt, example:

table = np.genfromtxt(“test.dat”,delimiter=”,”,comments=”#”)
x = table[:,0] # x in first column
y1 = table[:,1] # y1 in 2nd column
y2 = table[:,2] # y2 in third column

Here we see that the different columns of the two-dimensional array table are copied in
independent one-dimensionnal arrays x, y1 and y2.

From reference manual, all parameters of genfromtxt:

numpy.genfromtxt(fname, dtype=<type 'float'>, comments='#', delimiter=None, skiprows=0,

skip_header=0, skip_footer=0, converters=None, missing='', missing_values=None,
filling_values=None, usecols=None, names=None, excludelist=None, deletechars=None,
replace_space='_', autostrip=False, case_sensitive=True, defaultfmt='f%i', unpack=None,
usemask=False, loose=True, invalid_raise=True)

Loads data from a text file, with missing values handled as specified. Above the default values
for the keywords are shown.

Each line past the first skiprows line is split at the delimiter character, and characters following
the comments character are discarded.

On the next page a selection of useful parameters to use with genfromtxt.

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A Selection of parameters to use with genfromtxt:

fname : file or str

File or filename to read. If the filename extension is gz or bz2, the file is first decompressed.

dtype : dtype, optional

Data type of the resulting array. If None, the dtypes will be determined by the contents of each column,
individually.

comments : str, optional

The character used to indicate the start of a comment. All the characters occurring on a line after a
comment are discarded

delimiter : str, int, or sequence, optional

The string used to separate values. By default, any consecutive whitespaces act as delimiter. An integer or
sequence of integers can also be provided as width(s) of each field.

skip_header : int, optional

The numbers of lines to skip at the beginning of the file.

skip_footer : int, optional

The numbers of lines to skip at the end of the file

missing_values : variable or None, optional

The set of strings corresponding to missing data.

filling_values : variable or None, optional

The set of values to be used as default when the data are missing.

usecols : sequence or None, optional

Which columns to read, with 0 being the first. For example, usecols = (1, 4, 5) will extract the 2nd, 5th
and 6th columns.

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9. Matplotlib: Plotting in Python

9.1 Example: plotting sine and cosine graph
Making graphs in Python is very easy with the matplotlib module. A large range of types of
plots can be made on screen and saved in several high-quality formats (like .eps) to use in reports
etc.

Try the example program below (or download plotsincos.py from blackboard). The header is the
standard way to import both matplotlib and matplotlib.pyplot. It uses import module as
newname , to create shorter names, which make it easier to use the modules.

Pyplot is a module inside a module and imported as plt in the code below. Then it uses a for-
loop to generate different values for x and with this, two y-values using sine and cosine are
calculated. Append each value to the list variables xtab, y1tab and y2tab and then plot these in
the same figure. This figure will only become visible when a call to plt.show() is made. This
starts a separate program with the plot and waits until the user has closed this window.

from math import sin,cos

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Goal: Draw a sine ans a cosine for x is [0,10] with 100 steps of 0.1

print("My first plot program")

print("Generating sine and cosine tables...")

# Generate lists with x and y values

xtab = []
y1tab = []
y2tab = []

step = 0.1

# Note how we use an integer range function to generate floats

for i in range(101):
x = float(i)*step+0.0
y1 = sin(x)
y2 = cos(x)

xtab.append(x)
y1tab.append(y1)
y2tab.append(y2)

# Plot both lines in graph

plt.plot(xtab,y1tab)
plt.plot(xtab,y2tab)
plt.show()

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If you run this program, you will see the following window appear as a result of plt.show():

Now try some of the buttons below the graph. From left to right these are:
- Home button: brings you back to default figure as shown in the beginning
- Back button: return to previous plot when you’ve panned or zoomed
- Next button: opposite of back
- Pan button: move the plotting window coordinates
- Zoom: Select a zoom window
- Adjust subplot: Adjust (sub)plot parameters with sliders
- Save: Select a file format and filename to save the plot as currently set up in the window

More options are available if we define a figure and a subplot. We can then use the methods
provided in these types:

# Plot both lines in graph

fig = plt.figure()
sc = fig.add_subplot(111)

sc.plot(xtab,y1tab)
sc.plot(xtab,y2tab)
sc.set_title('Now a title can be added to a figure')

# When done plotting, show interactive plot window

plt.show()

The variable fig can now also be used to add different subplots next to each other in one figure.
We define one subplot here which we call sc (sine-cosine) and then use methods provided with
the plot to both plot the sine and cosine as well as add a title. Similarly functions for legends and
labels are available.

A nice way to explore all options is to go to the Matplotlib gallery:

http://matplotlib.sourceforge.net/gallery.html

In this gallery, click on a figure and then select “source code” to see how the figure is made.
Ignore all the complex stuff where they generate the data and check for useful Matplotlib

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methods in a figure or a subplot to enhance the way your graphs look. Also the different types of
graphs like bar charts are illustrated.

Exercise 1: Make a plot of the two functions f(x) = sin x and g(x) = ex – 2 for x = [0, π]. Find the
coordinates of the point where sin x = ex – 2 using the zoom-function of the plot window.

Exercise 2: With a simple cosine function you can already make beautiful flowers in python. So
make a flower which has the function r = 4cos(2ϑ) in polar coordinates.

Exercise 3: Plot the following data to make it more readable:

Time (decade) 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
CO2 concentration (ppm): 250 265 272 280 300 320 389

9.2 More plots in one window and scaling: ‘subplot’ and ‘axis’
Instead of several lines in one plot, you can also include more than one figure in one plot
window with the subplot function. In the example below, we want to show the standard
goniometric functions sine, cosine and tangent in the top row and the hyperbolic functions in the
bottom row. This is done by including the command subplot. For example the first subplot-
command:

plt.subplot(231)

The number 231 is used in an unusual way, it should be read as 2-3-1 and stands for: make 2
rows of 3 graphs and start with subplot number 1. Until the next subplot command, all function
calls will now affect this subplot. The numbering of the plots is in this case 1 to 3 for the plots in
the first row and 4 to 6 for the three plots in the bottom row.

Note that since the tangent had vertical asymptotes, it will yield a useless high range on the y-
scale. To control the range of the axes from within our program for the third subplot, we use the
command:

plt.axis([-2.*pi,2.*pi,-5.,5.])

This will set the x-axis at a range of [-2π, 2π] and the y-axis at [-5,5]. This shows the shape of the
tangent in a more sensible way.

from math import pi

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Generate data

x = np.linspace(-2.*pi,2.*pi,1000)
y1 = np.sin(x)
y2 = np.cos(x)
y3 = np.tan(x)

z1 = np.sinh(x)
z2 = np.cosh(x)
z3 = np.tanh(x)

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# Make 2 rows of 3 graphs, start with plot 1

plt.subplot(231)
plt.plot(x,y1)
plt.title('sin')

plt.subplot(232)
plt.plot(x,y2)
plt.title('cos')

plt.subplot(233)
plt.plot(x,y3)
plt.axis([-2.*pi,2.*pi,-5.,5.]) # setting scale:xmin,xmax,ymin,ymax
plt.title('tan')

# Second row: plot 4-6

plt.subplot(234)
plt.plot(x,z1)
plt.title('sinh')

plt.subplot(235)
plt.plot(x,z2)
plt.title('cosh')

plt.subplot(236)
plt.plot(x,z3)
plt.title('tanh')

# Show plot window

plt.show()

The resulting plot is shown on the next page.

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You can also see that in the plot the asymptotes are just nearly vertical jumps in the data. You
could draw the tangent graph in such a way that it will not connect these points. You can even
add drawing the asymptotes with red dashed lines when you know where they are. How would
you do this? Check out the examples and the Matplotlib reference documentation for this.
(Another way might be to draw an independent line in graph for each period!)

Exercise 1: Plot two functions y1 = cos(3x) + sin(2x) and y2 = e^(2x) - e^(-3x+1) on the interval
x = [0,10] both on a different graph and place them under each other.

Exercise 2: Plot r = ϑ and r = ϑ2 on the interval ϑ = [0,8π] in three graphs. Make sure that you
label all your axis and give titles to the plots.

Exercise 3: Sometimes it is convenient to plot straight lines in your plot. It works almost the
same as changing your axis system. You use the function plot( ):
plot([x1, x2], [y1, y2], color='k', linestyle='-', linewidth=2)
Make a plot with a vertical, horizontal and diagonal line.

9.3 Interactive plots

Sometimes you do not want to wait till your program is ready, but you would like to see the data
already when it is being generated. For this you can use the interactive plot feature. By default
this is switched off, but you can switch it on and off using the matplotlib.pyplot.ion() and
matplotlib.pyplot.ioff() commands.

When done, close the plot with matplotlib.pyplot.close() to avoid stalling your
computer (close is especially important on Windows PCs)

See for example the program below:

from math import *

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

plt.ion() # Switch on interactive mode

for i in range(100):
x = float(i)/10.
plt.plot(x,sin(x),"ro") # plot each point as a red dot
plt.draw() # Show result

plt.close()

Which will show data as it is being generated and adjust axes on the fly when necessary:

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Exercise 1: Plot the two functions y = (4 - x2)1/2 and y2 = -(4 - x2)1/2 on the interval x = [-2,2] as
an interactive plot and see which shape appears.

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9.4 3D and contour plots

When you need to plot a function of two variables, for example z = f(x,y) , another type of graph
may be needed. In that case there are two common ways to do this. Using colours indicating the
z values per point x,y or using a 3D plot where the height indicates the value z. Both methods are
explained in the following example codes.

Both examples plot the function z=f(x,y) . For this they use a 2-dimensional array with a grid,
generated with a function called “meshgrid”, to generate the values at an equal distance. You
could convert these examples of source code to a function which plots your own data or your
own function. You should then only change the data X,Y and Z. To do this in a neat way, you
could convert these examples to a function where the X,Y and Z are input arguments to that
function.

The resulting figure is shown next to the source. In the 3D plot you can move around the plot to
change the viewing angle before saving it to an image file. Both plots also use a colour map cm.

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And for the colour- and contour plot we can use the following example code:

(Examples derived from examples at http://glowingpython.blogspot.com/ made by @Justglowing )

Exercise 1: The deflection of a wing can roughly be approximated by z = (1/1000)x2, make a 3D

plot of the deflection of the wing. The wing is rectangular with a span of 40 m and a chord of 8 m.
Take the span as your x-direction, the deflection in the z-direction and the chord in the y-
direction.

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9.5 Plotting on a map

Matplotlib has a downloadable toolkit called basemap, which allows you to include a map as
background of your plot. But much easier is using a Google maps wrapper called pygmaps.
Pygmaps generates an HTML file with your data which you can show with your browser. Get
the pygmaps.py file from: (https://code.google.com/archive/p/pygmaps/downloads ). An
examples and their output is shown below. It uses a file with flight data and plots this on a map.

#FF0000 means a RGB color code, it means 255,0,0 which indicates full signal on the red color,
and none on the green and blue. So it is light, pure red. In pygame it would be (255,0,0), in some
libraries colour codes are floats, then it would be (1.0,0.0,0.0)

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9.6 Overview of essential matplotlib.pyplot functions

It is assumed you have imported matplotlib.pyplot as plt, so the pyplot commands are preceded
by a “plt.”

plt.plot(x,y) Plot a line graph using points x[i],y[i]

plt.plot(x,y,”r-“) Example of line formatting: red line, try also “b+”, “go”
plt.plot(x,y1,label=”y1”)gives name a label
plt.legend() shows a legend

plt.bar(x,y) Bar plot, x = hor. place (e.g. arange(5), y , where y is alist/array with 5
values)

plt.show( ) Show graph in interactive window (put this at the end of your plot
commands or you will not see anything)

plt.axis([xmin, xmax, ymin, ymax]) Set range of axes, uses a list (or tuple) with the values

plt.grid(True) Switch on grid (lines based on scale)

plt.xlabel(str) Use text in str as label on x-axis

plt.ylabel(str) Use text in str as label on y-axis
plt.title(str) Use text in str as title on diagram
plt.xlabel(‘time (sec)’,fontsize=14, color=’red’) Example text formatting

plt.legend( loc=locstr) Add legend, uses a list of strings: str1 is text for 1st line etc. Location of
box with legend can be specified with this string:

“upper right” “center left”

“upper left” “center right”
“lower left” “lower center”
“lower right” “upper center”
“right” “center”

plt.subplot(231) Specify number of rows (2), number of columns(3) and finally set the
figure number for next pyplot commands (1st figure in this example)

plt.axvline(x=1) Draw a vertical line x=1. You can also limit the length with the ymin and
ymax keywords: plt.axvline(x=1,ymin=0.,ymax=2.,color=’r’)

plt.axhline(y=2) Draw a horizontal line y=2. You can also limit the length with the xmin
and xmax keywords: plt.axhline(y=2,xmin=-1.,ymax=1.,color=’r’)

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10. Numerical integration

10.1 Falling ball example
The example assignment below describes a technique called numerical integration: for every
time step, the change of a variable is first calculated and then used to change the value of that
variable. It is called numerical integration because you move from the second derivative of place
to time (the acceleration) to the first derivative of place to time (the speed) and then the
derivative to the place itself (in this case the altitude). So those two steps integrate with respect
to time.

In complex examples many forces can act on a mass, but you can often calculate these for a
given situation. And with this technique, if the forces can be calculated for a situation, we can
calculate the acceleration and then integrate this to get the time history of speed and place. In this
way we can simulate the physics and solve problems, which we cannot solve analytically.

Try for instance to implement the simulation described below.

1. Simulate a falling mass using the following equations:

a) Initialize a simulation with the following variables:

t = 0. [s] time starts at zero

dt= 0.1 [s] time step
vy = 0. [m/s] starting speed is zero
y = 10. [m] start altitude
g = 9.81 [m/s2] gravity acceleration
m = 2.0 [kg] mass

While y remains larger than zero (until the mass hits the ground), repeat the next
iterations:

t = t + dt
F=m· g
a = - F/m
vy = vy + a·dt
y = y + vy·dt

During each step, append the value t to a table for the time and append the value of y to a
table with the value of y. After all iterations, when the mass has reached the ground, plot
the value of the height y against the time t, using these tables.

b) Add the drag to the example. Use D = CD ½ρV2S with:

CD = 0.47 , ρ=1.225 kg/m3, S = πR2 and R = 0.15 m

c) Compare the two different datasets in one plot to see the effect of the drag. Try
different values for starting altitude and CD.

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10.2 Two-dimensions and the atan2(y,x) function

Our example of the falling ball has only one dimension, but this can easily be expanded. Imagine
a horizontal speed is added:

x = x + vx*dt

But when drag is then added things get more complicated in two dimensions.

The drag can be calculated in the direction opposite of the speed, but then it needs to be
composed in two directions. One way to do this is by calculating the length of the force and then
decompose it into two directions.

Often it is handy to switch between polar coordinates for the positions and to orthogonal
coordinates to get the forces. We can this use for calculating acceleration, speed and
displacement in both x- and y-direction. For this there is a very convenient, special arctan-
function called atan2(y,x). Look at the example below:

V = sqrt(vx*vx+vy*vy)
D = cd*0.5*rho*V*V*S
angle = atan2(-vy,-vx)

Dx = D*cos(angle)
Dy = D*sin(angle)

Here we see that first the length of the speed vector is calculated. This is then used to calculate
the length of the drag force. Then the angle is calculated using a special arctan-function atan2. If
the normal atan function would have been used, there will be no different outcome for –vy/-vx
and vy/vx even thought the two vectors point in opposite direction. This is caused by the fact
that the tangent, being the quotient of sine and cosine, has a period of only π and not 2π.

To be able to move from Cartesian coordinates (x,y) to polar coordinates (r,θ) without an extra
if-statement for checking the sign of x and y, atan2 can be used as in the example. It will result
the correct angle for the (y,x) (vy,vx) or (dy,dx). Since the tangent is sine/cos, hence y/x the y-
coordinate is given first. So with this function θ=atan2(y,x) it works for all quadrants!

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10.3 Program structure of numerical integration and simulation

Note how each simulation has the same structure:

Use this structure as a template for all your simulations: add the descriptions in the block as
comment lines and then fill these in with real code between the comment lines.

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Chapter 10 exercises

Exercise 1:
a) Initialize a simulation with the following variables:

t = 0. [s] time starts at zero

dt= 0.1 [s] time step
vy = 0. [m/s] starting speed is zero
y = 10. [m] start altitude
g = 9.81 [m/s2] gravity acceleration
m = 2.0 [kg] mass

While y remains larger than zero (until the mass hits the ground), repeat the next iterations:
t = t + dt
F=m·g
a = - F/m
vy = vy + a·dt
y = y + vy·dt

During each step, append the value t to a table for the time and append the value of y to a table
with the value of y. After all iterations, when the mass has reached the ground, plot the value of
the height y against the time t, using these tables.
b) Add the drag to the example. Use D = CD ½ρV2S with:
CD = 0.47 , ρ=1.225 kg/m3, S = πR2 and R = 0.15 m
c) Compare the two different datasets in one plot to see the effect of the drag. Try different
values for starting altitude and CD.

Exercise 2:
a) Make a small simulation of a cannon ball which has a mass of 10 kg, that is fired with a
starting speed of 100 m/s, but it is shot at an angle of 30⁰. Besides that, the canon is placed
one meter above the ground and you can assume that this is also the starting height of the
cannon ball. Show a plot of the vertical distance against the horizontal distance. So you can
see the trajectory of the cannon ball.
b) Now extent this program, because this model has too many simplifications. For example a
cannon ball is not frictionless, so we should include the drag. For now we assume it is
constant and N is set to for example 80. Try to find the accelerations with force equilibrium
and plot the trajectory of the ball.
c) The last step to finalize our program is that the drag is not constant. It is actually a function
of speed, in this program use the relation that Fd = 0.05V2. From Intro I you know that the
gravitational constant is changing with altitude, also include this effect in your program.
Hint: g = g0(REarth/(REarth + h)), where REarth = 6371 km.

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11. Numpy and Scipy :

Scientific Computing with Arrays and Matrices

11.1 Numpy, Scipy

The modules Numpy and Scipy have provided users of Python with an enormous range of
engineering and scientific computing tools. Many of this has been inspired by the functionality
of MATLAB and its provided toolboxes. The syntax and names of functions are often identical.

Python with Numpy and Scipy is more capable than Matlab in many respects. Python is better in
handling strings, reading files, working with very large projects and with large datasets. Python
can also be used in an object oriented programming way. Both Spyder and the iPy Notebook
provide a very user-friendly environment for scientists. A more general difference are the extra
possibilities, which are provided by a full-featured general purpose programming language like
Python. And, often more importantly, MATLAB is very expensive and many applications
require extra toolboxes, which are in turn also very expensive. This also hinders sharing tools as
well as quickly using source code from the internet community: often you can only use the
downloaded bits after purchasing the required toolboxes.

With Numpy and Scipy, Python has surpassed MATLAB in terms of functionality. The modules
are available for free (as are all Python modules). They are developed, maintained, expanded and
used by a large academic community, mainly in the US and Europe.

Numpy forms the foundation for Scipy, Matplotlib and many other modules: it provides the
array- and matrix-types as well as linear algebra functions as extension to Python. Scipy adds a
whole range of sometimes very dedicated scientific computing and engineering functions.
Thanks to Numpy and Scipy, Python has become the default language of choice for scientific
computing, according to IEEE and many others. Let’s explore the capabilities of these modules,
even though we can only scratch the surface in this course.

To use these modules, they need to be imported. It has become standard practice to rename them
when importing them. Numpy becomes “np” and Scipy becomes “sp”. This means we will often
see the following header in our scientific applications. In this course, we assume you have
imported the modules as follows:

import numpy as np
import scipy as sp
import matplotlib as mplt
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

In the Numpy and Scipy documentation it is often even assumed that you have imported
everything using from numpy import * . So do not forget to type np. before the Numpy
functions and “sp.” before the Scipy functions, even though you don’t see this in the Numpy
and Scipy documentation. Most Numpy functions can also be used as if they were a part of Scipy,
but then with the “sp.” prefix.

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This would also be a good time to add a link to the Help chm-files containing the Numpy and
Scipy reference to your IDLE Help menu, if you have not already done so. Go to
Options>Configure IDLE, click on the “General”-sheet on the top right. Then click “Add” in the
lower part of the window to add the menu item and the link to these files.

11.2 Arrays
So far we have seen lists and even lists of lists. When we used lists as tables we often kept
separate columns in separate one-dimensional lists, so we could select them individually (like
xtab, ytab in the previous chapter). And if we used a two dimensional table, we could add small
lists of two elements to the lists like this:

for i in range(1000):
x = x + vx*dt
y = y + vy*dt
postab.append([x,y])

print("Last x-position: ",postab[-1][0])

print("Last y-position: ",postab[-1][1])

But how can we now select only the first column? Unfortunately, postab[:][0] does not give this
result. This indicates, as well as many other examples, that two dimensional lists are, as a
variable type, despite their versatility, not always the most suitable type for scientific computing
and working with large tables in a fast and user-friendly way.

The module Numpy has an advanced list-type which solves this: the array .This type forms the
foundations for Numpy and Scipy. With this type you can do computations with entire tables, as
easy as if they are one scalar variable.

Look at the example below:

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The indexing also has a different syntax although both use the square brackets:

Multi-dimensional lists: lst[i][j] a[i][j][k]

Multi-dimensional Numpy arrays: arr[i,j] b[i,j,k]

You can also convert them easily:

Array to list: lst = list(arr)
List to array: arr = np.array(lst)

Summary of numpy functions to create a numpy array:

np.arange(start,stop,step) Define an array with floats evenly spaced with step (stop not
included), difference with range function: it works with floats and
the result is a numpy array, Example:
arrange(0.,0.6,0.1) will result in [0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5]

np.linspace(start,end,nelem) Define an array ranging from start to, and including, end with
nelem elements, results in a Numpy array, example:
np.linspace(1,3,5) will result in [1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0]

np.array(lst) Convert list lst (or matrix) to array type

np.append(array,values) Returns a copy (!) of the array with the values appended
np.zeros(shape) Create an array of zeros with given shape: e.g. np.zeros( (2,3) )
np.ones(shape) Create an array of ones with given shape: e.g. np.zeros( (2,3) )

Next to being able to use two indices separated by a comma instead of many pairs of square
brackets, there is another useful feature of an array: it is easy to select columns or other parts of
the array:

xtab = datatab[:,0] # select first column

ytab = datatab[:,1] # select second column
part = datatab[2:4,0:2] # select first 2 columns of 3rd & 4th row

Numpy arrays can be multiplied by each other or a scalar and used in functions from Numpy (np)
like np.sin( ), np.exp(), np.sqrt( ) etc. All functions and operators, work on an element-by-
element basis with arrays.

A drawback of arrays is the slower append function. Note the difference in append of lists:
import numpy as np

# List append
xtab.append(x)

# Numpy array append

xtab = np.append(xtab,x)

The effect is more than a different syntax. The numpy.append function makes a copy of the array
with the value appended to it. In this case because xtab is also before the assignment it

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overwrites the original, so the end effect is the same. The real penalty however is the decrease in
execution speed. With large quantities of data, making a copy takes extra time which can slow
down your code immensely. There are two better alternatives, which you sometimes can use:

1. When you know the size, it is better to generate an array of the right size with
numpy.zeros(shape) e.g. numpy.zeros(10) or numpy.zeros((4,4)) or a scalar times
np.ones(shape) if you need a specific default value.
2. You can use the list-type to append first and then, when it is complete, convert the list to
an array.

Exercise 1: As you have seen in the reader, arrays can make your life a lot easier. Therefore in
this first exercise we want you to plot a somewhat harder function, but by making use of arrays,
you are much quicker. So make a plot of a hexagon in python, which fits inside a circle with
radius 2.

Exercise 2: Make a function, when you give a certain n x n array (2D) you get the main diagonal,
so e.g. if you have A = we want our function to print 2, -1. Make sure this function can
work for all n x n matrices.

Exercise 3: Make a small program that gives the first column of a 2-dimensional list and also
make a program that does this for an array. Do you see the difference and how much easier
arrays are for this use.

11.3 Logic and Arrays (vectorizing instead of if-then)

Let’s define an array a and b with the following numbers:

a = np.array([0,6,3,-1,-10,22])
b = np.array([10,20,30,40,50,60])

The the following expressions result in the value next to it:

Expression Result Explanation

a>0 [False True True False False True] Booleans for condition per
element
(a>0)*(a<10) [False True True False False False] Multiplication with booleans works
as AND
(a<0)+(a>=10) [False False False True True True] Summing booleans works as OR
a[a>0] [ 6 3 22] Selects elements of a where a>0 is
True
b[a>0] [20 30 60] Selects elements of b where a>0 is
True
np.where(a>0)[0] [1 2 5] Shows indices of where coditon
was True. (The [0] refers to the
first, and in this case only,

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dimension of indices. In two-

dimensional tables ther would also
be a list of indices which can be
retrieved by [1] )

There are different ways to use logic in a program which you have vectorized with Numpy.
Imagine we want a behaviour comparable with the unvectorized code below:

import numpy as np

h = np.arange(0,20.,1.)
tropo = 288.15 - 6.5*h
strato = 216.65+0.*h

temp = []

for i in range(len(h)):
if h[i]<11:
temp.append(tropo[i])
else:
temp.append(strato[i])

There are different ways to do this vectorized:

Using the fact that a True-value behaves as one and a False value as zero:

temp = (h<11)*tropo+(h>=11)*strato

swtropo = h<11
temp = swtropo*tropo+(1-swtropo)*strato

Using the conditional indexing to only select the values for which the condition is True and
gluing these arrays together with append:
temp = np.append(tropo[h<11],strato[h>11])

Using the where function to switch between two arrays:

temp = np.where(h<11,tropo,strato) # where(condition,Truevalue,Falsevalue)
Do not confuse this use with the other function of the where-function: when used with only a
condition it returns arrays with indices of where it was found to be true.

Exercise 1: Expand the program so you can calculate the temperature till 32000 m, the
temperature gradient between 20 km and 32 km is 1.0 K/km. Make a plot of the temperature
against the height.
Exercise 2: Plot the discontinuous function f(x) =
Exercise 3: Extract from the array ([3,4,6,10,24,89,45,43,46,99,100]) with Boolean masking all
the numbers:
- which are not divisible by 3

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- which are divisible by 5

- which are divisible by 3 and 5
- which are divisible by 3 and set them to 42

11.4 Speeding it up: vectorizing your software with numpy

Check out the two program below. This program uses two different ways to decompose a list of
speeds and headings into northern speeds and eastern speeds (assuming no sideslip and no wind).

The example below also times the execution time of both ways.
from math import *
import numpy as np
from random import random as rnd
from time import clock

# Generate lists with random speeds & headings

n = 10000
Vtab = []
hdgtab = []

for i in range(n):
Vtab.append(100.+250.*rnd())
hdgtab.append(360.*rnd())

# Calculating V North and V East the "list way"

vetab = []
vntab = []
t0 = clock()

for i in range(n):
vntab.append(Vtab[i]*cos(radians(hdgtab[i])))
vetab.append(Vtab[i]*sin(radians(hdgtab[i])))

dtlst = clock()-t0
print "Lists took",dtlst,"seconds"

# Convert to arrays
Vtab = np.array(Vtab)
hdgtab = np.array(hdgtab)

# Calculating V North and V East the "Numpy array way"

t0 = clock()
vntab = Vtab*np.cos(np.radians(hdgtab))
vetab = Vtab*np.sin(np.radians(hdgtab))
dtarr = clock()-t0

print("Arrays took",dtarr,"seconds")

print("So arrays are here",dtlst/dtarr," time faster.")

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The result show that with 10000 elements the numpy method is about 11 times faster than the list
method! And also the numpy code looks cleaner. If we only do it the numpy way, the program
can even cleaned up to look like this (without the timing):

# import directly, so we do not have to use the prefic np.

from numpy.random import rand
from numpy import sin, cos, radians

n = 10000
Vtab = 100.+250.*rand(n)
hdgtab = 360.*rand(n)

vntab = Vtab*cos(radians(hdgtab))
vetab = Vtab*sin(radians(hdgtab))

The difference between the two approaches is that when you apply a function or an operator on
the complete array, or the complete vector, the looping over the elements is handled by low-level
code inside numpy. The reason this is faster is twofold:

- the loop takes place in the fast, compiled low-level code of numpy
- list elements can have different types, while all array elements always have the same type, this
saves the computer from checking the type for each element and this saves execution time

Changing the code from treating each element to a complete array (or vector) at once, is called
vectorizing your code. In general, it is a good rule of thumb that when you can vectorize your
code, you should. Sometimes lists are easier or the lists are not that large that it is needed. But for
large quantities of data with the same type, vectorizing is nearly always a good idea.

Using two-dimensional arrays and the transpose function, vectorizing can be really powerful for
geometrical calculations, see the example below:

import numpy as np

# Some random coordinates

n = 4
x = np.array([12, 2,35,11])
y = np.array([ 1,54,23, 7])

# Make two dimensional

x = x.reshape((n,1))
y = y.reshape((n,1))

# Calculate distance matrix

dx = x-x.T
dy = y-y.T
print("dx = ")
print(dx)

dist = np.sqrt(dx*dx+dy*dy)
del dx,dy # Free up memory

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print("Dist = ")
print(dist)

The output of this program is:

dx =
[[ 0 10 -23 1]
[-10 0 -33 -9]
[ 23 33 0 24]
[ -1 9 -24 0]]
Dist =
[[ 0. 53.93514624 31.82766093 6.08276253]
[ 53.93514624 0. 45.27692569 47.85394446]
[ 31.82766093 45.27692569 0. 28.8444102 ]
[ 6.08276253 47.85394446 28.8444102 0. ]]

After the reshape x becomes: four rows one column:

>>> x
array([[12],
[ 2],
[35],
[11]])

x.T means x will be transposed (so rows become columns and the other way around. So in this case x.T is:

>>> x.T
array([[12, 2, 35, 11]])

Note that this is still a two dimensional array, but with one row ( double square brackets).

As you can see in the ouput x-x.T results in matrix in which dx[0,1] gives x[0]-x[1].

The downside of using vectors this way with a lot of data is that all intermediate answers also become
vectors. With large quaitites of data, you can easily consume a lot of memory this way. In that sense,
vectorizing sometimes means exchanging speed for memory usage. A good way to avoid running out of
memory is therefore delete arrays used for intermediate results. But together with some linear algebra,
you can speed things up enormously.

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11.5 Matrices and Linear algebra functions

Note: the matrix type will be removed in the future. Matrix multiplication will be dealt with a a
seprate operator for arrays: @

So A@B means the matrices stored in arrays A and B will be multiplied like matrices.

For completeness the description of the matrix type is still in here. As long as it is available, you
can still use it. The linear algebra functions remain unchanged.

Another very useful type is the matrix. The matrix is a type used within linear algebra. Why don't
we use the array type for this? One important reason is that some rules are different when
working with entire tables or with matrices.

For instance: A*B will result in entirely different things depending on what type you use. If A
and B are arrays, we will get an array where each element is the product of the same elements of
A and B. This is called element-by-element multiplication and is what you would expect if you
are talking about a table with densities and temperatures for example.

With matrices in linear algebra, we don't want that kind of multiplication, we want a matrix
multiplication. This also poses different restrictions on the dimensions. The resulting matrix is a
matrix-product of the two given matrices.

There is a special function to do element-by-element multiplication with matrices and there also
is a special function to do matrix-multiplication with arrays, but the default * operator uses the
most applicable for arrays and matrices as explained above.

So in short: use arrays for tables, like time histories or other scientific computing problems with
tables. And use the matrix-type for matrices in linear algebra problems or simulation models
with matrices. An example of how to define and use matrices is given below:

import numpy as np

A = np.matrix("2 -2 0;1 5 9; 4 2 -5")

print(A)
print(A[1,2]) # row,column as in lin algebra but index starts
# with 0!

B = A.I
print(B)

C=A*B
print(C)

Running this example will first print the matrix A (as a matrix), then a 9, (1=second row, 2=third
column). Then it prints the inverse of A, called B here. And finally it should print the identity-
matrix to check the inverse calculation.

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Note that we use square brackets for indices and 0 as starting index as in Python. But also note
how we use a comma instead of two separate pairs of square brackets. Slicing with matrices (and
arrays) is much more user friendly and works as you would expect. So A[:,2] will give the last
column, try for instance:

print(A[:,2])

There are many ways to define a matrix. The np.matrix() or mat function accepts lists,
arrays and strings as input as in the example above. Using a string with a space between the
numbers and a semi-colon between the rows is often the easiest way to define a matrix as in:
A = np.mat("2 -2 0;1 5 9; 4 2 -5")

With a list this would look as:

A = np.mat([[2, -2, 0],[1, 5, 9],[4, 2, -5]])

It is possible to convert between arrays and matrices:

b = np.mat(a)
c = np.array(b)

For some more examples on how to use a matrix, see the following source code. Also note how
Scipy also supports all types of Numpy. (So here we use sp instead of np!)

from scipy import linalg,mat

eps = 1e-8

# Define a matrix and a vector

A = mat('[1 3 5;2 5 1;2 3 5]')
b = mat('[10;5;3]')

# Calculate determinant to check whether is it solvable

d = linalg.det(A)
if abs(d)<eps:
print("No solution.")
else:
print("Determinant = ",d)
print()

print("Solve Ax = b with A=")

print(A)
print()
print("en b =")
print(b)
print()

# Solve Ax = b by inverting: B = inv A and a = inv(A)b

B = linalg.inv(A)

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x = B*b

print("Solution 1: x =")
print(x)

# Solve it in the other way, with the solve function

print("Solution 2: x=")
print(linalg.solve(A,b))

This illustrates some of the functions Numpy provides for matrices: inverse, determinant and
solve.

Summarizing the basic matrix functions:

np.matrix( ), np.mat( ) Creates a matrix , argument can be a string like ‘(1 2;3 4)’ or a list,
or an array (operators now work with entire matrices)
matrix.I Invert matrix
np.linalg.det(matrix) Calculates the determinant of a matrix

It is possible to use two-dimensional arrays as vectors and matrices. To use the dot product, it is
then required to use the numpy.dot() function.

import numpy as np

A = np.array([[2,-2,0],[1,5,9],[4,2,-5]])
print(A)
print(A[1,2]) # row,column as in lin algebra but index starts
# with 0!

B = np.linalg.inv(A)
print(B)

C = A.dot(B) # alternative: np.dot(A,B)

print(C)

Or to solve an equation Ax = b:

import numpy as np

A = np.array([[1,0,3],[-2,-1,0],[1,1,2]])
b = np.array([[1],[-1],[2]])

AI = np.linalg.inv(A)
x = np.dot(AI,b)

print(x)

# or directly using solve:

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x = np.linalg.solve(A,b)
print(x)

Note: Unfortunately, lately the Numpy community has been very critical about this matrix type,
which is regarded as an unwanted dialect of the array type. Using two-dimensional arrays for
matrices means using np.dot(A,B) or A.dot(B) for multiplication and np.linalg.inv(A) for
inverse, you can achieve the same as with the matrix type (but less elegant). This may mean the
matrix type may be phased out of Numpy.

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Exercises section 11.4

Exercise 1: Try to solve this linear system A = b, where A = and b = with

python.

Exercise 2: A motorboat makes a trip of 29.5 km upstream trip on a river against the current in
3 hours and 10 minutes. Returning the same trip with the current takes 2 hours and 6 minutes.
Find the speed of the motorboat and the current speed. Try to solve this with a system of
equation and python.

Exercise 3: Make a linear trend line from the ten points which have coordinates shown below.
Use the least squares method to calculate this coefficients for this trend line.
xi = 0.1i where i = 1,2,3,...,10
yi = c1e^(-xi) + c2xi with c1 = 5 and c2 = 2

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11.6 Scipy: a toolbox for scientists and engineers

Numpy forms the foundation of Scipy. It is the basis of the array types and the basic functions
such as linear algebra Building on this foundation, there are already a large number of functions
available in the modules in numpy. See the list below for an overview of what is inside numpy:

- Array creation routines - Floating point error handling

- Array manipulation routines - Masked array operations
- Indexing routines - Numpy-specific help functions
- Data type routines - Miscellaneous routines
- Input and output - Test Support (numpy.testing)
- Fast Fourier Transform (numpy.fft) - Asserts
- Linear algebra (numpy.linalg) - Mathematical functions with
- Random sampling (numpy.random) automatic domain (numpy.emath)
- Sorting and searching - Matrix library (numpy.matlib)
- Logic functions - Optionally Scipy-accelerated
- Binary operations routines (numpy.dual)
- Statistics - Numarray compatibility
- Mathematical functions (numpy.numarray)
- Functional programming - Old Numeric compatibility
- Polynomials (numpy.oldnumeric)
- Financial functions - C-Types Foreign Function Interface
- Set routines (numpy.ctypeslib)
- Window functions - String operations

But while Numpy has some useful functions for many applications and even some advanced
functions like Fourier transforms (frequency analysis of signals), Scipy contains many more
advanced functions, like curve fitting, optimization methods, frequency analysis, statistics:

- Clustering package (scipy.cluster) - Optimization and root finding

- Constants (scipy.constants) (scipy.optimize)
- Fourier transforms (scipy.fftpack) - Signal processing (scipy.signal)
- Integration and ODEs - Sparse matrices (scipy.sparse)
(scipy.integrate) - Sparse linear algebra
- Interpolation (scipy.interpolate) (scipy.sparse.linalg)
- Input and output (scipy.io) - Spatial algorithms and data
- Linear algebra (scipy.linalg) structures (scipy.spatial)
- Maximum entropy models - Distance computations
(scipy.maxentropy) (scipy.spatial.distance)
- Miscellaneous routines (scipy.misc) - Special functions (scipy.special)
- Multi-dimensional image - Statistical functions (scipy.stats)
processing (scipy.ndimage) - C/C++ integration (scipy.weave)
- Orthogonal distance regression
(scipy.odr)

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On the internet, many more modules, which use Scipy and Numpy can be found. For nearly all
fields of science and engineering, modules with many tools are available for free.

In comparison, for a comparable package like MATLAB, often expensive toolboxes are required
to use something, which you downloaded from the internet. These toolboxes easily cost
thousands of euros, making it a costly decision to try a toolbox. This is, next to the higher
versatility and better syntax, one of the reasons why Python+Scipy nowadays is being used
instead of MATLAB. IEEE has already called Python+Numpy+Scipy the standard for data
analysis. MATLAB will probably become obsolete in the future as it is both more limited and
more expensive.

The Python community has the highest amount of PhDs resulting in high quality toolboxes being
expanded continuously and growing very fast. For aeronautics, we could still build a better
toolbox than the sparse examples which are available.

11.7 Scipy example: Polynomial fit on noisy data

When you import Scipy you also get all Numpy functions in Scipy. This means that when you
use Scipy the difference between Scipy and Numpy disappears. You can then use the prefix sp
instead of np. The following example shows the power of some of the modules in Numpy/Scipy.

Suppose we receive the following data file containing a time history:

C
C Output theta in radians to block response of elevator
C Elevator = 0.2 radians between 1 and 2 seconds
C Boeing 737
C timestamp in seconds
C
0.0 = -0.00122299949023
0.1 = -0.0148544598502
0.2 = -0.00128081998763
0.3 = -0.00912089119957
………
………
………
………
………
19.7 = 0.0375150505001
19.8 = 0.0133852241026
19.9 = 0.0195944297302

When we plot this data we get this figure, showing a very noisy signal:

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In this plot we can see the original signal, to get this line we can try a polynomial fit, to get a
signal more close to the original signal. Note how in this program we use the function
genfromtxt() from Numpy/Scipy to read the data into a two-dimensional array with one
program line! Then we select the two columns.

To fit the data we use the function polyfit, which return the polynomial coefficients, in this case
set to a 10th order polynomial. The result is then written to a file.
import scipy as sp
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Read file into tables:

table = sp.genfromtxt("flightlog.dat",delimiter="=",comments="C")
xtab=table[:,0]
ytab=table[:,1]

# Polyfitting 10th order

coefficients = sp.polyfit(xtab, ytab, 10)

polynomial = sp.poly1d(coefficients)
ysmooth = sp.polyval(polynomial,xtab)

# Plot

plt.plot(xtab,ysmooth)
plt.plot(xtab,ytab,"r+")
plt.show()

# Write to file

g = open("filtered.log","w")
g.write("C\n")
g.write("C Data smoothed by fitting a 10th order polynomial\n")
g.write("C\n")

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for i in range(len(xtab)):
line = str(xtab[i])+" = "+str(ysmooth[i])+"\n"
g.write(line)
print(line)
g.close()

The resulting plot shows both the power and limitation of polynomial fitting:

The curve is indeed a smooth polynomial. The disadvantage is that there are limitations to how a
polynomial can fit the data points. Even when a higher order is chosen (10th order seems to be
working for a smooth curve with 8 local minima/maxima) it does not give a useful result outside
the interval. So while it is very useful for interpolation, it should never be used for extrapolation.

More advanced methods take into account a certain assumed relation of which the parameters
will then be estimated. The least squares method, which minimizes the square of the error, can be
used for this and is made available by Scipy.

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11.7 Jupyter: the iPy Notebook

You can also install jupyter with pip install. With Jupyter you can edit so-called iPython
Notebooks. These are a blend between Python and LateX with an excel likt functionality. The
result are cells with Python code and the ouptu and documentation is in between the cells. Each
cell can run individually, but they all access the same namespace, so one Notebook is like one
module. It is accessed in a server-like way, so with the browser.

The iPy Notebook is very convenient user interface for Scientific Computing tasks. It allows you
to edit snippets of Python/Numpy code (“Cells”) which you run but also can still edit later. You
can access all variables between cells, as if you are in one program, but you can also see the
output (including plots) in between the code. The result is a blend of a graphical calculator,
Python and a spreadsheet program like Excel. You can run an individual cell or all cells and see
how the output changes. You can also add cells with raw text to create a living document. Each
notebook page can be saved (“downloaded” as it is called in this client-serve set-up) as either
a .py Python file or a .pyndb Python notebook file. The Notebook page is both a scratchpad as
well as a publication.

An example of how this looks is shown below. As you can see all functions from math, numpy
scipy and matplotlib.pyplot have already been imported:

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12. Tuples, classes, dictionaries and sets

12.1 New types
Before we continue with Pygame there are two concepts of Python you need to know: Tuples
and classes. For classes you only need to know how to use them for now. But a simple example
how they are defined helps understanding the principle. In chapter 1 we have seen the list type,
which we use regularly in simulations to make tables. For instance like this:

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Create tables
ttab = []
ytab = []

# Initialize
y = 100.0
vy =0.0
t = 0.0
dt = 0.01

# Run simulation
while y>0.:
t = t + dt
vy = vy –g*dt
y = y + vy*dt

ytab.append(y)
ttab.append(t)

# Plot y
plt.plot(ttab,ytab)
plt.show()

Here we note two things: an empty list is created and later elements are added. These elements
could be changed later. We could set ytab[i] to a certain value. But what is also notable is the
fact that we call the append function (or method) with the variable:

variablename.append(value)

We have seen a similar syntax with strings: varname.sort() or varname.upper(). The reason
for this is that lists and strings are actually so-called classes: a sort of specific variable type with
data and functions as a part of its definition.

This syntax is often seen when using modules. Since one of the powers of Python is the number
of modules included and freely available on the internet, this deserves some extra attention in the
final paragraph on classes.

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12.2 Tuples
Lists have been discussed in chapter 2 and in the previous chapter on Numpy we have already
seen a new type of lists called arrays, as used by Numpy. In fact, the list-type is the most simple
and versatile form of an array- or list-type of variable. It can contain different types and each
element can be treated as an independent variable. But there are many more list-like types, one is
the so-called tuple.

A tuple is a list but it is immutable (just like strings). This means it cannot be changed once it is
created. The variable can be overwritten by a new tuple, but individual element cannot be
assigned a different value, nor can elements be added or removed. This is the only difference
between lists and arrays. To distinguish between lists and tuples we use the round (normal)
brackets to define a tuple. It is also possible to omit the brackets, this also indicates you want to
create a tuple. So two valid ways to create a tuple are:

origin = (0,0)
pos = 3,4

If you call a function with a tuple, you always need the round brackets, see the line with d2
below:
d1 = dist(origin,pos)
d2 = dist((3,4),(-3,6))

If you would omit the brackets in the second line, Python would think you call the function dist
with four arguments.

Tuples can, just like lists, and unlike Numpy arrays, contain a mix of different types such as
integers and floats etc..

It seems like a tuple is a list with a limitation, so what are they used for? Tuples can be seen as
multi-dimensional values. So for instance if you want to specify an RGB-colour by its red-green-
blue components you could use the following assignment to defines these colours for later calls
to a graphical library:

black = (0,0,0)
white = (255,255,255)
brightred = (255,0,0)
red = (127,0,0)
cyan = (0,255,255)

We’ve also already seen that maptlotlib.pyplot.legend() used a tuple for the legend text,
Although this legend()-function can also be called with a list. In the next chapter about
Pygame, tuples are used for colors and positions.

There are many more list-like types. In most cases the list type will work for you. But sometimes
a special list-like type can be convenient. If you’re curious, check the Python documentation on
sets and dictionaries.

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12.3 Classes and methods (object oriented programming)

In Python, next to function definitions, you can also define your own variable types and
associated functions. This is what classes are. Imagine we could design a new type of variable
called Pos, short for position. We want it to hold an x- and y-coordinate and we want to be able
to do vector-wise addition. Also a length function will give the length of a two-dimension
position vector. Then we would be able to write a program like below:

posa = Pos(3,4)
posb = Pos(-1,5)
distvector = posa.sub(posb)
dist = distvector.length()

To be able to do this we need to tell Python what our type of variable, our class, is and what the
functions should do. This is done by defining a new so-called class Pos:

from math import sqrt

class Pos:
def __init__(self, xcoord, ycoord):
self.x = xcoord
self.y = ycoord
return

def sub(self,pos2):
rx = self.x - pos2.x
ry = self.y - pos2.y
newp = Pos(rx,ry)
return newp

def length(self):
return sqrt(self.x*self.x+self.y*self.y)

After the header a number of methods are defined. They use the same syntax as the definition of
a function. So a method is a special type of function connected to the class Pos. It is therefore
also called by the syntax varname.methodname(arguments).

Note that a special function __init__ is defined first: the so-called “constructor”. It is called
automatically upon creation of a new instance of the class (like for posa and posb in the
example). This definition of __init__ tells Python how this type can be created and what to do
with the arguments that may also be given. In this case, they are simply stored as members x and
y. So we note there are two variables stored in a Pos-type of variable: x and y. These are called
members of the class Pos.

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An example of how to use this class (we assume we have saved the above code in the file named
CPos.py):

from CPos import Pos

# Example of usage:

a = Pos(2,3)
b = Pos(1,2)

c = a.sub(b)

print (c.x,c.y)
print (c.length())

You can build your complete program around classes. By first defining your classes including
members and methods, then building classes consisting of classes on top of each other, your final
program could be very short. This can be done by just calling the highest level of classes like:

sim = Sim()
running = sim.start(0.,0.,0.)
while running:
sim.update(running)

This style of programming is called object-orient programming (as opposed to normal

procedural programming) and was for some time very fashionable. It still is, but you also see a
return to procedural programming or a mix of the two styles. A disadvantage of object oriented
programming is the additional bookkeeping, which you have to do, a huge advantage is the
reusability of your classes in different programs. For small to medium sized programs the
disadvantages clearly outweigh the advantages. For most scientific computing purposes a
procedural program will do fine. However, it could be useful to build your own libraries with
specific computations for specific types of physics or technology. For instance a class called
aircraft could contain a position, altitude, angles etc.

Overloading operators
It is also possible to define what the operator in a class. For instance the sub function in the class
could also be defined in another way, using the two underscore symbols in front of the name and
after, a key for the special functions which Python uses, just like __init___ indicates the
constructor in Python.

def __sub__(self,pos2):
rx = self.x - pos2.x
ry = self.y - pos2.y
newp = Pos(rx,ry)
return newp

The method __sub__ as defined inside this class, will automatically be called when the minus
sign operator is used. So the call to sub can then be changed in:
c = a – b # was c = a.sub(b)

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The following is a list of operators which can be overleoaded (i.e. defined) in a class definition,
the name to be used for the method definition is given in the second column.

Operator Method/function name Description

+ __add__(self,other) Addition
- __sub__(self,other) Subtraction
* __mul__(self,other) Multiplication
/ __truediv__(self,other) Division
% __mod__(self,other) Modulo/Remainder
< __lt__(self,other) Less than
<= __le__(self,other) Less than or equal to
> __gt__(self,other) Greater than
>= __ge__(self,other) Greater than or equal to
== __eq__(self,other) Equal tp
!= __ne__(self,other) Not equal to
[index] __getitem__(self,index) Index operator
in __contains__(self,value) Check contains or not
len __len__(self) Length, number of elements
str __str__(self) String representation (for print)

Object oriented programming is beyond the scope of this reader. You do not need to know how
to define your own classes. You have already been using classes when calling string methods or
list methods. For this course, it is only important that you know that the concept exists and why
you sometime call methods or access members. It also explains the syntax of variablename-
period-method(arguments) like list.append(x).

It is important for you to know how to use the classes and how to call methods inside a class.
Especially in Pygame we see two new types of variables being used a lot: a surface and a
rectangle. These are classes. One is designed to hold a bitmap, the other to hold a position and a
size of any rectangle. In the rectangle class not only methods are used but also members, (like
top, width, height) can be assigned a value. This will be shown in examples in the Pygame
chapter. Even though the concept of classes and object-oriented programming may be difficult,
using modules with classes is surprisingly easy and user-friendly, as we have already seen with
lists and strings and we will also see in the Pygame chapter.

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12.4 Dictionaries & Sets

Dictionaries
Two special types of lists can be handy. Dictionaries are lists where you do not use an integer
index but a key to look up a value.

An example of a dictionary:

>>> ages = { "Bob": 20 , "Alice": 18 ,"Jacco": 29 }

>>> ages["Jacco"]
29
>>> ages["Jet"]

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "<pyshell#10>", line 1
ages["Jet"]
KeyError: 'Jet'
>>>

This error can be prevented by first checking whether ‘Jet” is in the keys of this dictionary, using
the keys function:

if "Jet" in ages.keys():
print(ages["Jet"])

We can also add entries in the way as you would intuitively expect:

ages["Jet"] = 30

Even though the order is not defined you can still iterate over dictionaries. The following code

for a in ages:
print(a)

will print all keys. The again, if you wanted not the keys but the entries, simply use the key:

for a in ages:
print(ages[a])

Sets
Sets are lists used for unordered collections of unique elements. It is used to check membership
of a collection, overlaps of collections, etc.

It is defined similarly to a list (square brackets) with the function set. Example of the use of sets:

>>> a = set([3,1,34,65,2,2,1])

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>>> a
set([1, 34, 3, 2, 65])
>>> if 2 in a:
print 'yes'

yes
>>> 2 in a
True
>>> b = set([1,6,7,10,2,3,7])
>>> a|b # which elements are in a or b?
set([1, 34, 3, 6, 65, 10, 7, 2])
>>> a&b # which elements are in a and b?
set([1, 2, 3])
>>>
The difference between a set and a list, is that in a set an element does not have specific place
and each element is only in once. It is a collection as used in the mathematical set theory: an
element is either a part of a set or not.

Imagine you have two lists with a set of numbers, and you simply want to know whether they
use the same digits, than converting them to sets and comparing it will do this for you.

There are a number of methods which can be used on sets:

a = set([1,2,5,3,6,7,0])

b = a.copy() # returns contents of a as a set (shallow copy)

b.add(100) # adds 100 to set b (but not to set a)
b.remove(7) # removes 7 from set b
xdif = b.difference(a) # return elements in b which are not in a
overlap = a.intersection(b) # return set items which are in a and in b
together = a.union(b) # return a set with elelemtns in a or in b
print(a.issubset(b)) # Will print True, cause a is subset of b

For a complete overview, including the operators, type “help(set)” in the Python shell.

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13. Pygame: animation, visualization and controls

13.1 Pygame module
The Pygame module contains a set of user-friendly modules for building arcade-like games in
Python. But because it has several drawing routines as well as key controls, it is also a very
convenient library to make any 2D graphics, especially moving graphics with some key controls.
Therefore it has also become the default graphics library. It is often used for other purposes than
games, like animation, visualization of simulation and all other non-moving drawings which
need something more versatile than Matplotlib, which produces graphs but is not a graphics
library. Also key and mouse controls are part of Pygame and can be added to pan, zoom or
control a simulation.

In this chapter we will explore different modules inside Pygame like display, event, key, mouse,
image, transform and draw, as well as the new types (classes to be exact): surface and rect. There
are many more modules inside Pygame for you to explore like, music, joystick, etc. but these
will not be discussed here. Next to Pygame, some basics of setting up a game or simulation will
be discussed such as the ‘game-loop’ and timing issues.

Just as with Numpy and Matplotlib, Pygame is a third party add-on. So before you can use
Pygame, you need to add the import line. Also you should add two calls to Pygame at the
beginning and end of your program for initialization and cleaning up, resulting in the following
three mandatory lines:

import pygame
pygame.init()

….
….
(your program will be in between these calls)
….
….

pygame.quit()

The init-call has no immediate visible effect, but it is required to avoid having to initialize each
module of Pygame independently. So calling pygame.display.init, pygame.key.init is
not necessary when you include this one call.

pygame.quit() will have a visible effect: it will close any Pygame windows still open. If
during the development your program crashes due to an error and the Pygame window is still
open, type pygame.quit() in the shell to close it. (or pg.quit() if you used import
pygame as pg)

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Pygame has a very good online reference manual at http://pygame.org/docs . In the top section of
this page, you see the name of each module inside Pygame. Click on these names to get a list of
functions in that module, and click on the function name in this list to get a full description.

13.2 Setting up a window

Before we draw anything, we need a window to draw in. The way to do this is using a function in
the display module, which is called pygame.display.set_mode(). The various possibilities
of this function are explained in the documentation of Pygame. To get an impression, here is an
example call which creates a window of 600 pixels wide and 500 pixels high:

reso = (600,500)
screen = pygame.display.set_mode(reso)

Or in a similar way (mind the double brackets, the resolution is a so-called tuple, see section
12.2):
screen = pygame.display.set_mode((600,500))

The function pygame.display.set_mode() returns a surface, which is stored here in the

variable name screen (could have been any name). In this case the surface refers to the video
memory of the screen, so we have called this variable screen in our example but it could have
been any other name like win, window1, scr, etc. In our example screen is now a surface we
can draw on.

In computer graphics, a coordinate system different from mathematics is used, mainly for
historical reasons. The top left corner is the origin and the y-coordinate runs from zero in the top
to the bottom, so in our example y=500 pixels indicates the bottom line. X-coordinates are from
left to right. This stems from the text terminal which had line zero and column zero in the top left.
So the window, which we just created, has the following coordinate system:

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In the computer graphics world things get really complicated in three dimensions. In the graphics
coordinate system, the Z-axis points positive to the viewer, in effect creating a left-handed (!)
axes reference system, where cross products and other functions work just the other way around.

So screen coordinates work in a non-standard way and are also always integers. For these two
reasons, it is standard procedure to define your own so-called world coordinates (with a right-
handed reference frame), which you use for your model. And when necessary you convert them
to screen coordinates, normally just before we need to plot, draw or blit. It also allows us to
change the window size later (e.g. to full screen), without changing our model. An example of a
simple 2D world coordinate system is:

In this case we can do calculations using any position in floats, like do numerical integration in
floats and then only when we draw convert our float world coordinates to the integer screen
coordinates just before plotting with the following lines of code. In the example below the world
coordinates are (x,y) and are converted to screen coordinates (xs,ys):

xmax = 600
ymax = 500
reso = (xmax,ymax)
screen = pygame.display.set_mode(reso)

….
…..
x = x + vx*dt
y = y + vy*dt
xs = int(x/1.67*xmax)
ys = ymax-int(y*ymax)

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13.3 Surfaces and Rectangles

There are two new concepts to grasp in Pygame: they are called Surface and Rect. They each
have their own section in the http://pygame.org/docs documentation. A surface is a type to hold
an image, a bitmap. It can be an entire screen, an image loaded from a file or (often) a smaller
part. You can draw on a surface; you can copy and paste any surface, or parts of it, on another
surface. A surface can also have a transparent background so that when you paste it over another
surface some pixels will keep the color of the original surface.

All in all, it is a very versatile type allowing you to manipulate or transform (scale move,
copy/paste, rotate) bitmaps.

When you paste one surface onto another, this is called blitting in the computer graphics world.
It stems from the “block of bits” of the video memory which is transferred with one call to a blit
function. Before we can do this we also need to specify where we want this rectangular image to
be pasted.

When we have loaded an image from the disk, we need to know how large it is and where we
should be able to position it onto another surface later. This is where the rectangle class comes in.
A rectangle is not the actual surface but it contains some parameters: the size and position of a
surface. It has several members, which we can assign values to. The neat thing is that we do not
need to worry about the bookkeeping: when you change one value, the other ones will be
changed automatically when needed. One simple example is given below. To clear the screen,
we draw a black rectangle. For this we need to specify the position and scale first. If we get the
rectangle from a surface to measure the size, the position is by default set to (0,0) for the top left
corner. To do this, we use the method get_rect in the Surface class (see the section on Surface
in the Pygame documentation for a full description of the methods of surface).

black =(0,0,0)
scrrect = screen.get_rect()
pygame.draw.rect(screen,black,scrrect)

A Rect has the following members, which you can read or assign a value to:

top, left, bottom, right

topleft, bottomleft, topright, bottomright
midtop, midleft, midbottom, midright
center, centerx, centery
size, width, height
w,h

Center is a tuple equal to (centerx,centery). The user can choose to position the rectangle using
any combination of these members.

Another example where the Rect class is used is given below, where an image is loaded from a
file on the hard disk. Generally, we do this loading from a file only once at the beginning of our
program, because accessing the hard disk has a huge execution speed penalty. The example
shows how to use the rectangle: first we get the size from the surface object and then we position
it and use it to blit the surface on the screen surface:

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ship = pygame.image.load(“rocket.gif”)
shiprect = ship.get_rect()
…..
…..
while running:
shipx = shipx + vx*dt
shipy = shipy + vy*dt

shiprect.centerx = shipx
shiprect.centery = shipy

screen.blit(ship,shiprect)

In the code we can see how the rectangle is used to position the bitmap, which was read from
rocket.gif, on the screen. The same call can be used with a tuple containing the coordinates of the
top-left corner of the surface. As visible in the syntax, blit is a method from the Surface class,
hence it is called as a method, so with a period behind the destination surface (=variable named
“screen” in our example).

13.4 Bitmaps and images

In the previous paragraphs we have seen that surfaces allow you to load bitmaps from the disk
and blit them to the screen with the following two functions:

scr = pygame.display.set_mode((500,500))
ship = pygame.image.load(‘lander.gif’)
shiprect = ship.get_rect()
………
………
shiprect.center = (xs,ys)
scr.blit(ship,shiprect)

A few remarks about using these functions:

As said before, it is important, to load the bitmaps before the actual game loop. Accessing files,
to load an image, in general takes a lot of time. This means it might cause hick-ups or delays in
your program, if you do this during the loop.

Sometimes bitmaps do need some editing before they can be used. When blitting images on a
surface a transparent background is often required. This can be edited with a painting program
such as Paint.net, Gimp, Paint Shop, Corel Draw or Photo shop and deleting the background so it
becomes the transparent colour. Save the file in the GIF format (or PNG) as these formats allow
transparent backgrounds. Also use these programs to change colors, size or perform rotations.

If you need one bitmap in a lot of different orientations, editing it with a paint program can be
cumbersome. These operations can also be done much easier with pygame in your program. This

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can be done using the transform module which allows you to manipulate bitmaps/surfaces. Some
examples of functions available in pygame.transform:

pygame.transform.flip(surface,xswith,yswitch) flip vertically and horizontally, returns new

surface

pygame.transform.scale(surface,(newwidth,newheight)) - resize to new resolution, returns new

surface

pygame.transform.rotate(surface,angledeg) rotate an image, angle is float in degrees,

rotate an image, returns new surface

pygame.transform.rotozoom(surface, angle, scale)- filtered scale and rotation, angle float in

degrees, scale factor also float, returns new
surface

pygame.transform.scale2x(surface) specialized image doubler, returns new

surface

pygame.transform.smoothscale(surface,(newwidth,newheight)) - scale a surface to an

arbitrary size smoothly, returns new surface

Be aware that you do not scale or rotate inside the game loop unless it is absolutely necessary. In
most cases it pays off to generate different surfaces for all possible orientations beforehand, store
them in a list and just use the appropriate one during the game loop by setting the index with the
angle rounded off to 45, 20 or 5 degrees. The same goes for scaling. Transforming bitmaps is
rather computational intensive and in general it is the goal to do any time consuming operation as
much as possible before the actual running of the game loop.

13.5 Drawing shapes and lines

The draw module contains functions to draw lines and filled or unfilled shapes such as rectangles,
circles, ellipses and polygons:

pygame.draw.rect - draw a rectangle shape

pygame.draw.polygon - draw a shape with any number of sides
pygame.draw.circle - draw a circle around a point
pygame.draw.ellipse - draw a round shape inside a rectangle
pygame.draw.arc - draw a partial section of an ellipse
pygame.draw.line - draw a straight line segment
pygame.draw.aaline - draw fine anti-aliased lines

A few notes on using these functions:

The coordinate system used is explained in the section on setting up your screen. It runs from
(0,0) in the top left corner to the maximum x and y in the bottom right. All sizes and positions
are integers.

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Colours are specified with a tuple (red,green,blue), three numbers each ranging from 0 – 255 to
indicate the amount of each colour channel present in the mixed color. For readability it helps to
define a few colours at the beginning of your program and use these in the calls:

black = (0,0,0)
cyan = (0,255,255)
white = (255,255,255)
background = (0,0,63)
foreground = white

Some draw functions allow to switch on what is

called “anti-aliasing”. This means a pixel on the
edge of the line will get a colour in between the
foreground colour and background colour
depending on the ‘amount of line’ which is in the
pixel. This avoids the jagged lines you will get with
normal bitmapped shapes. One disadvantage of this
is that it takes more time and memory: the shape is
first drawn in a higher resolution and then “anti-
aliased”. Another disadvantage is that you later on
cannot select the pixels which are part of the
background and not a part of the shape. It depends
on your application whether you want to use anti-aliasing.

13.6 When our drawing is ready: pygame.display.flip()

Animation consists of nothing else than redrawing every frame over and over in a simulation or
game. To avoid flickering images when the screen is cleared for the next drawing, this is first
done in a part of the video memory which is not visible. There we clear the screen, and either
with drawing (rectangles, circles and lines) or blitting the next image is created. Once it is
finished, we can show it on the screen. This also means we will not see anything until we copy
this video memory to the screen. This is done with the following call, to be used at end of all
your draw and blit calls in the loop.

pygame.display.flip()

If you have used the default settings when creating the window with
pygame.display.set_mode(), a call to flip updates the window with the video memory.
When you use the option double buffering, you have two areas of video memory, so two surfaces
which will be used simultaneously: one will be shown on screen, the other you can draw on.
Once you’re done drawing the frame, you swap the function of both surfaces. The advantage is
that you do not need to start with an empty frame then, but can use the one-but-last frame as a
start. In practice, to take advantage of this you might need a lot of bookkeeping but it might
result in a higher execution speed.

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Using the full-screen option is often only done when the game or simulation is ready, debugged
and tested, since debugging is severely hampered by a crashing full screen application!

13.7 Timing and the game-loop

Imagine we want to let a rocket take off on the screen. We could use the following code to do so:

import pygame
pygame.init()

reso = (600,500)
screen = pygame.display.set_mode(reso)
scrrect = screen.get_rect()

black =(0,0,0)

ship = pygame.image.load("rocket.jpg")
shiprect = ship.get_rect()
shiprect.centerx = 250

for y in range(500,-100,-2):
shiprect.centery = y
pygame.draw.rect(screen,black,scrrect)
screen.blit(ship,shiprect)
pygame.display.flip()

pygame.quit()

Now when we run this, it could turn out that our ship moves too fast or too slow. To fix this, we
will then adjust the third argument of the range function in the for-loop, currently set to -2.
However, on another computer the speed would again be different. Also, when another
application in the background needs the CPU for a short period, our rocket will hamper before
continuing. This is because we have no control over the real speed of the rocket. For this we
need more than controlling the position, we need to control the timing in our game as well. Or at
least measure it and calculate the elapsed time (time step) since we last drew our ship, so that we
can calculate the required new position with the speed and right time step based on the elapsed
time since the last frame.

There are two principles we can use to make sure our simulated time runs in accordance with the
real time:

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Method I: Fixed time step

We use a constant time step similar to our previous numerical integration examples. We check
whether the real time is equal to or larger than our next to be simulated time, if so, we make a
time step dt.

This is how this could look when coded in Python:

import pygame
# initialize clock
pygame.init()
tsim = 0.0
tstart = 0.001*pygame.time.get_ticks()
dt = 0.1
……
……
running = True
while running:
trun = 0.001*pygame.time.get_ticks() – tstart
if trun+dt >= tsim:
tsim = tsim + dt
vx = vx+ax*dt
vy = vy+ay*dt
x = x + vx*dt
y = y + vy*dt
……
……
The advantage of this method is that you know what the time step is. This also allows for more
advanced numerical integration methods and guarantees the stability of your simulation. When
using a variable time step (Method II) there is a risk of getting a too large time step, which can
result in overshoots and even a runaway of your simulation. The disadvantage of this method,
that it requires a time step, which is large enough to make sure the simulation can always keep
up with the real time. If you make this time step too small, the simulation may lag behind or run
at a variable speed, resulting in quirky speeds and movements

Method II: Variable time step

In this case we simply measure the time elapsed since the last time we update the simulation.
This difference is our time step dt, which we then use to update everything including the time. It
looks much simpler, and when the computer is fast enough it will also use this for higher update
frequencies. The downside is that the reverse is also true: if the computer is too slow or
occasionally too slow, the simulation might cause problems because of a very large dt. It is
possible to safeguard this and catch up later, but then the code gets more complex than we want
to use for now. (It becomes basically a mix of the two methods.)

This is how the code looks in Python when using the method of the variable time step. The
variable t0 here keeps the previous time when everything was updated:

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import pygame
# initialize clock
pygame.init()
t0 = 0.001*pygame.time.get_ticks()
……
……
maxdt = 0.5 # time step limit to avoid jumps
running = True
while running:
t = 0.001*pygame.time.get_ticks()
dt = min(t-t0,maxdt) # set maximum limit to dt
if dt>0.:
t0 = t
vx = vx+ax*dt
vy = vy+ay*dt
x = x + vx*dt
y = y + vy*dt
……
……

One of these two mechanisms forms the basis of our loop which is executed while running. This
is generally called the game-loop. In principle, it runs indefinitely until a quit event is triggered.
This quit event can be multiple things:

o Escape key is pressed

o Some conditions in our simulation are met (simulation ready in simulation, player
dead in games, exception has occurred, boss enemy detected, etc)
o Quit event is given by windows (so the user has clicked the cross of the window).

In our example so far, just setting running to False will make sure the loop ends:

running = True
while running:
.....
.....
if y<0.:
running = False
.....

Another way to achieve this, is using the break command (which I personally see as less elegant):
while True:
.....
.....
if y<0.:
break
.....

In general within a game loop we see the following elements:

- check for time step
- get input from keyboard, mouse or any other source
- update model with numerical integration
- draw new frame
- check for quit events

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Before the game loop our model is initialized, graphics are loaded and set-up and our simulation
is initialized. We have seen how to control time, how to numerically integrate and how to draw a
frame. But we still need to know how to process input from keyboard and/or mouse.

13.8 Input: keyboard, mouse and events

When running a simulation or game, you may want the user to control certain aspects of the
simulation. This could be triggering some controls, events or control display functions such as
zoom and pan. Also the user might control when the simulation starts or stops. Until now we
have used the input function to get user input. This does not fit this purpose: the complete
program stops, we need to go to the Python shell window and we do not want the user to press
enter every time step. So we need a way to check the state of the keys while we keep running. If
possible we should also be able to check two keys being pressed simultaneously. Using the
pygame.key module this is indeed possible. It can be achieved by including the following two
lines:

pygame.event.pump()
keys = pygame.key.get_pressed()

The first line is required because of the way windows handles events, like keys being pressed.
The second line collects all key states in a long list of logicals. Each key has a fixed position in
this list of logicals. When this logical is True, the key is currently held down and when the key is
not pressed, the logical is False.

So imagine we want to check for the Escape key, how do we know which logical to check?
Pygame has a list of variables (integers) with indices for every key (check
http://pygame.org/docs/ref/key.html ) that you can use. For example to check the Escape key we
use (after the storing the logical in our variable keys with the above piece of code):

if keys[pygame.K_ESCAPE]:
running = False

Some examples for other indices we can use (always with pygame. in front of this name if
you’ve use import pygame):

K_0 0 - key K_LEFT Left arrow key

K_1 1 - key K_RIGHT Right arrow key
….. K_F1 F1 function key
K_9 9-key K_TAB Tab-key
K_a A-key K_DELETE Del-key
K_b B- key K_RSHIFT Right shift key
…. K_LSHIFT Left shift key
K_z Z-key K_LCTRL Left Control key
K_SPACE Space bar K_RCTRL Right Control key
K_UP Up arrow key K_LALT Left Alt key
K_DOWN Down arrow key K_RALT Right Alt key

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Similarly we can get the state of the mouse buttons with pygame.mouse.get_pressed(),
which returns three logicals for the three mouse buttons. The function
pygame.mouse.get_pos() returns the current position of the mouse.

Both key- and mouse-functions will return only the useful values if your pygame-window is
running in the foreground (or in windows speak: has focus).

Another more advanced way to handle the mouse is to use the windows event handler. For
instance for the quit-event (somebody tries to close the window, e.g. by clicking on the red
button). An example of how this event handling could be used is given in the following piece of
code:
for event in pygame.event.get():
if event.type == pygame.QUIT:
running = False
elif event.type == pygame.KEYDOWN and event.key == pygame.K_ESCAPE:
running = False
elif event.type == pygame.MOUSEBUTTONDOWN:
mx,my = event.pos

……
elif event.type == pygame.MOUSEBUTTONUP:
……
Many of these events contain data, e.g.on where the mouse was clicked, which button or which
key was pressed. See the example above for using the mouse position. Other names of members
of the different event type are listed below:

Event type: pygame. Contains:

QUIT none
ACTIVEEVENT gain,state
KEYDOWN unicode,key,mod
KEYUP key,mod
MOUSEMOTION pos,rel,buttons
MOUSEBUTTONUP pos,button
MOUSEBUTTONDOWN pos,button
JOYAXISMOTION joy, axis, value
JOYBALLMOTION joy, ball, rel
JOYHATMOTION joy, hat, value
JOYBUTTONUP joy, button
JOYBUTTONDOWN joy, button
VIDEORESIZE size, w, h
VIDEOEXPOSE none
USEREVENT code

Most of the times the event handling is not required, but as a minimum handling the quit event is
considered good practice: it allows the user to close the window.
Note: it is important to always include the event pump. If not the Pygame window will say “Not
responding” as the windows OS events will not be processed.

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13.9 Overview of basic pygame functions

import pygame Below it is assumed, you have imported Pygame simply as pygame

Two new types

:
Surface: A surface is an image or a part of an image (can be small bitmap) in memory
Rect: A rectangle holds only a position and size of a rectangle as members

pygame.init() Initialize all Pygame modules

pygame.quit() Closes all Pygame windows and quits all modules

pygame.display.set_mode( (xpixels,ypixels) ) Create a window with specified resolution in

pixels, returns a surface with the video memory of the screen. Resolution
is a so-called tuple, set as (xmax,ymax).

pygame.draw.rect(surface,colour,rect) Draw filled rectangle in surface, colour is tuple

(red,green,blue) with values <= 255, position in rect

pygame.display.flip() Update the screen with the video memory (so display screen surface)

pygame.time.get_ticks() Returns system time in millisecond since pygame.init()

pygame.image.load(filename) Load an image from a file (a.o. jpg,gif,bmp,png, etc.) returns a

surface with the image

surface.get_rect() get the size of a surface in a rectangle (top and left will be zero)

surface.blit(sourcesurface,rect) Pastes the source surface on the surface at the position specified
in rectangle rect

Moving a rectangle can be done in different ways, by setting members of rectangle.

rect.centerx = 456 rect.top = 0
rect.centery = 240 rect.left = 0

pygame.event.pump() Flush event queue (to avoid hanging app, and to poll keyboard)

var = pygame.key.get_pressed( ) Poll the keyboard: logical array for all keys, True if pressed
if var[pygame.K_ESCAPE] : How to test for Escape key: test the logical array with the
right index (see documentation for other key indices)

pygame.transform module contains operation on surfaces like rotate & scale.

pygame.mixer.music contains functions to load, play and save sound files

More information on these and many other pygame functions can be found in the on-line
reference guide: http://pygame.org/docs

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Exercise 1: With the knowledge you achieve each section, we want you to make a relatively easy
game. So the first exercise is to make a screen with a resolution of 750x500 px, besides this it
should also have a blue background.

Exercise 2: Place an image of an airplane at the left side of this screen. Google for a nice plane
“plane no background”, flying to the right

Exercise 3: Now we want to include a time loop so that your airplane flies straight forward with
constant speed over your screen.

Exercise 4: The final step to make your game actually fun is to add key input, so make sure your
plane can move up and down when you press the arrow up and when you press the arrow key
down. Also make the escape key such that if you press it you quit the game.

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14. Exception Handling in Python

A powerful feature of Python is that it allows you to trap runtime errors using the TRY and
EXCEPT statements. Be aware that this is also a way to obscure errors and can quickly make
your program impossible to debug. In general it is better to prevent errors than to catch them.

Still, it can sometimes be a very useful feature, so we show a few examples here of how to use
try and except.

The first example of an a,b,c formula solver for second order polynomial could check for a
negative D by simply catching the error of a negative square root:

import math

print("To solve ax2 + bx + c = 0 ,")

a = float(input("Enter the value of a:"))

b = float(input("Enter the value of b:"))
c = float(input("Enter the value of c:"))

D = b**2 - 4.*a*c

try:
x1 = (-b - math.sqrt(D)) / (2.*a)
x2 = (-b + math.sqrt(D)) / (2.*a)
print("x1 =",x1)
print("x2 =",x2)
except:
print("This equation has no solutions.")

To make it even more advanced: it is possible to check which error was caught:

import math

print("To solve ax2 + bx + c = 0 ,")

a = float(input("Enter the value of a:"))

b = float(input("Enter the value of b:"))
c = float(input("Enter the value of c:"))

D = b**2 - 4.*a*c

try:
x1 = (-b - math.sqrt(D)) / (2.*a)
x2 = (-b + math.sqrt(D)) / (2.*a)
print("x1 =",x1)
print("x2 =",x2)

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except ZeroDivisionError:
print("this is a first order equation: a=0")
x = -c/b
print("Solution x =",x)

except:
print("This equation has no solutions.")

Just like other flow control statements, try statements can be nested:

try:
x1 = (-b - math.sqrt(D)) / (2.*a)
x2 = (-b + math.sqrt(D)) / (2.*a)
print("x1 =",x1)
print("x2 =",x2)

except ZeroDivisionError:
print("this is a first order equation: a=0")
try:
x= -c/b
print("Solution x =",x)
except:
print("No x found.")
except:
print("This equation has no solutions.")

Examples of types of errors you can catch (the names speak for themselves):

ZeroDivisionError, OverflowError, NameError,

IndexError, TypeError, KeyboardInterrupt,
SyntaxError, SystemExit, FloatingPointError,
KeyError, ValueError, ……

When an error occurs, the name of the error is always given in the shell. A complete list can also be found
in the Python (the documentation provided with Python) under the header Exceptions.

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15. Distributing your programs using PyInstaller

15.1 Making an .exe of your program

Many students have asked me how they can share their Python programs with people who
haven’t got Python installed on their computer, for example by converting your Python program
into an executable. There is a tool for this, called PyInstaller.

Install this using pip in the command prompt (or Console):

pip install pyinstaller

Then click your project folder with the right mouse buton, while holding the right shift
(Windows specific) or navigate to the project folder with cd (Linux and Apple). We will then
convert the program using pyinstaller:

pyinstaller myprogram.py myfunc.py tools.py

This will create an executable called myprogram.exe in a subfilder dist, accompanied by all the
necessary files to make it run without Python. The folder and executable will be named after the
the first script (myprogam) and this script will be started when the executable is started.
Manually you need to add any data files or data folders which you want included because the
program needs those.

Example: Mazeman game

It is a game written in Python using the third-party module Pygame and the Tkinter module,
which is included in Python. It is a variation on Pac-man, but it allows the user to edit simple text
files containing the maze lay-out including an unlimited number of ghosts (and a player starting
position). Many creative mazes are possible, just right-click Edit in the File Open menu to create
and save your own. The program reads the file the user selects and starts the game with the maze
as specified in this file. The program scales all graphics to a window size, which covers max
80% of the screen. The sprites are non-animated, continuous movement.

The game has two python files: mazeman.py and toolsmaze.py, the latter of which all functions
are imported in mazeman.py. The are three subfolders with data files named bitmaps, sounds and
choose-your-maze. The program uses fonts to display the score text on the top line. The main
module, with which the program is started, is called mazeman.py. So we convert it using:

pyinstaller mazeman.py toolsmaze.py

If it runs successfully, it will create a subfolder called dist\mazeman containing your

program (mazeman.exe in our example) and a lot of other files needed by the executable. Still
we also need to add some files manually before we’re ready.

Adding additional files to make your program run

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First of all we need to copy our data files to this dist folder, so our mazeman.exe will find them.
In our example, the three subfolders named: bitmaps, sounds and choose-your-maze.

To see whether our program needs any additional files, it may be useful to start our program
mazeman.exe with a batch files with a pause command, so we can read warnings and error
messages in the console. Let’s call this runme.bat for example (in the dist folder as well) .
Create it with notepad or idle):

mazeman.exe
pause

Then run it to test it and see if you need to add any other files. Sometimes you may need other
DLLs from third party module you use.

When your .exe pygame program crashes, even though it did not when executed in IDLE
Without IDLE, there is less protection against memory leakage and lost handles. When I
experienced problems with crashing Pygame executables it was always due to one thing: the font
library. When you have created a font object, you also need to delete it before you go on with the
next text. So make sure you always delete variables created with pygame.font after you’ve used
them. The font object in Pygame is very sensitive, but apparently Python handles this for you
when you run it in the shell, so you will only get into trouble when you have made your
executable.

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15.2 Making a setup program with e.g. Inno Setup

Distributing your program

To distribute your program you only need to archive your folder e.g to a zip file. You can rename
the dist subfolder to mazeman and then create the zip file mazeman.zip, which includes all files
and subfolder. In our example about 10 Mb. The user can then unzip this in the Program Files
folder and add a shortcut to mazeman.exe on the desktop or on the Start Menu as desired.

There are more fancy ways to distribute your program and create an installer, which will do these
same things for you and create an executable for installation. Just download such a program e.g.
from download.com. Some are free like NSIS or Inno Setup (last one is recommended).

With Inno Setup, you need to select the ‘dist’ folder as root and add this (with all files and
subfolders). Also you need to indicate which executable is the program to start and perhaps
allows an entry in the Start menu. Inno set-up then compiles everything into one neat setup
program as a executable e.g. setupmazeman.exe. This is often quite large. Many mail programs
or mail servers will prevent sending executables, because that’s the way viruses are distributed.
So to mail it, you may need to convert this one file to a compressed folder/ archive (ZIP or ARJ
extension).

Inno Setup builds professionally

looking Setup applications

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16. Version Control

16.1 Managing development of larger projects

At some point in the development of software, especially when collaborating in a team, you will
find yourself handling many versions of the same program. You will copy files back and forth,
zip up the state of a project and label it with date and time, etc. Anyone who has worked like this
for a while will have found out that this is an error-prone process, important fixes might get lost,
changes inadvertently overwritten, collaborators work using older versions of files, and at some
point it becomes almost impossible to combine all code contributions into a final, correct version.
This is such a common problem in software development that people have created Version
Control Systems (VCS) for this. With a VCS you can automate the process of keeping different
versions of your software project, and the VCS will help you on many tasks, like find differences
between versions, revert to an older version if you accidentally botched things up, up to
incorporating automatic testing of the software in the project. Although these systems are not
specific to Python, we decided to add this section on VCS after hearing from 2nd and 3rd year
students, who eventually picked up using VCS at some point, that they would really have liked to
start with VCS earlier, and that they would have appreciated an introduction and some pointers
on where to learn more. Many VCS exist now, we will discuss two commonly used ones;
subversion and git.

16.2 Basic concepts of version control

Repository, working copy
VCS work with a “repository”, which can be considered as a master copy of your software. This
repository may be locally on the computer where you are working, but often it is installed
remotely on a server. When you want to work on your project, you need a local check-out or
working copy of the software. Using a “check-out”, you can get a copy of the latest files from the
repository (if you wish, you can also get an older version from the repository). After creating
changes to that copy -- and of course you should have tested these changes too! -- you can do a
“commit”, and the repository is updated with your latest software.

Revision, commit, check-out

A VCS only tracks the software when you indicate you have a new version, through a “commit”
action. This creates what is commonly termed as a revision, a version of your software known to
the VCS. It is customary to also add a commit message to this revision, so that you can later
trace back what you worked on, and why you made specific changes. A VCS also maintains
revision numbers (or “hashes”, large strings, in case of some VCS, e.g., git), that uniquely
identify the revisions. You can check out any of the revisions later with a checkout command.
Modern VCS use revisions as labels defining the state of the entire repository. Each change to
the repository (by a commit, or a branch, see later), creates a new revision number or hash,

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keeping the history of the repository traceable, and enabling you to go back to and compare all
the old versions of the software.

Comparing source code

Some of the precursor tools for version control are diff and patch. The basics of these tools
are still used in modern VCS. diff compares two text files and determines the difference
between these two, outputting this difference again as text file, in a compact fashion. To make
this output human-readible, some “context” can be added, here is a small example of some of
this output:

Example output from diff, comparison of two file version.

This output is commonly called a diff or a patch. From a diff, you can quickly see what changes
were applied. patch is a program that is the companion to diff, it can create the newer file,
based on the old file and the output from diff (it can also work in the other direction, creating
the old file from the new file and patch). VCS work on this basis. Each time you tell the VCS
that there is a new version of your project, the VCS compares the new version to the older
version it already has, then determines and stores the difference between the existing version and
the new one. In that way the VCS keeps the complete history of versions and changes. Asking
the VCS for a diff between two revisions of your software can be a quick way of identifying
where changes were made.
To an unsuspecting user, it may seem like the version control system simply has stored every
copy ever committed. However, using a diff, rather than simply storing the latest version and
labeling it, has a side effect. A diff will fail if the file in the working copy does not match the file
in the repository, because, when you perform a commit, the VCS determines how your files have
changed using a diff, and tries to implement that diff on the code in the repository. As an example,
if you make a checkout to a file with following line:
# a program by Lisa

Then you are going to collaborate with Max, who also checks out a copy of the software from
the repository, and corrects to:

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# a program by Max and Lisa

Max quickly checks this in by doing a commit, so now the repository has Max’s updated version.
In the meantime you recognize Max’s contribution, and change the line to:
# a program by Lisa and Max

Now, if you commit your version, the VCS tries to get the latest, final version of the software in
the repository by applying a patch from your old version (# a program by Lisa), to your new
version (# a program by Lisa and Max), to the version that is currently in the repository.
However, that will fail with a “conflict”, because the repository version has changed at that
specific location. You have to then manually fix the file (the VCS helps you there by marking the
conflicts), and tell the VCS that you resolved the problem. If you work together in a reasonable
fashion (typically by not all working on the same code at the same time), conflicts can be
avoided, and if they occur, it is usually easy enough to resolve them. This side effect may seem
to be a drawback of using version control systems over copying files, but there is actually a
significant advantage; it prevents you from silently overwriting previous work.
On Windows, a tools called Winmerge can be used to compare source in a GUI and merge
different versions.

Distributed and centralized

The “easiest” model of version control is centralized version control. The VCS “subversion” uses
this model. There is one central software repository, usually on an internet server. When doing a
check-out, the latest version of the software (or a version defined by means of a version tag
supplied in the check-out) is copied to the user’s local folders, and when doing a commit. the
changes are pushed back to that single repository.

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Centralized versus distributed VCS.

The alternative is a distributed or de-centralised VCS, of which “git” is a prime example. When
starting to work on the code, you must “clone” from a git repository on the web. The clone
copies the entire repository, including information about its history, to the local computer. In a
second step you can check out any revision from the now local copy of this repository; by default
the VCS checks out the latest development version. Then any commit will be done to the local
clone of the repository, creating a new revision , and you will not need internet access for that. In
a second step these changes can be copied over to the remote repository, with a “push”. To get
changes that may have been added by others to the remote repository, you need a “pull”
command, which gets all the revisions added to the remote repository from the time you cloned it,
or did your last pull. The local copy you are working on is linked to one particular remote
repository, but it is also possible to link multiple remote repositories to the local development
copy, and switch between these. We will not further explore this here, interested readers are
referred to https://git-scm.com/book/en/v2/Git-Basics-Working-with-Remotes. When you are
working with only one remote repository, there is conceptually not much difference between
using a centralized or a distributed version control system; the only steps you should not forget
are the pull and push steps, to synchronize the local clone with the remote repository.

Branches, and merging

The version control facilities we discussed here show you how to use a VCS as a fancy back-up
facility, remembering all previous versions and preventing you from accidentally overwriting
your (or your team’s) precious work. When the software you are working on is being used by
yourself or others, and you need to improve or expand it further, two other concepts, branching
and merging, become very important.

Illustration of branching and merging, with a case where a development branch

is split off from the main branch, and fixes and development occur in parallel.

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With branching, you can split off a version of the software (i.e., as a complete set of files and
folders) that can from then on be independently developed from the main “branch”. To illustrate
this, let’s take the scenario where your teammates are already running low-speed analysis of the
flight performance using the initial version of the software you developed in your (3rd year) DSE
project, and you now want to add compressibility effects to properly calculate cruise
performance. By branching off, you will be able to simultaneously have and maintain two
versions of the program. You can work on the new version without risking breaking the version
that the others are using. When the work on the branch is complete, the two versions can be
merged again, applying all development from the development branch to the main version in one
step. For this, the VCS can apply all the commits you added to the new branch to the old branch
that people have been using. Also if the main branch has been moving on, for example when
bugs had to be fixed there, the merge will combine the changes on both branches, keeping both
the addition of new capability and the bug fixes.

16.3 Subversion
If you use subversion, branches will look like folders on a file system. The typical layout of a
subversion repository uses “trunk” as the main development version, and the “folders” branches
and tags. The folder “branches” is for branched off (development) versions, and “tags” is
typically used to remember released versions of the software. Here is an example of a repository
layout:
MyProject/trunk
MyProject/tags/v0.9
MyProject/tags/v1.0
MyProject/branches/add-mach-effects

At each branch (trunk, v0.9, etc.) the subversion repository show all the files and folders in your
project. Superficially, it looks as if everything is copied, internally, subversion maintains an
inventory of differences and changes in the files.
The following has a summary of the most-used actions in subversion. Note that the server name,
project name and branch names are fictional, adjust as needed.

Check out the latest version of your software

svn co https://myserver.nl/SVN/MyProject/trunk newfolder
• assumes standard repository layout, checks out project into new folder “newfolder”
Update working copy to include changes committed to the repository
svn update
• run this from the working copy folder!
Commit changes to repository
svn commit
• run from working copy folder
Create a branch
svn cp . https://myserver.nl/SVN/MyProject/branches/newbranch

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• assumes you run from working copy (indicated by “.”)

Merge a branch
svn merge -r4:6 https://myserver.nl/SVN/MyProject/branches/abranch
• merges the commits (i.e. changes) from revision 4 to revision 6 on branch abranch, into the
current checked out folder.
Revert changes to match repository (e.g., after goofing up)
svn revert
Resolve a conflict
svn resolved <file>
• after fixing a conflict (marked by <<<<<<<, =======, and >>>>>>> markers in the file),
subversion needs to be told you have fixed this.
Add a new file or folder to the version control
svn add <file>
• do not forget this, subversion does not automatically recognize or add new files
Log the commit messages on a working copy
svn log .
• or
svn log . --stop-on-copy
• the --stop-on-copy flag is useful to figure out when you started a branch. You will need
to use that revision number for a merge (see the merge above)
Check for changes with a previous copy
svn diff -r <revisionnumber>
Check which repository is connected to your working folder:
svn info

On Windows TortoiseSVN is an svn-program which works as a Windows shell extension: right

clicking any folder allows you to sync it with a repository. Then simply right clicking a file or
folder an selecting commit or update will do the same as above. Make sure to use version
TortoiseSVN 1.8.12 as this version has the best compatability with a Github repository.

16.4 Git
Here is a set of commands for git:

Check out the latest version of a project

git clone https://myserver.nl/GIT/MyProject.git MyProject
• this clones the repository and checks out the “master” branch into folder MyProject
Update local repository to match the remote one
git pull
• run this from the working copy folder
Commit your changes
git commit -A
• note that this commits to the local repository, see “git push” to transfer these commits to
the remote repository

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Create a new local repository

git init
• run this from within the folder where you want the repository
Copy the local repository changes over to the remote repository
git push
Create a branch, based on the working copy folder
git branch <new-branch>
Check which branches there are:
git branch -av
Start work on another branch:
git checkout <branch>
• note that there may not be uncommitted changes in the working directory
Merge branch into the current working directory
git merge <branch>
Add a file for tracking in the repository
git add <file>
Determine the difference between the current working copy and a repository commit
git diff <commit hash>
See the history
git log

Note that these git and subversion command summaries are by no means complete, they
represent a minimum set of commands to handle the most common cases. There are also many
GUI tools to help you navigate the git or subversion commands, check out the pages at
https://git-scm.com/download/gui/windows or
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_Subversion_clients

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17. Go exploring: Some pointers for applications of

Python beyond this course
17.1 Alternatives to pygame for 2D graphics
17.1.1 Tkinter canvas (included in Python)
Tkinter is primarily meant to design dialog boxes, but also has the so-called canvas object to
draw something. See an example below which demonstrates its ease of use:
from tkinter import *

master = Tk()
w = Canvas(master, width=200, height=100)
w.pack()
w.create_line(0, 0, 200, 100)
w.create_line(0, 100, 200, 0, fill="red", dash=(4, 4))
w.create_rectangle(50, 25, 150, 75, fill="blue")

mainloop()

Alternatively, even LOGO like graphics have been included in Python using the turtle module.
Not te be used for serious applications but it’s really a lot of fun, like a nice, spirograph-like toy
and also a very good way to teach younger people how to program!
from turtle import *

setup (width=200, height=200, startx=0, starty=0)

speed ("fastest") # important! turtle is intolerably slow otherwise

tracer (False) # This too: rendering the 'turtle' wastes time

for i in range(200):
forward(i)
right(90.5)

done()

17.1.2 Tkinter canvas (included in Python)

Tkinter is primarily meant to design dialog boxes, but also has the so-called canvas object to
draw something. See an example below which demonstrates its ease of use:

17.1.3 Arcade ( http://arcade.academy/ )

Can easily be installed with pip: pip install arcade. See the arcade website for more info and
examples, but an example listing is given on the next pages.

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# Import the Arcade library. If this fails, then try following the instructions
# for how to install arcade:
# http://arcade.academy/installation.html
import arcade
import os

# Set the working directory (where we expect to find files) to the same
# directory this .py file is in. You can leave this out of your own
# code, but it is needed to easily run the examples using "python -m"
# as mentioned at the top of this program.
file_path = os.path.dirname(os.path.abspath(__file__))
os.chdir(file_path)

# Open the window. Set the window title and dimensions (width and height)
arcade.open_window(600, 600, "Drawing Primitives Example")

# Set the background color to white

# For a list of named colors see
# http://arcade.academy/arcade.color.html
# Colors can also be specified in (red, green, blue) format and
# (red, green, blue, alpha) format.
arcade.set_background_color(arcade.color.WHITE)

# Start the render process. This must be done before any drawing commands.
arcade.start_render()

# Draw a grid
# Draw vertical lines every 120 pixels
for x in range(0, 601, 120):
arcade.draw_line(x, 0, x, 600, arcade.color.BLACK, 2)

# Draw horizontal lines every 200 pixels

for y in range(0, 601, 200):
arcade.draw_line(0, y, 800, y, arcade.color.BLACK, 2)

# Draw a point
arcade.draw_text("draw_point", 3, 405, arcade.color.BLACK, 12)
arcade.draw_point(60, 495, arcade.color.RED, 10)

# Draw a set of points

arcade.draw_text("draw_points", 123, 405, arcade.color.BLACK, 12)
point_list = ((165, 495),
(165, 480),
(165, 465),
(195, 495),
(195, 480),
(195, 465))
arcade.draw_points(point_list, arcade.color.ZAFFRE, 10)

# Draw a line
arcade.draw_text("draw_line", 243, 405, arcade.color.BLACK, 12)
arcade.draw_line(270, 495, 300, 450, arcade.color.WOOD_BROWN, 3)

# Draw a set of lines

arcade.draw_text("draw_lines", 363, 405, arcade.color.BLACK, 12)
point_list = ((390, 450),
(450, 450),
(390, 480),
(450, 480),
(390, 510),
(450, 510)
)
arcade.draw_lines(point_list, arcade.color.BLUE, 3)

# Draw a line strip

arcade.draw_text("draw_line_strip", 483, 405, arcade.color.BLACK, 12)
point_list = ((510, 450),
(570, 450),
(510, 480),
(570, 480),
(510, 510),
(570, 510)
)
arcade.draw_line_strip(point_list, arcade.color.TROPICAL_RAIN_FOREST, 3)

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# Draw a polygon
arcade.draw_text("draw_polygon_outline", 3, 207, arcade.color.BLACK, 9)
point_list = ((30, 240),
(45, 240),
(60, 255),
(60, 285),
(45, 300),
(30, 300))
arcade.draw_polygon_outline(point_list, arcade.color.SPANISH_VIOLET, 3)

# Draw a filled in polygon

arcade.draw_text("draw_polygon_filled", 123, 207, arcade.color.BLACK, 9)
point_list = ((150, 240),
(165, 240),
(180, 255),
(180, 285),
(165, 300),
(150, 300))
arcade.draw_polygon_filled(point_list, arcade.color.SPANISH_VIOLET)

# Draw an outline of a circle

arcade.draw_text("draw_circle_outline", 243, 207, arcade.color.BLACK, 10)
arcade.draw_circle_outline(300, 285, 18, arcade.color.WISTERIA, 3)

# Draw a filled in circle

arcade.draw_text("draw_circle_filled", 363, 207, arcade.color.BLACK, 10)
arcade.draw_circle_filled(420, 285, 18, arcade.color.GREEN)

# Draw an ellipse outline, and another one rotated

arcade.draw_text("draw_ellipse_outline", 483, 207, arcade.color.BLACK, 10)
arcade.draw_ellipse_outline(540, 273, 15, 36, arcade.color.AMBER, 3)
arcade.draw_ellipse_outline(540, 336, 15, 36,
arcade.color.BLACK_BEAN, 3, 45)

# Draw a filled ellipse, and another one rotated

arcade.draw_text("draw_ellipse_filled", 3, 3, arcade.color.BLACK, 10)
arcade.draw_ellipse_filled(60, 81, 15, 36, arcade.color.AMBER)
arcade.draw_ellipse_filled(60, 144, 15, 36,
arcade.color.BLACK_BEAN, 45)

# Draw an arc, and another one rotated

arcade.draw_text("draw_arc/filled_arc", 123, 3, arcade.color.BLACK, 10)
arcade.draw_arc_outline(150, 81, 15, 36,
arcade.color.BRIGHT_MAROON, 90, 360)
arcade.draw_arc_filled(150, 144, 15, 36,
arcade.color.BOTTLE_GREEN, 90, 360, 45)

# Draw an rectangle outline

arcade.draw_text("draw_rect", 243, 3, arcade.color.BLACK, 10)
arcade.draw_rectangle_outline(295, 100, 45, 65,
arcade.color.BRITISH_RACING_GREEN)
arcade.draw_rectangle_outline(295, 160, 20, 45,
arcade.color.BRITISH_RACING_GREEN, 3, 45)

# Draw a filled in rectangle

arcade.draw_text("draw_filled_rect", 363, 3, arcade.color.BLACK, 10)
arcade.draw_rectangle_filled(420, 100, 45, 65, arcade.color.BLUSH)
arcade.draw_rectangle_filled(420, 160, 20, 40, arcade.color.BLUSH, 45)

# Load and draw an image to the screen

# Image from kenney.nl asset pack #1
arcade.draw_text("draw_bitmap", 483, 3, arcade.color.BLACK, 12)
texture = arcade.load_texture("images/playerShip1_orange.png")
scale = .6
arcade.draw_texture_rectangle(540, 120, scale * texture.width,
scale * texture.height, texture, 0)
arcade.draw_texture_rectangle(540, 60, scale * texture.width,
scale * texture.height, texture, 45)

# Finish the render.

# Nothing will be drawn without this.
# Must happen after all draw commands (comparable with pygame.display.flip() )
arcade.finish_render()

# Keep the window up until someone closes it. 153

arcade.run()

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17.1.4 Miscellaneous
For other options to draw in 2D, see also the windows GUI section, because both PyQT and
wxPython have graphics functions included for 2D graphics. This library was discovered and
recommended by Fons de Leeuw, a student who used this to visualize acceleration data in his
paragliding footage using flight instruments. He found it to produce better images, mainly due to
the anti-aliasing which creates smoother drawing. Because of the vector format, the output
quality is also better for e.g. printing.

17.1.5 Using Python Console in GIMP

Not really a graphics library, but the free, open source photoshop program GIMP, has a Python
console built-in, which allows you to do batch operations in GIMP. You can find it in the pull
down menu “Filters” > “Python FU”. To get an impression of the code an example is given
below:
g = gimp.pdb
images = gimp.image_list()
my_image = images[0]
layers = my_image.layers
w = g.gimp_image_width(my_image)
h = g.gimp_image_height(my_image)
print("Image Resolution: w=%d,h=%d"%(w,h))

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new_layer = g.gimp_layer_new( my_image, w, h, \

RGBA_IMAGE, "LeopardLayer", 100, NORMAL_MODE)
my_image.add_layer( new_layer )
g.gimp_context_set_pattern("Leopard")
g.gimp_edit_fill(new_layer, PATTERN_FILL)
g.gimp_layer_set_opacity(new_layer, 20)
g.gimp_layer_set_mode(new_layer, SCREEN_MODE)

Instruction and a tutorial for Python-FU can be found at : http://www.gimp.org/docs/python/

17.2 Animated 3D graphics

Next to dominating the world of scientific computing and web development, Python is also very
large in the professional computer graphics world. Therefore there are many modules to edit
images, movies, 3D scenes and sound files.

17.2.1 VPython or Visual Python: easy 3D graphics

There are a few options to generate moving 3D graphics, depending on to which level you want
to take it. Simple, basic 3D shapes can be programmed using VPython ( http://www.vpython.org/
where you can also find the documentation). This builds on Pygame and OpenGL (See further
below). It however provides a ‘layer’ over OpenGL to allow even less experienced programmers
to build fancy 3D worlds in a relatively simple way. Two starter examples of the code, from the
excellent VPython tutorial, are given below, next to their resulting graphical output window. In
this window, you can rotate the camera with your mouse when you hold the right mouse button
down and you can zoom in/out with both mouse buttons pressed.

These two lines will result in the window on the right side to be shown:

Objects can be added a simple way (see the axes below to understand the positioning):

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17.2.2 Panda3D
Panda 3D is a very complete 3D graphics and game engine developed orginally and hosted by
Carnegie Mellon. This includes very advanced graphics functions. It is compatible with the
PyODE physics engine. Check out their website for some impressive demos: www.panda3d.org
and for documentation and download. Panda3D is Open Source and free for any purpose.

17.2.3 Open GL programming

OpenGL has been the standard for 3D graphics for a long time and is at the lowest layer of most
other 3D packages. For the Microsoft gamers: it is a sort of cross-platform DirectX. You can
then directly conrol the hardware of OpenGl compatible graphics cards. Only to be used by the
more daring, demanding and experienced programmer, it provides the possibility to call OpenGL
directly from Python with the PyOpenGL module. PyOpenGL is compatible with Pygame: so
you can use it in a pygame window (and it often is).

PyOpenGL is very fast and interoperable with a large number of external GUI libraries for
Python including wxPython, PyGTK, and Qt. It can also use the GLUT library to provide basic
windowing and user interface mechanisms (pulldown
menus).

As using OpenGL requires many parameters to be set,

example source code tends to be a bit too long to
included here as an example. But check out for example:

http://www.willmcgugan.com/blog/tech/2007/6/4/opengl
-sample-code-for-pygame/

Or google some examples yourself. The PyOpenGL

website has documentation at
http://pyopengl.sourceforge.net/documentation/, which
will help you to understand the code. You can of course
always use some samples as a starting point for your own
applications.

Several students have explored this option and used it successfully to make a 3D solar system
visualization, a 3D asteroids game and even a Moonlander simulation on a hilly moon surface.
Working with OpenGL is quite complex, so it can be hard, but it is also very powerful.

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17.2.3 Blender (www.blender.org)

No matter which 3D library you use, you will need to create 3D objects with complex shapes,
surfaces and textures. For this most Python programmers (and many others) use the freeware
program Blender. Blender a a very advanced, yet easy to use, 3D content creation suite. You can
import objects made in Blender in Python using OpenGL. Even without Python, Blender can
make interactive animations. Make sure to visit the website to check out the beautiful gallery.
Blender is used a lot by professionals in the Computer graphics world (for commercials, movies
and games). Also check out Youtube for some impressive Blender examples. Blender also has a
powerful game engine.

17.2.4 Physics Engine: PyODE (http://pyode.sourceforge.net/)

See also the ragdoll demo of PyODE: http://youtu.be/rBolkg1bq4k

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To add even more realism, you can also use the PyODE physics engine as your development
environment. It provides a simulation of the physics of an extremely rich physical environment.
It takes care of realistic mechanics and dynamics of your scenery including gravity, friction,
inertia, collisions, etc.. PyODE can be used for simulation, visualisation or gaming. Relatively
easy to use, but realize that the closer you get to reality with your simulation, the more complex
your model and your program will become: you’ll need to set a lot of parameters, although many
defaults are supplied. To get an impression of what it can do check put youtube videos like
‘ragdoll demo python ODE’.

17.3 User interfaces: windows dialog boxes, pull-down menus, etc.

To make your program look professional and easy to use, you might like to add a full-fledged
windows interface with pull-down menus and everything. There are several options to do this.
Whichever you like or find easy to use really depends on your taste. Some prefer an intuitive
editor like provided with PyQt (but with messy code), others like the straightforward typing of
Tkinter (with clearer, simple code). Here is the list of options:

17.3.1 Tkinter
Already provided with Python, builds on Tcl/Tk library. The TkInter module is an easy way to
use the standard window dialog boxes, e.g. the File Open dialog box (named:
tkFileDialog.askopenfilename ) in the example below:

import os,sys
from tkinter import *
import tkinter.filedialog as fd

# Tkinter File Open Dialog for Mazefile

os.chdir('data') # Move to the subfolder named data
master = Tk()
master.withdraw() # Hiding tkinter app window

file_path = fd.askopenfilename(title="Open file",

filetypes=[("Text files",".txt"),("All files",".*")] )

# Quit when user selects Cancel or No file

if file_path == "":
sys.exit("Ready.")

# Close Tk, return to working directory

master.quit()
os.chdir('..') # Move back to the main folder

Other standard dialog boxes with their tk name which you can use, like the above example, are:

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Even though the Python source will look the same,

the OS determines the actual look of these standard dialogboxes

Some documentation can be found in Python Reference, but more can be found in the pdf file at
http://www.pythonware.com/media/data/an-introduction-to-tkinter.pdf. It contains basic
functions to build dialog boxes with many controls as well as the handle to call most standard
windows dialogs. Easy to use but requires hand-coding and is rather basic in terms of graphics.
Still, the IDLE shell and editor you are using, were made in Tkinter. Tcl/Tk has a long-standing
record in the Unix world from times far before Python even existed.

An example calculator (see figure below) of which the soure code is given below the figure
(made by Eline ter Hofstede):

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from tkinter import StringVar,Tk,Label,Entry,OptionMenu,Button,PhotoImage

# Change operation according to selection

def changeLabel():
radioValue = optvar.get()
if radioValue == '*':
name = str(float(str(yourName.get())) * float(str(yourName2.get())))
if radioValue == '+':
name = str(float(str(yourName.get())) + float(str(yourName2.get())))
if radioValue == '-':
name = str(float(str(yourName.get())) - float(str(yourName2.get())))
if radioValue == '/':
name = str(float(str(yourName.get())) / float(str(yourName2.get())))
labelText.set(name)
return

# Set up window
app = Tk()
app.title('Rekenmachine')
app.grid()
app.resizable(False,False)

# Create an entry field

custName = StringVar(None)
yourName = Entry(app, textvariable=custName)
yourName.grid(row = 0, column = 0, padx = 8)

# Create an entry field

custName2 = StringVar(None)
yourName2 = Entry(app, textvariable=custName2)
yourName2.grid(row = 0, column = 2)

# Option menu, select the operator

optvar = StringVar()
optvar.set("+")
optionm = OptionMenu(app, optvar, "+","-","/","*").grid(row = 0, column = 1)

# Create an equal to button

button1 = Button(app, text='=',command=changeLabel)
button1.grid(row = 0, column = 3, padx = 8)

# Create a field for the results

labelText = StringVar()
labelText.set('Result')
label1 = Label(app, textvariable=labelText, height=4, bg='white')
label1.grid(row = 1, column = 0,columnspan=3 )

# TUDelft logo
image = PhotoImage(file='tud.gif')
label2 = Label(app, image = image)
label2.grid(column=0,row=2,columnspan=8,pady=8)
app.configure(background='white')

# Run Tkinter main event loop

app.mainloop()

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17.3.2 PyQt
Qt from Riverbank Computing (: http://www.riverbankcomputing.co.uk/software/pyqt/intro)
provides an environment similar to Tkinter. It can also be installed with pip install pyqt5.
Comes with many extras, like a Qt Designer, allowing you to graphically draw the dialog boxes.
The Spyder editor and IDE were built using PyQt. It builds on Nokia's Qt application framework
and runs on all platforms supported by Qt including Windows, MacOS/X and Linux. As a result
of using QtDesigner the code is autogenerated and looks less nice. The programming effort then
comes down to connecting the right functions to hooks provided by the automatically generated
code.

An example of PyQt code is given below, as it would look when it is edited manually:

from PyQt5.QtWidgets import QApplication, QWidget, QGridLayout, \

QDoubleSpinBox, QComboBox, QPushButton, QLabel
from PyQt5.QtGui import QPixmap

def on_equals_clicked():
''' This function will be called if the = button is pressed. '''
# Get the selected operator from the pulldown menu (+,-,/ or *)
operator = operator_menu.currentText()

# Perform the selected calculation

if operator == '+':
res = left_in.value() + right_in.value()

elif operator == '-':

res = left_in.value() - right_in.value()

elif operator == '/':

res = left_in.value() / right_in.value()

else:
res = left_in.value() * right_in.value()

# Set the resulting value in our output label

result.setText('Result: {}'.format(res))

return

# Create the main application object

app = QApplication([])

# Create a main window, and give it a grid layout

win = QWidget()
layout = QGridLayout()
win.setLayout(layout)
win.setStyleSheet("background-color: white;")
win.setWindowTitle('Simple Calculator')

# First row: input-selector-input-equals button

left_in = QDoubleSpinBox()
op_menu = QComboBox()
op_menu.addItems(["+","-","/","*"])
right_in = QDoubleSpinBox()
eqbutton = QPushButton('=')

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# Connect calculator function to equals button

eqbutton.clicked.connect(on_equals_clicked)

layout.addWidget(left_in, 0, 0) # Add left input on row 0, col 0

layout.addWidget(op_menu, 0, 1) # Add menu on row 0 col 1
layout.addWidget(right_in, 0, 2) # Add right input on row 0 col 2
layout.addWidget(eqbutton, 0, 3) # Add equals button on row 0 col 3

# Second row: output of the calculation and TUD logo

result = QLabel('Result:')
layout.addWidget(result, 1, 0, 3, 1) # The label spans 3 columns
tudlogo = QLabel()
tudbitmap = QPixmap('tud.gif')
tudlogo.setPixmap(tudbitmap)
layout.addWidget(tudlogo, 1, 3)

# Show the window, and start the application

win.show()
app.exec()

Or when it is dsigned in Qt Designer, the same app can be made with drag and rop as well as
setting attributes for all items:

The resulting calculator.ui file can be converted to a Python script, using the follwing command:

python -m PyQt5.uic.pyuic -x calculator.ui -o calculator.py

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17.3.4 wxPython
Can be found at http://wxpython.org/ Also one of the classics in the Python community,
wxPython is fully Open Source, cross-platform (Windows/Linux/Mac OS). It’s something in
between Tkinter and PyQt in terms of funtionality.

To give an impression of the code, a simple Hello world example is given below. It shows a
window called “Hello world” and catches the Close event when the user closes the window to
ask for a verification with an OK/Cancel Messagebox.

import wx

class Frame(wx.Frame):
def __init__(self, title):
wx.Frame.__init__(self, None, title=title, size=(350,200))
self.Bind(wx.EVT_CLOSE, self.OnClose)

def OnClose(self, event):

dlg = wx.MessageDialog(self,
"Are you sure? Do you really want to close this application?",
"Confirm Exit", wx.OK|wx.CANCEL|wx.ICON_QUESTION)
result = dlg.ShowModal()
dlg.Destroy()
if result == wx.ID_OK:
self.Destroy()

app = wx.App(redirect=True)
top = Frame("Hello World")
top.Show()
app.MainLoop()

17.3.5 GLUT
GLUT, which is a part of OpenGL, is the good old user interface system used by all Open GL
fans. Robust, does the job on all platforms, but not always very easy to use.

17.3.6 Glade Designer for Gnome

Glade is, like Qt Designer, a tool to graphically edit your dialog boxes and your GUI. It is built
on the Gnome desktop and uses the PyGTK library.

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PyGTK can be downloaded from www.pygtk.org . The Glade program can be found at:
http://glade.gnome.org/

As with all of these editors, the result is a mix of generated code (XML data in this case, read by
the PyGTK module) and e.g. Python code, which you need to edit yourself. You connect buttons
or fields to functions for which you can add the source to add functionality:

The GUI of the Open Source Photoshop program GIMP has been made with the GTK-library.

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17.4 Reading from and writing to Excel sheets

As we use MS Office Excel a lot, it is sometimes useful to use their worksheet format from
within our Python programs. The easiest way is of course to generate Tab-delimited or comma-
delimited data, which can work in both ways. But there are more advanced ways to work directly
in Excel spreadsheets using two modules:

Openpyxl: Interfacing with .xlsx and .xlsm files

A very straightforward way to read from and write to excel files is Openpyxl, install with pip
install in an Run as Admin console:

pip install openpyxl

Or use the following link:

http://pythonhosted.org/openpyxl/

An example of the resulting source code if you use this module from the tutorial:

Create your own Workbook:

from openpyxl import Workbook

wb = Workbook()
ws = wb.active

# add a simple formula

ws["A1"] = "=SUM(1, 1)"
wb.save("formula.xlsx")

Reading from an existing Workbook file:

from openpyxl import load_workbook

wb = load_workbook(filename = r'empty_book.xlsx')
sheet_ranges = wb['range names']

print(sheet_ranges['D18'].value) # D18

Xlrd and xlwt

A slightly easier way to write and read to Excel is using xlrd and xlwt, install again with pip:

pip install xlrd

pip install xlwt

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One way is to use the xlrd and xlwt module to respectivele read and write to excel sheets. You
can find these together with xlutils at http://www.python-excel.org/. An example of the very
straightforward calls:

from xlwt import *

w = Workbook()
ws = w.add_sheet('F')
ws.write(3, 0, Formula("-(134.8780789e-10+1)"))
w.save('formulas.xls')

Pyexcelerator
Pyexcelerator is an alternative to xlrd, and xlwt. This module can also be installed with pip:

pip install pyexcelerator

or it can be found at: http://sourceforge.net/projects/pyexcelerator/ where you can also find docs
and examples. The zip file with which you download the module contains many examples for
you to borrow.

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17.5 Interfacing with hardware

17.5.1 Raspberry Pi

The Raspberry Pi (http://www.raspberrypi.org/ ) is a very basic (but complete), low cost, very
small (credit card size) Linux computer which comes with Python installed and it also runs
pygame. For around 50 euros you have a complete computer with the basic accessories like
power supply, OS on SD-card, etc. You can connect it to any screen via HDMI. Because it is
small and comsumes not much power, it is used for many purposes like internet of things, mobile
webcam, robotics, education projects, programming/gaming console, webserver, twitter-
monitoring and other desktop applications.

Some specifications:

 CPU: 1.2 GHZ quad-core ARM Cortex A53 (ARMv8 Instruction Set)
 GPU: Broadcom VideoCore IV @ 400 MHz
 Memory: 1 GB LPDDR2-900 SDRAM
 USB ports: 4
 Network: 10/100 MBPS Ethernet, 802.11n Wireless LAN, Bluetooth 4.0

And IDLE runs on the Raspberry and it is provided with it:

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And so does Pygame!

17.5.2 MicroPython

A relatively new initiative (from MIT) is called MicroPython. This is a special version of Python
3 for a microcontroller. The Micro Python board, called pyboard, is shown below.

By simply copying the text files with your Python code from your PC onto the microboard, you
can run the programs. To get an impression of the code, some examples from the website are
given below:

Controlling LEDs:

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More information can be found on the website http://micropython.org/

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Appendix A Overview of basic Python statements

print() prints output to console

input() (=function!) returns input from console as text string

if-elif-else conditional execution of statements

while repeat a block of code as long as the condition is True

for i in range() loop n times with i increasing according to specified range
for x in s loop with x equal to each element in list s

break break out of block in current (inner) loop

continue leave to block of code and return to beginning of loop for next iteration

del a delete variable named a (can also be an element of a list: del tab[2] )

def define a function

return value return from the function to calling program with optional value

import import a module

from module import function import specific function from a module
from module import * import all functions from a module in the namespace

help(string) get help on module/function in string (help() interactive help)

a = [] create an empty list named a

a.append() append element to a list named a

File input/output

f = open(filename, mode) Open a file, mode can be “r” read, or “w” write.
f.readline() Read a line from a file
f.writeline(line) Write a line to a file
f.close() Close the file

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Appendix B Overview of functions and special operators

i%k modulo operator, remainder of i divided by k e.g. 34%10 is 4
x**y power operator: xy for integers and floats, so 2**3 is 8 , 2.0**-1.0 is 0.5

txt1 + txt2 concatenates strings txt1 and txt2

s1 + s2 adds list s2 at the end of s1 resulting in combined array
10*[0] creates a list of 10 zeroes

len(s) length of a string or list

sum(s) sum of a list

min(s) minimum of a list

max(s) maximum of a list
min(a,b,c) minimum of given arguments
max(a,b,c) maximum of given arguments

chr(i) character (string with length 1) for given ascii code

ord(ch) ascii code for given character ch

int(x) converts x to integer

float(i) converts i to float
str(x) converts x to a string
eval(txt) evaluates string resulting in float or integer

s.append(a) appends a at the end of the list variable s

s.remove(a) removes the first element with value a from the list variable s
s.index(a) returns the index of the first appearance of in a list s

range(stop) produces an iterable list [0,1…..stop-1] so until but not incl. stop
range(start,stop) same but now starting with start (included) i.s.o. default zero
range(start,stop,step) same but now with step step instead of default 1

math.sqrt(x) square root of x (needs module math to be imported at beginning of code)

math.exp(x) returns ex , also need a math module

random.random() returns random number (float) between 0.0 and 1.0 (from module random)
random.randint(a,b) returns random integer with minimum a and maximum b (limits included)

time.clock() returns clock time as float in seconds (starts at zero the 1st time it is called)

time.time() returns time tuple with integers: [year, month, date, hour, minute, seconds
weekday, yearday, daylightsavingtimeswitch]

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Appendix C Example piece of code

i = 30 # integer
x = 1. # float
x = -5.4 # float
x = .3 # float
x = 1e4 # float

sw = True
sw = False # if lines becomes to long and the line of code
sw = i>40 or x<10 # with a backslash “\” and continue on the next line

s = "Hello"
s = 'World'
s = '"Hello World"' #Anything after hash-sign is not read
s = "Hello " + "World" #so this is how you can add comments

print ("Hello world")

print ("Hello",)
print ("World")
print ("Solution is",x," degrees")

a = input("What is your name?")

n = int(input("How many loops?"))
x = float(input("Enter a value for x:"))

a = [1,6,2,7,8,-1]
b = ["Ann","Bernie","Charlie"]

if sw or int(x)>i:
print("Check done.")
b = i*2
elif sw:
print("x is too large")
else:
print("Something else is going on")

for i in range(10):
print(i)
if i > 2:
print(i*2)

print(list(range(2,22,2)))

i=0
while n!=a[i]:
i=i+1

ans=""
while not (ans=='y' or ans=="Y"):
ans = input("Continue? (Y/N)")

for i in range(10):
print(i+1)
a = [1,6,2,7,8,-1]
for b in a:
print(a)

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Appendix D Solutions to exercises

# Exercise maximum of a,b,c,d

a = float(input('Enter a value a: '))
b = float(input('Enter a value b: '))
c = float(input('Enter a value c: '))
d = float(input('Enter a value d: '))

# Find maximum of a and b

if a>b:
m1 = a
else:
m1 = b

# Find maximum of c and d

if c>d:
m2 = c
else:
m2 = d

# Print maximum of all

print("Maximum value is:",)

if m1>m2:
print(m1)
else:
print(m2)

# Later, you will use one of the built-in functions of Python:

print(max(a,b,c,d))

Section 1.4.1
#Exercise 1
startsum = float(input("What is your starting amount to save?"))
nyears = int(input("How many years do you want to save your money?"))
interest = float(input("What is the yearly interest rate (in percent)?"))

endsum = start * (1. + interest/100.)**nyears

print(endsum)

#Exercise 2
Ra = float(input("What is the resistance of resistor A?"))
Rb = float(input("What is the resistance of resistor B?"))
Rc = float(input("What is the resistance of resistor C?"))

Rab = (1./Ra + 1./Rb)**-1

Rabc = Rab + Rc
print(Rabc)

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Section 1.4.2
# Exercise 1
from math import *

a = float(input("Enter the length of right side a: "))

b = float(input("Enter the length of right side b: "))

c = sqrt(a*a + b*b)

print("The length hypothenuse c is",c)

Section 1.4.5

#Exercise 1:

import random

#0 means heads and 1 means tails

coin = int(random.random()*2)
names = [“heads”,”tails”]

print(names[coin])

#Exercise 2:

import random

#First use random function till 4,simulating the four different playing cards
#Then use a random function till 13, to simulate all the different numbers

icol = int(random.random()*4)
number = int(random.random()*13)

colours = [“hearts”,”tiles”,”clovers”,”pikes”]
print("So your card is", colours[icol], "with ", number)

#Exercise 3:

import time

t = time.localtime()
hour = t.tm_hour
mins = t.tm_min
secs = t.tm_sec

totalsec = hour*3600 + mins*60 + secs

print(“Seconds left in today are:”,24.*3600.-totalsec)

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Section 2.6.4 Lists

#Exercise 1
x = float(input(“Enter start amount:”))
interest = float(input(“Enter interest rate in percent:”))
nyears = int(input(“How many years?”))
rate = 1.0 + interest/100.

debt = []
for i in range(30):
debt.append([i,round(x)])
x = x*rate

for i in range(30):
print(debt[i])

Section 3.5 Loops

#Exercise 1
value = int(input("To which number do you want to calculate?"))

for i in range(1,int(value)):
count = 0
for j in [2]+list(range(3,i+1,2)):
if i%j == 0:
count = count+1
if count <= 2:
print(i)

#Exercise 2
for i in range(6):
string = i*"* "
print(string)

for i in range(4,0, -1):

string = i*"* "
print(string)

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Section 3.6
#Exercise 3
words = input("Which string do you want to evaluate?")
d = 0
l = 0

for c in words:
if c.isdigit():
d = d + 1
elif c.isalpha():
l = l + 1
print("Number of letters is ", l,"Number of digits is ", d)

#Exercise 2
length = int(input("How long do you want your list to be?"))

lst = []
for i in range(length):
word = input("Enter the word you want in your list?")
lst.append(word)

for i in range(length):
print(lst[i], “has length”, len(lst[i]))

#Exercise 3
values = [[10, 20], [30, 40, 50, 60, 70]]

for i in range(len(values)):
print(len(values[i]), values[i])

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Section 3.7 BREAK or not

#Exercise 1

value = int(input("Till which value do you want to calculate the prime

numbers?"))
print ("2 ,",)
for n in range(3, value+1,2):
for x in range(2, n):
if n % x == 0:
break
else:
print(n,",",)
print()

#Exercise 1 with while loop and avoid break with a logical used as switch

value = int(input("Till which value do you want to calculate the prime

numbers?"))
print ("2 ,",end=” ”)
primes = [2]
for n in range(3,value+1,2):
swprime = True
x = 2
while swprime and x*x<=n:
if n%x==0:
swprime = False
x = x+1+x%2 #add 2 to odd numbers, one to even
if swprime: print (n,",",end=” ”)
print()

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Chapter 6 exercises
Exercises python section 6

#Exercise 1
def countwords(sentence):

count = 1 #the first word doesn't have a space in front, the rest does
for i in range(len(sentence)):
if sentence[i] == " ":
count = count + 1
lastspace = i

lastword = sentence[lastspace+1:]

return count, lastword

#Exercise 2
def surfacesphere(radius):
surface = 4.*pi*radius**2
return surface

def volumesphere(radius):
volume = (4./3.)*pi*radius**3
return volume

def surfacecone(radius, height):

surface = pi*radius*(radius**2 + height**2)**(0.5)
return surface

def volumecone(radius, height):

volume = (1./3.)*pi*radius**2*height
return volume

#Exercise 3
def changestring(string, n, delim):
string = (n-1)*(string+delim)+string
return string

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Section 9.1 Plotting

#Exercise 1

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import math

xtab = []
fxtab = []
gxtab = []

for i in range(0,314):
x = float(i)/100.
fx = math.sin(x)
gx = math.exp(x) - 2.
xtab.append(x)
fxtab.append(fx)
gxtab.append(gx)

plt.plot(xtab,fxtab)
plt.plot(xtab,gxtab)
plt.show()

#intersection is (1.054, 0.87)

#Exercise 2

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import math

xtab = []
ytab = []

for i in range(0,628):
tetha = float(i)/100.

r = 4*math.cos(2*tetha)

x = r*math.cos(tetha)
y = r*math.sin(tetha)
xtab.append(x)
ytab.append(y)

plt.plot(xtab,ytab)
plt.show()

#Exercise 3

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

time = range(1950,2020,10)
co2 = [250,265,272,280,300,320,389]

plt.plot(time,co2)
plt.show()

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Section 9.2 Multiple plots

#Exercises python section 9.2

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import math

#Exercise 1
y1tab = []
y2tab = []
xtab = []
for x in range(0,1000):
x = x/100.
xtab.append(x)

y1 = math.cos(3.*x) + 2.*math.sin(2.*x)
y1tab.append(y1)

y2 = math.exp(-2.*x)+ math.exp(-3.*x+1.)
y2tab.append(y2)

plt.subplot(211)
plt.plot(xtab,y1tab)
plt.subplot(212)
lt.plot(xtab,y2tab)
plt.show()

#Exercise 2

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

import math

x1tab = []
y1tab = []
x2tab = []
y2tab = []
tethatab = []

for i in range(0,2513):
tetha = float(i)/100.
tethatab.append(tetha)

r1 = tetha
r2 = tetha**2

x1 = r1*math.cos(tetha)
y1 = r1*math.sin(tetha)

x1tab.append(x1)
y1tab.append(y1)

x2 = r2*math.cos(tetha)
y2 = r2*math.sin(tetha)

x2tab.append(x2)
y2tab.append(y2)

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plt.subplot(121)
plt.plot(x1tab,y1tab)
plt.title("r = tetha")
plt.xlabel("x")
plt.ylabel("y")
plt.subplot(122)
plt.plot(x2tab,y2tab)
plt.title("r = tetha**2")
plt.xlabel("x")
plt.ylabel("y")
plt.show()

#Exercise 3

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

plt.plot([3, 3], [-10, 3], color='k', linestyle='-', linewidth=2)

plt.plot([-10, 3], [3, 3], color='r', linestyle='-', linewidth=2)
plt.plot([-10, 3], [3, -10], color='b', linestyle='--', linewidth=2)

plt.show()

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Section 9.3 Inter-active plots

#Exercises python section 9.3

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

plt.ion()

for x in range(-20,20):
x = float(x)/10.
y1 = (2**2 - x**2)**0.5
y2 = -(2**2 - x**2)**0.5

plt.plot(x,y1, 'ro')
plt.plot(x,y2, 'ro')
plt.draw()

plt.close()

Section 9.4 3D-plots

from matplotlib import cm
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from mpl_toolkits.mplot3d import Axes3D
from numpy import arange, meshgrid, linspace

#Exercise 1
x = arange(0,21,1)
y = linspace(0,8,21)
X, Y = meshgrid(x, y)
Z = (1./100.)*X**2

fig = plt.figure()
ax = Axes3D(fig)

ax.plot_surface(X,Y,Z, rstride=1, cstride=1, linewidth=0, antialiased=False)

plt.show()

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Chapter 10 exercises: Simulation

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import math

#Exercise 1 a), b), c)

t = 0. #[s] time starts at zero
dt= 0.1 #[s] time step
vy = 0. #[m/s] starting speed is zero
y = 10. #[m] start altitude
g = 9.81 #[m/s2] gravity acceleration
m = 2.0 #[kg] mass
ttab = []
ytab = []

CD = 0.47
rho = 1.225
S = math.pi*0.15**2

while y > 0:
t = t + dt
F = m * g
D = 0.5*CD*rho*vy**2*S
a = (-1.*F + D) / m
vy = vy + a*dt
y = y + vy*dt

ttab.append(t)
ytab.append(y)

plt.plot(ttab,ytab)
plt.show()

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#Exercise 2 a)
delta = 0.01
s = 0
h = 1.
tetha = 30.*math.pi/180.
vx = 100*math.cos(tetha)
vy = 100*math.sin(tetha)
g = 9.81
stab = []
htab = []
while h >= 0:
ay = -1.*g
ax = 0

vy = vy + ay*delta
vx = vx + ax*delta

h = h + vy*delta
s = s + vx*delta

htab.append(h)
stab.append(s)

plt.plot(stab,htab)
plt.ylim(0,140)
plt.show()

#Exercise 2 b)
delta = 0.01
s = 0
h = 1.
tetha = 30.*math.pi/180.
vx = 100*math.cos(tetha)
vy = 100*math.sin(tetha)
g = 9.81
Fd = 80
m = 10
stab = []
htab = []
while h >= 0:
ay = (-1.*m*g -1.*Fd*math.sin(tetha))/m
ax = (-1*Fd*math.cos(tetha))/m

vy = vy + ay*delta
vx = vx + ax*delta

h = h + vy*delta
s = s + vx*delta

htab.append(h)
stab.append(s)

tetha = math.atan(vy/vx)

plt.plot(stab,htab)
plt.ylim(0,140)
plt.show()

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#Exercise 2 c)
delta = 0.01
s = 0
h = 1.
tetha = 30.*math.pi/180.
vx = 100*math.cos(tetha)
vy = 100*math.sin(tetha)
m = 10
g0 = 9.80665
Re = 6371*1000 #m
stab = []
htab = []
while h >= 0:
Fd = 0.05*(vx**2+vy**2)
g = g0*(Re/(Re + h))

ay = (-1.*m*g -1.*Fd*math.sin(tetha))/m
ax = (-1*Fd*math.cos(tetha))/m

vy = vy + ay*delta
vx = vx + ax*delta

h = h + vy*delta
s = s + vx*delta

htab.append(h)
stab.append(s)

plt.plot(stab,htab)
plt.ylim(0,140)
plt.show()

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Section 11.2 Exercises

#Exercises python section 11.2

from numpy import *

import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

#Exercise 1
#Make functions for the circle:
r = 2

tetha = linspace(0,pi,180)
x1 = r*cos(tetha)
y1 = r*sin(tetha)
x2 = -r*cos(tetha)
y2 = -r*sin(tetha)

#Make a list with all the points of the hexagon

xlist = [-r, -r*cos(pi/3.), r*cos(pi/3.), r, r*cos(pi/3.), -r*cos(pi/3.), -r]
ylist = [0, r*sin(pi/3.), r*sin(pi/3.), 0, -r*sin(pi/3), -r*sin(pi/3), 0]

plt.plot(x1,y1, 'r-', x2,y2, 'r-')

plt.plot(xlist,ylist, 'b-')
plt.show()

#Exercise 2
def diagonal(array):
maintab = []
for i in range(len(array)):
main = array[i,i]
maintab.append(main)

return maintab

A = ones((2,2))
A[0,1] = A[0,1]*5
A[0,0] = A[0,0]*2
A[1,1] = A[1,1]*-1
A[1,0] = A[1,0]*4
print A

#Exercise 3
#list
lst = [[2,3],[5,4]]

column = []
for i in range(len(lst)):
col = lst[i][0]
column.append(col)
print(column)

arr = array(lst)

print(arr[:,0])

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Section 11.3 exercises Logic and arrays

import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

#Exercise 1
h = np.arange(0,32.,1.)

to11 = 288.15 - 6.5*h

to20 = 216.65+0.*(h-11.)
to32 = 216.65+1.*(h-20.)

temp = (h<11)*to11 + (h>=11)*to20 + (h>=20)*to32 -(h>=20)*to20

plt.plot(h, temp)
plt.show()

#Exercise 2
x = np.arange(-3,3,0.001)

fx = (x<=1.)*x**2 + (x>1)*(6.-x)

plt.plot(x,fx)
plt.show()

#Exercise 3
A = np.array([3,4,6,10,24,89,45,43,46,99,100])

div3 = A[A%3!=0]
print("Elements of A not divisible by 3:", div3)

div5 = A[A%5==0]
print("Elements of A divisible by 5:", div5)

div35 = A[(A%3==0) & (A%5==0)]

print("Elements of A, which are divisible by 3 and 5:", div35)

A[A%3==0] = 42
print ("New values of A after setting the elements of A,", \
"which are divisible by 3, to 42:", A)

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Section 11.5
from numpy import *
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

#Exercise 1
A = matrix('2 -5 6; 4 3 8; 5 -2 9')
b = matrix('3; 5; -1')

B = A.I

x = B*b

print(x)

#Exercise 2
#Solution: u is motorboat speed and v is current speed

# (3 + 10/60) *(u-v) = 29.5 -> u - v = (29.5/3.16667)

# (2 + 6/60)*(u+v) = 29.5 -> u + v = (29.5/2.1)

A = matrix('1 -1; 1, 1')

b = matrix('9.31578; 14.0476')
B = A.I

x = B*b
print(x)

#Exercise 3
#First we calculate all the data points
i = arange(1,11)
xi = 0.1*i
yi = 5*exp(-xi)+2*xi
Yi = ones(shape=(10,1))
Yi[:,0] = Yi[:,0]*yi

#Now we use least square problem to make a fitting. We want a lineair trend
line, so
#y = b1 + xb2 so Xb = y with

#First construct matrix X:

X = ones(shape=(10,2))
X[:,1] = X[:,1]*xi
X = matrix(X)

#Now we want to generate a least square solution for fitting! X.TXb = X.Ty

Xtranspose = X.T
Xfirst = Xtranspose*X
Xsecond = Xtranspose*Yi

#Solve for b to get the fit

b = linalg.inv(Xfirst)*Xsecond

#Or calculate it faster with the function in numpy.linalg:

c = linalg.lstsq(X,yi) #Check if this gives the same result!

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#So the least square fit is:

y = float(b[0][0]) + float(b[1][0])*xi

#Now plot both curves

plt.plot(xi,yi,label='Data points')
plt.plot(xi,y,label='Least square fit')
plt.legend()
plt.show()

Exercises chapter 13
#Exercise 1

import pygame as pg

pg.init()

reso = (750,500)
blue = (0,0,255)

screen = pg.display.set_mode(reso)
screen.fill(blue)

pg.display.flip()

pg.event.pump()

pg.quit()

#Exercise 2
import pygame as pg

pg.init()

reso = (750,500)
blue = (0,0,255)

screen = pg.display.set_mode(reso)
screen.fill(blue)

plane = pg.image.load('plane.jpg')
plane = pg.transform.scale(plane,(150,60))
planerect = plane.get_rect()

planerect.center = (75,250.)
screen.blit(plane,planerect)

pg.display.flip()

pg.event.pump()

pg.quit()

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#Exercise 3

import pygame as pg

pg.init()

reso = (750,500)
blue = (0,0,255)

screen = pg.display.set_mode(reso)
scrrect = screen.get_rect()

plane = pg.image.load('plane.jpg')
plane = pg.transform.scale(plane,(150,60))
planerect = plane.get_rect()

xs = 75
ys = 250
vx = 50
tsim = 0.0
tstart = 0.001*pg.time.get_ticks()
dt = 0.01
running = True

while running:
trun = 0.001*pg.time.get_ticks() - tstart
if trun + dt >= tsim:
tsim = tsim + dt
xs = xs + vx*dt
planerect.center = (xs,ys)

pg.draw.rect(screen,blue,scrrect)
screen.blit(plane,planerect)

pg.display.flip()

if xs > 750+75:
running = False

pg.event.pump()

pg.quit()
print("Ready.")

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#Exercise 4
import pygame as pg

pg.init()

reso = (750,500)
blue = (0,0,255)

screen = pg.display.set_mode(reso)
scrrect = screen.get_rect()

plane = pg.image.load('plane.jpg') # use jpg of a plane flying to the right

plane = pg.transform.scale(plane,(150,60))
planerect = plane.get_rect()

xs = 75
ys = 250
vx = 50
tsim = 0.0
tstart = 0.001*pg.time.get_ticks()
dt = 0.01
running = True

while running:
trun = 0.001*pg.time.get_ticks() - tstart
if trun + dt >= tsim:
tsim = tsim + dt
xs = xs + vx*dt

if xs > 750+75:
running = False

for event in pg.event.get():

if event.type == pg.QUIT:
running = False
if event.type == pg.KEYDOWN:
if event.key == pg.K_ESCAPE:
running = False
elif event.key == pg.K_DOWN:
ys = ys + 5
elif event.key == pg.K_UP:
ys = ys - 5

planerect.center = (xs,ys)
pg.draw.rect(screen,blue,scrrect)
screen.blit(plane,planerect)

pg.display.flip()

pg.quit()

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