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The Six Principles of Learning Design

Research · September 2020

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29378.61127

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This publication should be attributed to:
Bound, Helen and Chia, Arthur (2020). The Six Principles of Learning Design. Designing
learning for performance – a practice note. Singapore: Institute for Adult Learning.

This publication remains the copyright of IAL, Singapore and may not be reproduced
without the permission of the Director of Research and Innovation, IAL.

For further information on this publication, please email [email protected]

For the research report on which this Guide is based, see

Assessment for Changing Nature of Work

Copyright © 2020 Institute for Adult Learning

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The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD)

Learning for and at work changes the role of educators and For some time now we have seen shifts in
the purpose of learning. Between dynamically changing thinking about learning and assessment,
Educators, curriculum developers,
organisational practices, global, and technological from something done to learners, to a more
assessors and learners themselves
developments, adult educators are having to constantly collaborative empowering approach to learning
evolve their practice to ensure they keep abreast of learning and assessment. This shift sees: are all involved in helping the learner
challenges and support learners to thrive in these changing master (basic) disciplinary knowledge
contexts. This not only involves understanding who the
• learning and assessment as fostering learning and skills as well as develop
learners are and how they learn, but also designing and
facilitating learning that reflects the complexities and • developing learners’ capability to continuously the awareness, disposition and
nuances of work and development of abilities that conscience to “thrive” in the world…
learn - beyond the course
enable learners to thrive in the broader uncertain, The goal of “future-orientedness”
• learning how to participate as a member of
changing conditions.
highlights the profound challenge
one’s community
Deep understanding to deal with change, rarely comes from of preparing learners/ourselves for
• learning how to think critically in order to take
reproduction of technical / disciplinary knowledge, but from the uncertainties of the future which
ownership, responsibility
the ability to synthesise and apply learning. Resilience and is driving the shift towards a more
an ability to thrive in the face of change have become core • action for one’s own learning needs
learner-centric approach that makes
elements we need to design into learning experiences.
ethical as much as economic sense,
Learning can no longer be thought of as just
and where learning is envisaged to be

6
preparing students/learners for ‘now’, for solving
predictable, standard problems and for their more widespread and self-directed.
ability to recount or reproduce content.
Rather as educators, facilitators, trainers, (Bound et al, 2016, p.72)
curriculum designers, we need to develop

The principles of learning our learners’ capacity to thrive in dynamically

changing contexts. This requires a shift from
design (6PoLD), aims to assist front-end loading of content and focus

adult educators in thinking on assessment of learning (i.e. summative

assessment) to creating dynamic learning
about how to design learning environments built on authentic experiences.

holistically, so that doing There is considerable research that highlights

and knowing are integrated, that learning is powerful when learners are
actively engaged, and their learning experience is
leading to strengthened embodied and holistic. This necessarily involves

learning outcomes. learners in giving and receiving feedback and

making judgements (Bound, Chia & Karmel, 2016;
Boud, 2010). Deep understanding and learning
To do so, such learning also facilitates learning to be and
to learn are critical for positioning our learners to
become a particular profession, vocation or role.
thrive in constantly changing contexts, be they in
work settings, navigating changing labour markets
and demands or family and community.

3 4
 The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD)

Figure 1:
Use of real world work Design that involves every
The 6 Principles of Learning Design practices and settings aspect of learning so that
(Bound, Chia & Karmel, 2016) Embodies complexity all work together for a
of work and enables common purpose.
engagement

What are the

6 principles?
While each of the six principles is described separately to provide the
foundation on which to support the start of thinking and applying these
principles, each is actually necessary and related to one another and should be
collectively present in the design of a module/course or program (to a greater
or lesser degree). Having said that, the authors deem authenticity as the most
important amongst the principles, as without authentic activities (and/or
settings), it is difficult to achieve the other principles.

• Enables learners • giving and receiving • Learning to learn • Integrates knowing,

to make judgments feedback from • Deep understanding doing, thinking and feeling.
about their own and multiple sources – thus enabling application • Integrates theory and
others’ performance • opportunities for to multiple situations practice, technical and
• Involves making learners to act on and contexts generic, and learning to
and evaluating their feedback • Consideration of learn capabilities.
ethical judgements multiple perspectives • Use of multiple senses.
• Inquiry The embodiment of learning.

5 6
The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD) Authenticity

Authenticity does NOT necessarily mean that all tasks or

activities are about doing the work in real work settings – as this
is not always feasible or appropriate (e.g. for short courses, or

1
for highly specific skills such as using excel).

The alternative is to bring the complexities of the work into

the classroom environment and/or technology enabled
environment, through for example, learners engaging in or with:

Peer sharing of experiences Complex case studies based on

real life examples

Authenticity Solving of complex problems Practice exercises that require

Use of real world work practices and settings that are based on the integrated application of
Embodies complexity of work and enables engagement real life examples technical and generic/soft skills

Authenticity brings a focus to performance that is required in real

work settings. Learner engagement is a critical aspect of authenticity,
as is engagement with the complexities and nuances of the work
of a particular profession or vocation (including cross boundary
work). Generic courses such as how to use excel can also meet
these requirements through the examples and real scenarios used
in practicing particular skills and in designing the learning tasks or
activities. Accompanying such practice with opportunities for peer
dialogue on problem solving brings a measure of authenticity to a short Tasks / activities that reflect Tasks / activities that mirror
course. Courses of any length can be anywhere along the authenticity performance required in the way knowledge and skill are
continuum (see authentic column in Table 2, pg 9). work settings performed in real settings and/or
take place in real work settings

7 8
The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD) Authenticity

Table 2 provides some examples of the differences between non-authentic design

and facilitation and authentic design of learning. Note that in authentic design,
learners are actively engaged, the activities lend themselves to lots of dialogue
amongst peers to assist with developing deep understanding that is holistic.
As such there are opportunities to experience the embodiment of learning, to
bring theory and practice together, to integrate technical/disciplinary knowledge
with soft skills. A consequence is that learners are engaged in higher cognitive
level activity. As such, knowing and doing are integrated. This is the importance
and value of authenticity – it enables the achievement of the five other principles.

Table 2: From traditional approaches to using authentic design

Traditional
Selecting Contrived Recall / Instructor Indirect evidence
a response recognition centred
The task or activity is separate Learners are given evidence that may be
from the context(s) in which it is partial, not reflective of the complexities of
Learners are given a set of This is the lowest level of The instructor is the focus, does
carried out work practices and settings. They are not
possibilities from which they Bloom’s taxonomy, requiring most of the talking
encouraged to actively make judgements
are required to select the parroting back without
about the evidence.
correct responses necessarily understanding or
being able to apply

Performing Real-life Construction / Learner centred Direct evidence

a task application
The task or activities reflect the Learners and learning are the In the process of meaning making,
Learners select or are given tasks complexities of work practices focus, they are active meaning learners draw on their own or peers’
These are higher levels of
to perform where they are required and settings makers and actively engaged experiences, data or materials they have
cognition and require
to make sense of and respond to in learning collected, or real examples. Learners
holistic understandings.
the complexities of work make judgements about the veracity and
Requires learners to bring

Authentic
quality of the evidence
together different aspects
required for performance

Adapted from: Deakin University. (2016). Authentic Assessment. Retrieved 27 September 2016,
from http://www.deakin.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/268511/AUTHENTIC-ASSESSMENT.pdf

9 10
The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD) Alignment

In this example, the course intention is to teach a particular

software accountancy package commonly used by firms, to increase

2
learners’ employability.

Example of poor design Example of good design

1 To align the design of learning with the

The course takes place over a nine-
complexity of the work, the facilitator
month period and learning consists
/ trainer could have brought in guest
mainly of reading content online with
speakers from a range of firms and/
some face-to-face time and doing
or visits to a number of different firms
exercises that focus on technical
where the software was being used,
know-how.
discussing how the firms used the
software, what the challenges were,
and how the learners would address
2 these issues.
The exercises do not include any of
the many ways in which different firms
adapt and use the software. Additionally, developing learners’
deep understanding of the purpose of
There is a disjuncture between the the software and its potential different

Alignment
intent of the course to contribute to uses would enable problem solving
learners’ employability, the learning and meeting of challenges – this is an
environments, the design of the aspect of the future-oriented principle.
activities and the materials that are
mainly technical.

Design that involves every aspect of learning so that all work together
for a common purpose.
3 To ensure learning is holistic, the
Additionally, the focus is only on the
Alignment (what John Biggs (2003) describes as constructive alignment) refers to all aspects separation of know-how and know-
know-how, with limited development
of design to form a cohesive whole. So learning purposes and outcomes, assessment why needs to be addressed, as does
of deep understanding (some call this
design and learning activities and the place of learning, need to support each other. For the separation of technical and generic.
know-why) that would enable learners
example, a short course that has the purpose of developing participants’ report writing skills For example, complex case studies that
to adapt and problem solve, is missing
and has as its assessment a series of multiple choice items, is clearly NOT aligned. For there not only involve enabling of learner’s
from the design of the exercises and
to be alignment, the assessment would need to be the writing of a report for a real audience problem solving capabilities (future-
the learners’ experiences.
(and thus the assessment is also) which would make the learning and assessment authentic. oriented principle), but require learners
Learners felt cheated and ill prepared who have different roles, to collaborate
would contribute to holistic design
How does alignment relate to the other principles? for using this software, despite having
paid considerable sum for what was a of learning. By addressing issues of
While all the principles are integral to each other, authenticity, holistic and future-oriented
costly course. alignment, it is also possible to include
are perhaps most closely interconnected with alignment.
other principles of learning design.

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The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD) Holistic

3
Analysing & Problem Solving
Learning is regarded
as an ongoing process This can partially be learnt through analysis and
problem solving of complex case studies, that
of participation in perhaps could be augmented from the learners’

relevant activities, experiences. Learners need to experience the

very real pressures of what it is like, for example,
and engagement to work in a fast paced kitchen; or as a fire-
fighter, face real fear; or as an engineer, to work
in meaningful with others to develop solutions.

undertakings,
Simulated Exercises
rather than as a
“thing”, “product” Simulated exercises in technology-
enabled environments can contribute to the
or acquisition of development of such capabilities, as an early

certain “products”. introduction to real work settings.

(Vygotsky, 1978; Marchand, 2008; Ross, 1999). Observing Practices & Ways
(in real world settings)

Holistic
While task specific practice (e.g. knife skills
Another (additional) strategy that integrates
for cooks, or delegation for managers, using
theory and practice, and brings into focus the
a cash register for a cashier) is necessary,
importance of ‘soft skills’ as technical expertise
such practice should not be isolated from
is enacted, is to arrange for learners to observe
the complexities of the work. Separation
particular practices and ways of being in real
from the context in which specific skills are
work settings. These workplace visits might
used can result, for example, in a cashier
Integrates knowing, doing, thinking and feeling. Integrates theory and initially be for two to three hours, then back
who is highly competent on the cash register
practice, technical and generic, and learning to learn capabilities. in the classroom, learners share and discuss
in the practice setting, but who cannot
their observations. Short observations can
Use of multiple senses. The embodiment of learning. operate in the real supermarket context
be gradually lengthened where learners are
when he/she is face-to-face with customers
gradually given responsibility to do the work.
Holistic aims for learning to be inclusive of the wider ethics and values of the profession or dealing with products carrying defective
An alternative starting point might be to have
and/or occupation, of integrating knowledge, skills and experience. “Integrated-ness” barcodes/labels.
learners watch a video and be tasked with
suggests the inseparability of learning from the learner and that which is learned, or
identifying both the technical and the soft skills
the connectedness between doing, thinking and being. Holistic design is important in For example, much of the knowing for
expertise, followed with sharing and discussion
developing the core of what it means to be a particular professional, or role or vocation. diverse professions such as cook, firefighter
of observations and identification of what they
or engineer is demonstrated in the doing,
need to mindful of.
and involves being able to put knowledge
to work (Evans, Guile & Harris, 2011),
Awareness of the standards of holistic
solve problems, work with others and
performance is important to enable feedback
with complexity and develop/cultivate
and self–reflection. Holistic is closely connected
capacities like awareness, responsiveness
with Feedback and Judgement.
and fortitude.

13 14
The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD) Feedback

4
Creating multiple feedback It takes time and exposure to various
experiences and examples for learners
loops over the time of a
to understand the quality of expected
module and of a program performance. It is helpful to provide criteria,
enables learners to: a rubric or outline for the students to follow
in order to authentically self-assess their
work. Before summative assessment, it is
helpful to provide opportunities for formative
self-assessment activities. Such an approach
contributes to the development of self-
directed learners (Hains-Wesson, 2013).

Feedback and opportunities to make

judgements about their own and others’
performance are critical to performing at the
understand how they are
required quality and level.
progressing

Feedback and Judgement are very

dependent on each other, as principles of

Feedback
learning design.

Feedback is far more

giving and receiving feedback from multiple sources
develop clarity about than expert-others
opportunities for learners to act on their feedback
standards/expectations
(quality) of performance
giving feedback
to learners.
Learners need to be engaged in giving feedback, and receiving
feedback from peers, educator, work supervisor etc. (where Feedback should be
appropriate) and in self-assessing their own performance.
dialogic – a discussion.
The purpose of such a feedback loop is to improve performance – this
is why feedback needs to be a discussion and from multiple sources.

15 16
The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD) Judgement

Designing for and facilitating judgement in learning requires that

(Boud & Molloy, 2013):

5
the learning design gives learners are expected opportunities over time
opportunity for learners to to actively participate are given for learners
make judgements of their in making individual to compare their
own and others performance and collaborative performance with the
AND to act on feedback. This judgements expected quality /
means that most practice level of performance
opportunities are not
assessed summatively

Judgement tasks are incrementally

increased in complexity
and expected quality
learners contribute to,
or at least discuss,
the agreed criteria for
practice opportunities
are given for making
judgement of others’
Enables learners to make judgments about their own and others’ of performance making judgements performance to build
performance, involves making and evaluating ethical judgements the skills in:

Judgement is an essential part of the a) comparing b) giving

Judgement refers to learning and assessment processes performance to constructive

the ability of learners because the development and use of required quality feedback –
facilitators may need
judgement is fundamental in enabling
to make informed learners to understand their own work,
to provide learners
with appropriate tools

judgements of their and how they are doing/performing in

relation to what is required/expected.
learners are given All of these processes contribute to learners’
for this process

responsibility for future-oriented capabilities

own learning. Feedback and judgement are intertwined. their learning
Both require learners to be actively
engaged in learning. (Boud & Molloy, 2013)

17 18
The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD) Future- Orientation

6
Future-orientedness
involves many of
what are variously
called 21st century
skills, or the new
‘top 10 skills’, such
as critical thinking,
creativity, learning
to learn.

Future-
Future-orientedness refers to learners’ ability to face future
unknowns and new challenges beyond the immediate
course/training. The emphasis is on the ability to resolve
unfamiliar or non-standard problems.

Orientation
To be able to do this, future-orientedness involves many of
what are variously called 21st century skills, or the new ‘top
10 skills’, such as critical thinking, creativity, learning to learn.
Deep understanding of a discipline, a process, is required
for effective solving of the unfamiliar. Deep understanding
is developed through exposure to multiple, different
Involves learning to learn, deep understanding – thus enabling perspectives (e.g. points of view, conceptual models, ways
application to multiple situations and contexts, consideration of multiple of thinking, doing, beliefs…) which in turn requires critical
perspectives. inquiry thinking, and the ability to evaluate different forms and
sources of ‘evidence’. Having inquiry skills, knowing what
questions to ask, how and where to gather data to assist
in meeting challenges is all part of future-orientedness.
“Meta-thinking” processes (using big-picture thinking or
conceptual frames) are important for making sense of the
unfamiliar (Stack & Bound, 2012).

19 20
 The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD)

Using the Understanding

In building in such opportunities, the educator is
contributing to learners’ capability in learning to learn,
being aware of their own learning processes, knowing

6 principles learning and the

how to think and deciding how to be a particular
profession, vocation or role.

Designing future-orientedness into learning activities,

means learners are required to: 6 principles of
learning design
be exposed to different
learning approaches, to stop, As is evident in the description of the principles, learners
discuss and think about are engaged in learning with all their senses, wherever
how they are approaching a possible. Studies have shown that being immersed in
particular challenge; a particular kind of learning environment profoundly
structures the learners’ “social knowledge, worldviews
and moral principles that denote membership and status
in a trade” (Marchand, 2008, p. 246). In other words,
become aware of the types our learning environments need to enable learners to
of questions they ask, of how experience what it means to be a particular profession,
they approach a challenge vocation or role.
that is unfamiliar
(by, for example, pointing out
what they observe in others
– this encourages reflection
on own questioning
Check!
and approaches) While there will always be times when it is
necessary to use facilitation techniques that are
towards the monologic end of the continuum in
compare and contrast;
Figure 2 through for example giving short lectures,
to work out the pros and
it is necessary for learners to actively engage
cons of different ideas,
with the materials, and with each other in order
approaches, solutions, etc.
to build / co-construct knowledge. This process
(this requires exposure to
There are many techniques and tools involves more than having group work. Rather,
multiple perspectives/
for enabling the development of learning learner choice, use of authentic materials, issues,
approaches).
to learn (meta-cognitive) capabilities problems, challenges etc., multiple instances for
available on the IAL website: dialogue that provides for opportunities to return
to the concepts, ideas, processes (the content of
The Dialogic Inquiry Map Such techniques contribute to learning to learn
the course) where learners provide feedback and
capabilities and to developing deep understanding,
make judgements about each other’s ideas and
Other Resources important in being able to meet unfamiliar challenges
thoughts is what is required for effective learning
(to enhance learning design) or situations.
(see practice not for Dialogic Inquiry).

21 22
The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD)
As an educator,
manager of
curriculum,
curriculum designer,
quality assurance
personnel, where is

Monologic Dialogic your comfort zone

on this continuum?

Role of Educator: Educator as expert & source Role of Learner: Learner is Role of Educator: Educator as facilitator, Role of Learner: Learner actively engaged,
of knowledge passive recipient scaffolds but increasingly part of community
hands over responsibility
to learners* Learner actively engaged,
part of community, problem
Educator as facilitator, solver, critical questioner,
critical questioner +* reflexive

Continuous Lecturing + Lecturing Lecturing interspersed Short lectures learners work learners work learners work with
lecturing at asking closed interspersed with with group work. interspersed with with authentic with authentic authentic problems
questions open questions. Report back discussion group work & problems, are problems learners choose the
Discussion is mostly between exchange between posed challenges learners choose authentic problems
educator & learners learners & learners and as a result , the authentic learners engage in
& educator learners engage problems inquiry learners voice
in inquiry learners engage is valued as a source
Figure 2: Monologic – dialogic continuum in inquiry of knowledge building

Examples indicating you are • use language such as learners ‘acquire’ skills, Examples indicating you are • use language such as growth, develop, learning
knowledge etc.; is a process, learning is embodied;
more towards the monologic more towards the dialogic
• believe learning is mainly individual and • believe learners make their own sense or meaning
end of the continuum, where cognitive thinking; end of the continuum, where and that learning is social;
learning is understood as • talk about ‘testing’ knowledge or learning; you believe in learners’ ability to • focus on assessment of performance that is
acquisition of knowledge which is • design learning that is about delivery of content create and build knowledge (their holistic, design learning so that learners are
or where the facilitator do most of the talking; actively engaged, have choices, are given lots of
the property of the individual: • believe learners can only make sense of
own understandings and improve opportunities for dialogue (that is exploratory),
something once you have taught them the steps on ideas being discussed), and learners are required to be self-directed
or have necessary prior knowledge. that learning requires exchange (developing these capabilities are built into the
course design and facilitation); and
and interaction with others:
• create multiple, complex experiences for learners
where they need to make sense and meaning.

23 24
The 6 Principles of Learning Design (6PoLD)

Where did the The

6 Principles Researchers
come from?
The 6 principles encapsulate an important finding from an IAL
research project undertaken by Centre for Work and Learning
Dr Helen Bound
(CWL) researchers, Helen Bound, Arthur Chia and Annie Karmel. Helen heads the research Centre for Work and
Learning (CWL) at the Institute for Adult Learning
The research sought to address the question of how can (IAL), Singapore University of Social Sciences. Her
assessment design and practices be shaped or enhanced to meet research interests include learning in and across
changing policy and workforce development needs. The study different environments, pedagogical innovations,
delved into how different contexts mediate assessment design and workplace learning, learning in high technology
practices, the experience of learners, adult educators, curriculum environments, professional learning and learning
designers and employers in these practices. through collaborative activity. Helen has a
background in vocational training and education,
The researchers used an ethnographic (observing learning and having coordinated the Bachelor of Adult
assessment, document analysis and interviews) approach to study and Vocational Education at the University of
six cases of different types of learning and assessment experiences Tasmania, (Australia) and before that spent some
from formal courses to structured learning in work settings. years as a trade union trainer and running her own
Participants were from diverse fields – IT network engineers, aircraft training and development business.
engineers, specialist doctors, cooks, firefighters and workplace
learning facilitators.
Dr Arthur Chia
Importantly, the study understood assessment, not as purely
summative assessment, but as entwined with learning. That is, Arthur is a Senior Researcher with the Institute
assessment is a learning experience in itself, so in designing and for Adult Learning (IAL), Singapore University of
facilitating learning, assessment is integral to the learning process. Social Sciences. His research interests include
Our (the researchers) work with stakeholders, encouraged us to workplace learning, ethnographies and theories
reposition our 6 dimensions of assessment to the 6 principles of of work and learning. Arthur has a background in
learning design (which implicitly encapsulates assessment). social and cultural theories, having done research
Bound, H., Chia, A. & Karmel, A. (2016). Assessment for the changing focusing on educational and workplace practices
nature of work: Cross case analysis. Singapore: IAL. and before that had a career as an accountant in a
manufacturing environment.

Also available are 6 individual case study reports.

25 26
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Boud, D., & Molloy, E. (2013). Rethinking models of feedback for learning: the
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Bound, H., Chia, A. & Karmel, A. (2016). Assessment for the changing nature of
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Evans, K., Guile D. and Harris, J. (2011), ‘Rethinking Work-based Learning for
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University. Retrieved 27 September 2016, from https://www.deakin.edu.au/__
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