Materials are probably more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize.

Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation and food production— virtually

every segment of our everyday lives is influenced to one degree or another by materials.
Historically, the development and advancement of societies have been intimately tied to the
members’ ability to produce and manipulate materials to fill their needs. In fact, early
civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials development
Metals
Materials in this group are composed of one or more metallic elements (such as iron,
aluminum, copper, titanium, gold, and nickel), and often also nonmetallic elements (for example,
carbon, nitrogen and oxygen) in relatively small amounts. These materials are relatively stiff and
strong yet are ductile and are resistant to fracture which accounts for their widespread use in
structural applications. Metallic materials have large numbers of nonlocalized electrons; that is,
these electrons are not bound to particular atoms. Many properties of metals are directly
attributable to these electrons. For example, metals are extremely good conductors of electricity
and heat and are not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a lustrous
appearance.
Ceramics
Ceramics are compounds between metallic and nonmetallic elements; they are most
frequently oxides, nitrides, and carbides.
On the other hand, they are extremely brittle and are highly susceptible to fracture.
These materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and, and are more resistant to
high temperatures and harsh environments than metals and polymers. With regard to optical
characteristics, ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque.

Ceramics’ wide range of electrical properties including insulating, semi-conducting,

superconducting, piezoelectric and magnetic are critical to products such as cell phones,
computers, television, and other consumer electronic products. The global market for electronic
ceramics is estimated at around $9 billion.
 
Ceramic spark plugs, which are electrical insulators, have had a large impact on society.
They were first invented in 1860 to ignite fuel for internal combustion engines and are still being
used for this purpose today. Applications include automobiles, boat engines, lawnmowers, and
the like. High voltage insulators make it possible to safely carry electricity to houses and
businesses.

Polymers
Polymers include the familiar plastic and rubber materials. Many of them are organic
compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other nonmetallic elements
Furthermore, they have very large molecular structures, often chain-like in nature that have a
backbone of carbon atoms. Some of the common and familiar polymers are polyethylene (PE),
nylon, poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), polystyrene (PS), and silicone rubber.
These materials typically have low densities whereas their mechanical characteristics are
generally dissimilar to the metallic and ceramic materials—they are not as stiff nor as strong as
these other material types.
 Polymers are used to satisfy consumer preference is driving the fast-growing global
market of handheld electronic devices. Key product attributes that contribute to the look and feel
of the device are continually sought by consumers when choosing among today’s wide range of
consumer electronics. To meet these consumer requirements, OEMs and designers are seeking
high-performance materials for electronic devices that provide strength, scratch resistance,
aesthetics/soft touch, and light weight. While meeting consumer needs, manufacturers also
must consider functional demands such as radio frequency interference (RFI), flame retardancy,
and environmental impact.

Engineering thermoplastics play an increasingly vital role in this high-growth consumer

market. Specifically, semi-crystalline resins from DuPont deliver performance, aesthetics,
design freedom, and in some cases, more sustainable material solutions. These advanced
polymer options are being increasingly specified in applications ranging from soft-touch parts to
structural components.

MATERIAL TESTING
Material Testing is a test done to determine the properties of a substance in comparison
with a standard or specification
Purposes
a) To determine the quality of material
b) To determine mechanical properties such as strength hardness ductility, toughness and
etc.
c) To trace defects and flaws in the materials
d) To evaluate materials potential in certain use
Mechanical Testing is used for developing design data, maintaining quality control, assisting in
alloy development programs and providing data in failure analysis
Concepts of Stress and Strain

Stress is defined as the force per unit area of a material.

Strain is defined as extension per unit length or the relative change in shape or size of an object due
to externally applied forces

Mechanical Properties
a. Ductility -ability to deform under tensile stress and is often characterized of the materials
ability to be stretched into a wire
b. Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform without
fracturing. Material toughness is defined as the amount of energy per volume that a
material can absorb without rupturing
 c. Brittle- a material is brittle if when subjected to stress, it breaks without significant
strain(Deformation). Brittle include mostly ceramic and glasses and some polymers
such as PMMA and polystyrene.
d. Hardness- is the degree of resistance to indentation, penetration, abrasion and wear.
Common indentation hardness scales are Rockwell and Vickers, Shore and Brinell.
e. Plasticity- the propensity of a material to undergo permanent deformation under load
f. Elasticity- the physical property of a material that return to its original shape after the
stress that made it deform.
g. Strength – is the ability of the material to withstand various loads to which it is subjected
during a test
Many materials, when in service are subjected to forces or loads; examples include the
aluminum alloy from which an airplane wing is constructed and the steel in an automobile axle.
In such situations, it is necessary to know the characteristics of the material and to design the
member from which it is made such that any resulting deformation will not be excessive and
fracture will not occur. The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the relationship between
its response or deformation to an applied load or force. Important mechanical properties are
strength, hardness, ductility, and stiffness. The mechanical properties of materials are
ascertained by performing carefully designed laboratory experiments that replicate as nearly as
possible the service conditions. Factors to be considered include the nature of the applied load
and its duration, as well as the environmental conditions. It is possible for the load to be tensile,
compressive or shear, and its magnitude may be constant with time, or it may fluctuate
continuously. Application time may be only a fraction of a second, or it may extend over a period
of many years. Service temperature may be an important factor. Mechanical properties are of
concern to a variety of parties that have differing interests.
Materials are frequently chosen for structural applications because they have desirable
combinations of mechanical characteristics. The present discussion is confined primarily to the
mechanical behavior of metals; polymers and ceramics are treated separately because they
are, to a large degree, mechanically dissimilar to metals.
Tension test
Tension test is a fundamental materials science test in which a sample is subjected to a
controlled tension until failure. Tension test is widely used to provide a basic design information
on the strength of materials and is an acceptance test for the specification of materials. The
major parameters that describe the stress-strain curve obtained during the tension test are the
tensile strength (UTS), yield strength or yield point (σy), elastic modulus (E), percent elongation
(∆L%) and the reduction in area (RA%). Toughness, Resilience, Poisson’s ratio(ν) can also be
found by the use of this testing technique.
Tension test are normally conducted to obtain the mechanical properties of metals. It is
the primary test used for quality control and basis for acceptance and refusal of metallic
products used in construction and other uses.
According to the loading type, there are two kinds of tensile testing machines;
1 – Screw Driven Testing Machine: During the experiment, elongation rate is kept
constant.
2 – Hydraulic Testing Machine: Keeps the loading rate constant. The loading rate can
be set depending on the desired time to fracture.

s
Example of Tension Test
A standard tensile specimen is shown in Figure 1. Normally, the cross section is circular,
but rectangular specimens are also used. This “dogbone” specimen configuration was chosen
so that, during testing, deformation is confined to the narrow center region (which has a uniform
cross section along its length), and, also, to reduce the likelihood of fracture at the ends of the
specimen. The standard diameter is approximately 12.8 mm (0.5 in.), whereas the reduced
section length should be at least four times this diameter; 60 mm is common.

Figure 1

Figure 2

The tensile testing machine shown in Figure 2 is designed to elongate the specimen at a
constant rate, and to continuously and simultaneously measure the instantaneous applied load
(with a load cell) and the resulting elongations (using an extensometer). A stress–strain test
typically takes several minutes to perform and is destructive; that is the test specimen is
permanently deformed and usually fractured.
The output of such a tensile test is recorded (usually on a computer) as load or force
versus elongation. These load–deformation characteristics are dependent on the specimen size.
For example, it will require twice the load to produce the same elongation if the cross-sectional
area of the specimen is doubled. To minimize these geometrical factors, load and elongation
are normalized to the respective parameters of engineering stress and engineering strain.
Engineering stress is defined by the relationship in which F is the instantaneous load
applied perpendicular to the specimen cross section, in units of newtons (N) or pounds force,
and is the original cross-sectional area before any load is applied (m2 or in.2). The units of
engineering stress (referred to subsequently as just stress) are megapascals, MPa (SI) (where
1 MPa N/m2), and pounds force per square inch, psi (Customary U.S.).
 Engineering strain is defined according to in which is the original length before any load
is applied, and is the instantaneous length. Sometimes the quantity is denoted as and is the
deformation elongation or change in length at some instant, as referenced to the original length.
Engineering strain (subsequently called just strain) is unitless, but meters per meter or inches
per inch are often used; the value of strain is obviously independent of the unit system.
Sometimes strain is also expressed as a percentage, in which the strain value is multiplied by
100.

Elastic Region: The part of the stress-strain curve up to the yielding point. Elastic deformation
is recoverable. In the elastic region, stress and strain are related to each other linearly.
Hooke’s Law: σ=Ee

The linearity constant E is called the elastic modulus which is specific for each type of
material. An elastic modulus (also known as modulus of elasticity) is a number that measures an
object or substance's resistance to being deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently) when
a stress is applied to it. The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress–strain
curve in the elastic deformation region:[1] A stiffer material will have a higher elastic modulus

Plastic Region: The part of the stress-strain diagram after the yielding point. At the yielding
point, the plastic deformation starts. Plastic deformation is permanent. At the maximum point of
the stress-strain diagram (σUTS), necking starts.

Tensile Strength is the maximum stress that the material can support.

Because the tensile strength is easy to determine and is a quite reproducible property, it
is useful for the purposes of specifications and for quality control of a product. Extensive
empirical correlations between tensile strength and properties such as hardness and fatigue
strength are often quite useful. For brittle materials, the tensile strength is a valid criterion for
design.

Yield Strength is the stress level at which plastic deformation starts. The beginning of first
plastic deformation is called yielding. It is an important parameter in design.
The stress at which plastic deformation or yielding is observed to begin depends on the
sensitivity of the strain measurements. With most materials, there is a gradual transition from
elastic to plastic behavior, and the point at which plastic deformation begins is hard to define
with precision. Various criteria for the initiation of yielding are used depending on the sensitivity
of the strain measurements and the intended use of the data.
Strain Hardening
Strain Hardening is when a metal is strained beyond the yield point. An increasing stress
is required to produce additional plastic deformation and the metal apparently becomes stronger
and more difficult to deform
Strain hardening is closely related to fatigue. Example, bending the thin steel rod
becomes more difficult the farther the rod is bent. This is the result of work or strain hardening. It
reduces ductility which increases the chances of brittle failure.
Note:
 z
z

Tensile Failure
It occurs when the effective tensile stress across some plane is the sample exceeds a
critical limit called Tensile Strength.

COMPRESSION TEST
Compression test is used to obtain the mechanical properties and is the basis
acceptance and refusal of brittle nonmetallic and other materials that have very low strength in
tension like wood, concrete, masonry, etc.
 Compression test could be used to obtain the mechanical properties of metals however
it is not preferred due to the following.
1. It is difficult to apply a truly axial load in compression which lending to nonuniform
stresses

2. Friction between the machine head and the sample effects the results causing the
stresses to have small inclination

3. Eccentricity may cause instability

4. Long samples are prone to the length of the specimen must be limited
5. Using small sample results in inaccuracies in results and using large samples
requires testing machine with large capacities.

The goal of a compression test is to determine the behavior or response of a material while it
experiences a compressive load by measuring fundamental variables, such as, strain, stress, and
deformation. By testing a material in compression, the compressive strength, yield strength, ultimate
strength, elastic limit, and the elastic modulus among other parameters may all be determined. With
the understanding of these different parameters and the values associated with a specific material it
may be determined whether or not the material is suited for specific applications or if it will fail under
the specified stresses. 

Typical Materials

The following materials are typically subjected to a compression test.

 Concrete.  Metals.  Plastics.  Ceramics.

Example of Compression Test Set-up

Figure 3.Universal Testing

Machine. Model: AG-IS MO
20Kn
 Bearing blocks are used are used to ensure the load is applied to the specimen and
Spherical loading heads are used to avoid applying the load at a single point if the loading surfaces
are at a small angle.

Compressive Strength - It is the maximum compressive stress that a material is capable of

withstanding without fracture. Brittle materials fracture during testing and have a definite
compressive strength values. The compressive strength of ductile materials is determined by their
degree of distortion during testing.
Behavior of Metals in Compression

Compression failures are deformations of the fibers due to excessive end compression,
or to compression resulting from bending
 COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION
Most solid materials expand upon heating and contract when cooled. The change in
length with temperature for a solid material may be expressed as follows:

where and represent, respectively, initial and final lengths with the temperature change from to.
The parameter is called the linear coefficient of thermal expansion; it is a material property that
is indicative of the extent to which a material expands upon heating, and has units of reciprocal
temperature. Of course, heating or cooling affects all the dimensions of a body, with a resultant
change in volume. Volume changes with temperature may be computed from where and are the
volume change and the original volume, respectively, and symbolizes the volume coefficient of
thermal expansion. In many materials, the value of is anisotropic; that is, it depends on the
crystallographic direction along which it is measured.

For materials in which the thermal expansion is isotropic, is approximately from an

atomic perspective, thermal expansion is reflected by an increase in the average distance
between the atoms. Heating to successively higher temperatures raises the vibrational energy
from to and so on. The average vibrational amplitude of an atom corresponds to the trough
width at each temperature, and the average interatomic distance is represented by the mean
position, which increases with temperature from to and so on. For each class of materials
(metals, ceramics, and polymers), the greater the atomic bonding energy, the deeper and
narrower this potential energy trough. As a result, the increase in interatomic separation with a
given rise in temperature will be lower, yielding a smaller value of Table below lists the linear
coefficients of thermal expansion for several materials. With regard to temperature dependence,
the magnitude of the coefficient of expansion increases with rising temperature.
An isotropic solid is a solid material in which physical properties do not depend on its
orientation. It is an example of isotropy which can also apply to fluids, or other non-material
concepts.
For isotropic materials the volumetric thermal expansion coefficient is three times the linear
coefficient.
Anisotropy is the property of being directionally dependent, which implies different
properties in different directions, as opposed to isotropy. It can be defined as a difference, when
measured along different axes, in a material's physical or mechanical
properties (absorbance, refractive index, conductivity, tensile strength, etc.)  
Materials with anisotropic structures, such as crystals (with less than cubic symmetry) and
many composites, will generally have different linear expansion coefficients in different directions
Metals
Linear coefficients of thermal expansion for some of the common metals range between
about and these values are intermediate in magnitude between those for ceramic and polymeric
materials. As the following Materials of Importance piece explains, several low-expansion and
controlled-expansion metal alloys have been developed, which are used in applications
requiring dimensional stability with temperature variations.
Ceramics
Relatively strong interatomic bonding forces are found in many ceramic materials as
reflected in comparatively low coefficients of thermal expansion; values typically range between
about and for non-crystalline ceramics and also those having cubic crystal structures, is
isotropic. Otherwise, it is anisotropic; and, in fact, some ceramic materials, upon heating,
contract in some crystallographic directions while expanding in others. For inorganic glasses,
the coefficient of expansion is dependent on composition. Fused silica (high-purity SiO2 glass)
has a small expansion coefficient, This is explained by a low atomic packing density such that
interatomic expansion produces relatively small macroscopic dimensional changes. Ceramic
materials that are to be subjected to temperature changes must have coefficients of thermal
expansion that are relatively low, and in addition, isotropic.
Polymers
Some polymeric materials experience very large thermal expansions upon heating as
indicated by coefficients that range from approximately to. The highest values are found in linear
and branched polymers because the secondary intermolecular bonds are weak, and there is a
minimum of cross linking. With increased cross linking, the magnitude of the expansion
coefficient diminishes; the lowest coefficients are found in the thermosetting network polymers
such as phenol-formaldehyde, in which the bonding is almost entirely covalent.
C
 BEAM DEFLECTION

The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its deflection from its original
unloaded position. The deflection is measured from the original neutral surface of the beam to
the neutral surface of the deformed beam. The configuration assumed by the deformed neutral
surface is known as the elastic curve of the beam.
Deflections are most often caused by internal loadings such as bending moment and
axial force.
Methods of Determining Beam Deflections
Numerous methods are available for the determination of beam deflections. These
methods include:

1. Double-integration method

The double integration method is a powerful tool in solving deflection and slope of a
beam at any point because we will be able to get the equation of the elastic curve. In
calculus, the radius of curvature of a curve y = f(x) is given by

In the derivation of flexure formula, the radius of curvature of a beam is given as

 

Deflection of beams is so small, such that the slope of the elastic curve
dy/dx is very small, and squaring this expression the value becomes practically negligible, hence

E is the modulus of elasticity of the beam, I represent the moment of inertia about the
neutral axis, and M represents the bending moment at a distance x from the end of the beam.
The product EI is called the flexural rigidity of the beam.
Flexural rigidity is defined as the force couple required to bend a non-rigid structure
in one unit of curvature or it can be defined as the resistance offered by a structure while
undergoing bending
 
The first integration y' yields the slope of the elastic curve and the second integration y
gives the deflection of the beam at any distance x. The resulting solution must contain two
constants of integration since EI y" = M is of second order. These two constants must be
evaluated from known conditions concerning the slope deflection at certain points of the beam.
For instance, in the case of a simply supported beam with rigid supports, at x = 0 and x = L, the
deflection y = 0, and in locating the point of maximum deflection, we simply set the slope of the
elastic curve y' to zero.

2. Area-moment method

Another method of determining the slopes and deflections in beams is the area-moment
method, which involves the area of the moment diagram.

Theorem I
The change in slope between the tangents drawn to the elastic curve at any two points A and
B is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the area of the moment diagram between
these two points.

Theorem II
The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent drawn to the elastic curve at any other
point A, in a direction perpendicular to the original position of the beam, is equal to the
product of 1/EI multiplied by the moment of an area about B of that part of the moment
diagram between points A and B.

Rules of Sign
 

1. The deviation at any point is positive if the point lies above the tangent, negative
if the point is below the tangent.
2. Measured from left tangent, if θ is counterclockwise, the change of slope is
positive, negative if θ is clockwise.

3. Strain-energy method (Castigliano's Theorem)

Italian engineer Alberto Castigliano (1847 – 1884) developed a method of

determining deflection of structures by strain energy method.
  Energy of structure is its capacity of doing work and strain energy is the internal
energy in the structure because of its deformation. By the principle of conservation of
energy,
  For linearly elastic structures, the partial derivative of the strain energy with
respect to an applied force (or couple) is equal to the displacement (or rotation) of the
force (or couple) along its line of action.
 

4. Conjugate-beam method

Slope on real beam = Shear on conjugate beam

Deflection on real beam = Moment on conjugate beam

Properties

1. The length of a conjugate beam is always equal tzo the length of the actual beam.
2. The load on the conjugate beam is the M/EI diagram of the loads on the actual
beam.
3. A simple support for the real beam remains simple support for the conjugate
beam.
4. A fixed end for the real beam becomes free end for the conjugate beam.
5. The point of zero shear for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of zero
slope for the real beam.
6. The point of maximum moment for the conjugate beam corresponds to a point of
maximum deflection for the real beam.
 5. Method of superposition

The slope or deflection at any point on the beam is equal to the resultant of the slopes or
deflections at that point caused by each of the load acting separately.

BEAM DEFLECTION TESTING

 

Importance of BEAM Deflection

The ability to determine the deflection of a structure is very important.

 It is important to include the calculation of deflections into the design procedure to

prevent structural damage to secondary structures (concrete or plaster walls or roofs) or
to solve indeterminate problems.

SHEAR AND TORSION TEST

Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. Torsion Test is not widely
accepted much as tensile test. Torsion test are made on materials to determine such properties
as the modulus of elasticity in shear and the modulus of rupture.
It is often used for testing brittle materials and can be tested in full size parts i.e shafts, axles
and twist drills which are subjected to
torsional loading in service. There is better
chance for ductile behavior in torsion than in
tension.
Torsion-testing equipment consists of:
1) A twisting head, with a chuck for gripping the specimen and for applying the twisting moment
to the specimen.
2) A weight head, which grips the other end of the specimen and measures the twisting moment
of torque.

Example of Torsion Test

A. Applying twisting moment to the specimen and measure the torque.

B. The shear strain is given

C. The twisting moment is resisted by a shear stress set up in the cross section of
the bar
 D. The maximum shear stress at the surface of the bar is

E. For a tubular specimen, the shear stress on the outer surface is

F. Modulus of rupture or the ultimate torsional shearing stress is determined by

substituting shearing measured torque in to Eq.D or Eq.E. slightly overestimate.
G. The modulus of elasticity in shear G or the modulus of rigidity is addressed as
follows:

Torsion failures are different from tensile failures in that there is little localised reduction of area
or elongation.
a) Shear (ductile) failure is along the maximum shear plane.

b) Tensile (brittle) failure is perpendicular to the maximum tensile stress (at 45o), resulting in a
helical fracture.
Hot Torsion Testing
Under hot-working condition (T > 0.6Tm, ε up to 103 s-1), torsion test is often used to
obtain data on the flow properties and fracture.
In hot working condition (m>>n), the maximum shear stress is expressed as follows ;

Figure 4Torque twist curves at different

temperatures for a nickel based alloy in torsion

IMPACT TESTING

A metal may be very hard (and therefore very string and yet be unsuitable for applications in
which it is subjected to sudden loads in service. Materials behave quite differently when they are
loaded suddenly than when they are loaded more slowly as in tensile testing. Because of this fact,
impact test is considered to be one of the basic mechanical tests (especially for ferrous
metals).

The term brittle fracture is used to describe rapid propagation of cracks without any excessive
plastic deformation at a stress level below the yield stress of the material. Metals that show ductile
behavior usually can, under certain circumstances, behave in a brittle fashion. The stress needed to
cause yield rises as the temperature falls. At very low temperatures, fracture occurs before yielding.

Impact tests are used not also to measure the energy absorbing capacity of the
material subjected to sudden loading; but also to determine the transition temperature from
ductile to brittle behavior.

PENDULUM IMPACT TEST

In this test the specimen is positioned across the lowest point in the path of a striker mounted
at the end of a pendulum as shown in Figure 1. The striker, having been initially lifted to a specific
height h1, and then released, swings against the specimen and breaks it. The striker continues its
swing to the other side of the specimen to a height h2. Clearly the difference between the two
heights multiplied by the weight of the striker corresponds to the amount of energy that is absorbed
in fracture.

IZOD IMPACT TEST:

In the Izod impact test, the test piece is a cantilever, clamped upright in an anvil, with a V-
notch at the level of the top of the clamp. The test piece is hit by a striker carried on a
pendulum which is allowed to fall freely from a fixed height, to give a blow of 120 ft lb
energy. After fracturing the test piece, the height to which the pendulum rises is recorded by a slave
friction pointer mounted on the dial, from which the absorbed energy amount is read.
CHARPY IMPACT TEST:
The principle of the test differs from that of the Izod test in that the test piece is tested
as a beam supported at each end; a notch is cut across the middle of one face, and the striker
hits the opposite face directly behind the notch.
When the results of a number of tests performed in different temperatures are plotted,
ductile-to-brittle transition curves, as in Fig. 3, may be obtained. As the temperature is reduced
through the transition range, the fracture surface changes from one having a 'fibrous' or 'silky'
appearance with much distortion at the sides, to one of completely crystalline appearance
with negligible distortion. There is a strong correlation between the energy absorbed and the
proportion of the cross-section which suffers deformation in fracture, and the fracture surface is
frequently described in terms of the percentage of its area which is crystalline in appearance.
Typical fracture appearances with crystallinity increases as the temperature is reduced.

The difference in the initial and final heights is

directly proportional to the amount of energy lost due to fracturing the specimen. The total energy of
fracture is determined by
 where _total is the total energy, m is the mass, g is gravitational acceleration, ho is the original
height, and hf is the final height. The failure types for composite Charpy impact tests depend on the
specimen orientation. Often, specimens exhibit fiber fracture and fiber pull-out, while other times
delamination failure is the primary failure mode.

DROP WEIGHT IMPACT TESTING

Drop weight impact testing is another type of low velocity testing, and it is the most common test
for composite materials. Drop weight impact tests are done to test the impact behavior on composite
plates, which most closely resemble impact damage in the field. When using a drop weight impact
tester, two categories of damage can occur. The first is clearly visible impact damage (CVID), which can
easily be seen by the naked eye. The second type of damage is barely visible impact damage (BVID),
which can seldom be seen by the naked eye. Evaluation of both types of damage can
be enhanced through the use of post-impact testing
In drop weight impact testing, a mass is raised to a known height and released, impacting the
specimen. The choice can be made between either an instrumented or non-instrumented test machine. A
figure displaying how an instrumented impact machine works is shown below.

Once the machine is set to its correct configuration and all data acquisition software is running,
the mass is released and allowed to impact the plate. A picture of an impacted test specimen is shown in
the following figure. The strains measured by the tup are loaded into a software program, and the data
obtained from the test can be examined to see the impact resistance of the plate. The data is plotted as
force, energy, or displacement vs. time.
The data, however, is not always conclusive and often post-impact analysisis required. A graph
typical of an instrumented impact test is shown below.
BALLISTICS TESTING

Ballistics testing is a form of high speed testing that is used to test the ultimate impact strength of
composites. High velocity testing is characterized by an impactor traveling in the range of 400-2000 m/s
For high velocity impact conditions, structural response is less important than in a low velocity case, and
the damage area is more localized; therefore the geometrical considerations are less important . Ballistics
testing consists of firing a high speed projectile at an object and determining after the impact how
localized the damage is. This is a good method for testing impact resistance of composites, and has been
used for testing products such as composite armor.
Test Setup and Procedure
Ballistics testing is complicated, and care has to be taken during the setup. A typical setup of a
conventional ballistics test apparatus is shown in the following figure.

The test apparatus shown in

Figure 6.11 is typically known as a gas-gunimpact test machine. The gas-gun apparatus works by forcing
gas into the back of the diaphragm which expands and applies pressure to the sabot. The sabot pin is
released, and the sabot is forced along the barrel. The velocity pins measure the time it takes for the front
of the sabot to travel the distance between the two pins, and outputs a velocity. The sabot is then blocked
by the sabot stops, and the pellet is allowed to proceed to impact the test specimen. The strains can then
be measured using strain gages applied to the specimen.
Data Evaluation
When performing ballistics testing, data evaluation often has to be accompanied by a different method for
defining the damage done. There are different ways to characterize that damage, and those pertaining to
postimpact damage analysis will be discussed in the following section. A specimen with ballistics impact
damage is shown where Ra is a radial crack propagating outwards from the impact center, and Ri is a ring
crack propagating around the impact center. calculations for ballistics testing, some assumptions must be
made. One assumption is that the velocity of the pellet remains constant from the time that it is measured
with the velocity pins until the time that it contacts the specimen. The second is that the energy lost from
the pellet is proportional to the energy absorbed by the specimen. The remaining energy of the pellet can
be measured using sensors to detect its rebound velocity (or in the case of a through laminar failure its
remaining velocity). When calculating the necessary unknowns that come with ballistics testing, the
equations can become rather complex.

DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
 Destructive testing is a costly and time-consuming technique. A specimen is selected at random
from a large number of pieces.
Two types of Destructive test
a. Hardness Test
b. Impact Test
Hardness Test
Indentation hardness measures the resistance of a sample to permanent plastic
deformation due to a constant compression load from a sharp object.
Hardness testing of welded material is an excellent example of the traditional challenges
associated with microhardness testing. A series of traversed hardness measurements across
the weld, and most importantly in the heat-affected zone (HAZ), can determine if the weld is
applied correctly and within specifications.
Traditional testing techniques require manual stage traversing and manual indentation
reading via a microscope system. The results obtained are subjective and dependent on each
individual’s interpretation; therefore, the accuracy, consistency,
and reliability of the test data are questionable. Other disadvantages to this approach are the
associated costs, extensive labor requirements, and fatigue factor resulting from repetitive
microscope work. Adding to the difficulties in weld analysis is the stark contrast between the
HAZ and the surrounding areas. For years this minimized or negated the effectiveness of
automatic indentation reading packages, requiring time consuming manual test procedures.
Recent advances in digital camera technology, application software, and testing hardware have
played a significant role in the emergence of image analysis as a viable tool in weld
assessment.
4 types of hardness test
a. Rockwell
The Rockwell hardness tester functions according to the depth of penetration made in
metal by a specific kind of penetrator point forced by a given load. The Rockwell
hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond cone or
hardened steel ball indenter. The indenter is forced into the test material under a
preliminary minor load F0 usually 10 kg. When equilibrium has been reached, an
indicating device, which follows the movements of the indenter and so responds to
changes in depth of penetration of the indenter is set to a datum position. While the
preliminary minor load is still applied an additional major load is applied with resulting
increase in penetration. When equilibrium has again been reach, the additional major
load is removed but the preliminary minor load is still maintained. Removal of the
additional major load allows a partial recovery, so reducing the depth of penetration. The
permanent increase in depth of penetration, resulting from the application and removal
of the additional major load is used to calculate the Rockwell hardness number.
 Typical Application of Rockwell Hardness Scales
HRA- Cemented carbides, thin steel and shallow case-hardened steel
HRB-Copper alloys, soft steels, aluminium alloys, malleable irons, etc.
HRC- Steel, hard cast irons, case hardened steel and other materials harder than 100 HRB
HRD - Thin steel and medium case hardened steel and pearlitic malleable iron
HRE-Cast iron, aluminium and magnesium alloys, bearing metals
HRF - Annealed copper alloys, thin soft sheet metals
HRG - Phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, malleable irons
HRH -Aluminium, zinc, lead
HRM - Soft bearing metals, plastics and other very soft materials
HRK, HRL, HRP,HRR ,HRS ,HRV, HRB

Advantages of the Rockwell hardness method include the direct Rockwell hardness number
readout and rapid testing time. Disadvantages include many arbitrary non-related scales
and possible effects from the specimen support anvil (try putting a cigarette paper under a
test block and take note of the effect on the hardness reading! Vickers and Brinell methods
don't suffer from this effect).
b. Brinell Hardness Test
The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm
diameter hardened steel or carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer
materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to avoid excessive indentation.
The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel and for
at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals. The diameter of the indentation left in
the test material is measured with a low powered microscope. The Brinell harness
number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the surface area of the indentation.
The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and
the use of a Brinell hardness number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell
hardness. A well-structured Brinell hardness number reveals the test conditions, and
looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was
obtained using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a
period of 30 seconds. On tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is
 substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the other hardness test methods, the Brinell
ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test averages the hardness over a
wider amount of material, which will more accurately account for multiple grain structures
and any irregularities in the uniformity of the material. This method is the best for
achieving the bulk or macro-hardness of a material, particularly those materials with
heterogeneous structures.
c. Vickers

Hardness Test
The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting
the test material with a diamond indenter, in the form of a
right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136
degrees between opposite faces subjected to a load of 1
to 100 kg. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15
seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left in the
surface of the material after removal of the load are
measured using a microscope and their average
calculated. The area of the sloping surface of the
indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the
quotient obtained by dividing the kg load by the square
mm area of indentation.

F= Load in kgf
d = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2in mm

HV = Vickers hardness

When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the Vickers hardness may be
calculated from the formula, but is more convenient to use conversion tables. The Vickers
hardness should be reported like 800 HV/10, which means a Vickers hardness of 800, was
obtained using a 10 kg force. Several different loading settings give practically identical
hardness numbers on uniform material, which is much better than the arbitrary changing of
scale with the other hardness testing methods. The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are
that extremely accurate readings can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all types
of metals and surface treatments. Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing
the softest and hardest of materials, under varying loads, the Vickers machine is a floor
standing unit that is more expensive than the Brinell or Rockwell machines.
To convert HV to MPa multiply by 9.807
To convert HV to GPa multiply by 0.009807

d. Shore Scleroscope Hardness Tester

 An instrument that uses a test specimen that is freely supported horizontally and
a glass tube that contains a diamond tipped hammer positioned vertically over the
specimen
The hammer is allowed to fall from a set height and the height of rebound is
measured.The test shows that higher the rebound the harder the specimen.

Figure 5. Shore Scleroscope

Fatigue Testing
Fatigue is the condition whereby a material cracks or fails as a result of repeated (cyclic) stresses
applied below the ultimate strength of the material.
Fatigue failures generally involve three stages:
1.) Crack Initiation,
2.) Crack Propagation, and
3.) Fast Fracture
Fatigue failures often occur quite suddenly with catastrophic (disastrous) results and although most insidious for
metals, polymers and ceramics (except for glasses) are also susceptible to sudden fatigue failures.
Fatigue causes brittlelike failures even in normally ductile materials with little gross plastic deformation
occurring prior to fracture. The process occurs by the initiation and propagation of cracks and, ordinarily, the
fracture surface is close to perpendicular to the direction of maximum tensile stress.
Applied stresses may be axial (tension-compression), flexural (bending) or torsional (twisting) in nature. In
general there are three possible fluctuating stress-time modes possible. The simplest is completely reversed constant
amplitude where the alternating stress varies from a maximum tensile stress to a minimum compressive stress of
equal magnitude. The second type, termed repeated constant amplitude, occurs when the maxima and minima are
asymmetrical relative to the zero stress level. Lastly, the stress level may vary randomly in amplitude and frequency
which is merely termed random cycling.

Machines used in Fatigue Testing

The "Rotating Bending Testing Machine" is similar to the original railroad axle-type Wohler used
where the bending moment is constant along the beam length. Each point on the Surface of the Rotating
Bend Specimen is subjected to fully-reversed cycling (m = 0) and the tests are generally Constant
Amplitude.

"Reciprocating Bending Testing Machines" utilize a rotating crank to achieve a non-zero mean stress
through positioning of the specimen with respect to the motor as shown

Output
The Fatigue Life (Nf) of a component is defined by the total number of stress cycles required to cause
failure. Fatigue Life can be separated into three stages where
Nf = Ni + Np
1.) Crack Initiation (Ni) - Cycles required to initiate a crack. Generally results from dislocation pile-ups
and/or imperfections such as surface scratches, voids, etc.
2.) Crack Growth (Np) - Cycles required to grow the crack in a stable manner to a critical size. Generally
controlled by stress level. Since most common materials contain flaws, the prediction of crack growth is the
most studied aspect of fatigue.
3.) Rapid Fracture - Very rapid critical crack growth occurs when the crack length reaches a critical value, ac.
Since Rapid Fracture occurs quickly, there is no Rapid Fracture term in the Fatigue Life expression.
The most basic cumulative damage approach, and the most often utilized, is referred to as Miner’s Law
which is based on the man who developed the approach. Under this approach, the damage (D) caused by one cycle
is merely defined as.

The damage produced by "n" cycles at a given stress level is given by:

Thus the cumulative damage for a set of cycles over a range of stress levels can be expressed as