RSA Journal 10 29

CATERINA RICCIARDI

F. Scott Fitzgerald and Rome

Davvero c'e ancora qualcuno che s'interessa a quell'infelice ragazzo? ha

troppo successo ... troppo successo e troppo presto ... quel povero ragazzo ...
senza il tempo di diventare maturo [...] Io non so no certamcnte mai stato in
questi night clubs, ne ci voglio andare ... lui dicono che questi di Roma poi
sono tremendi ... Ma lui sempre ... "per aver contatti con la gente!" ... Un'altra
sua idea: "scriviamo solo cose viste" ... Ma aveva perduto la testa, in realtà ... e
l'Europa era un vino troppo forte, per lui ... Questi giovanotti
del West non sanno modificarsi ... e soccombono... Questo vizio del
bere ... ancora oggi ...
Arbasino, Fratelli d' Italia

Fitzgerald's The Beautiful and Damned ends with the depar­

ture of the two protagonists — Anthony Patch and his wife Gloria —
for Europe, presumably for Rome. After countless misfortunes they
hope to recover not only a bit of their health, but also some sereni­
ty. Why did Fitzgerald choose Italy as a final destination for this cou­
ple so thoroughly exhausted? If "we lose the case," Gloria argues,
with the little money left, "we can live in Italy for three years, and
then just die."1 If instead, as they obviously wish, the outcome is fa­
vorable, their future still "meant Italy. The word had become a sort
of talisman to him [Patch], a land where the intolerable anxieties of
life would fall away like an old garment" (BD, 359).
But can Rome really fulfill the promise of physical and moral
rehabilitation for these two, who like Antony and Cleopatra, are so
beautiful and so damned? Indeed, Anthony thinks that: "Marvelously
renewed, he would walk again in the Piazza di Spagna at twilight,
moving in that drifting (never a reassuring verb in Fitzgerald) flotsam
of dark women and ragged beggars" (BD, 359). Will it really be so?
Or isn't Fitzgerald rather using here a type of ironic counterpoint,
30 RSA Journal 10

reminiscent perhaps of the American literary tradition by which

Rome is a city of ruins as well as the allegory of a city where one
may easily ruin oneself?
That Fitzgerald was working toward an ironic ending is attest­
ed to by his correspondence with Maxwell Perkins concerning the
first drafts of the novel.2 Within that framework, one cannot help be­
ing startled by a paradox: Anthony's great attraction to Rome is par­
ticularly centered upon Italian women, "always beautiful and always
young" (BD, 359), and yet, at the same time, he is also well aware of
women as the principal cause of his ruin: "All the distress that he had
ever known, the sorrow and the pain, had been because of women"
(BD, 360).
The prospect of a Roman future, with a Rome more longed for
than realistically present, has a very clear purpose in the novel,
which is that of making Anthony's bitter experience turn full circle.
It is against the background of Rome that the novel actually starts:
from the first short paragraphs, dedicated to Anthony's past, one
learns that he has just returned from a long stay in Rome where he
became interested in architecture and painting and in the Renais­
sance. Rome prompted him to make a stab at composing, perhaps in
the manner of his beloved Keats, "some ghastly Italian sonnets" (BD,
13). And now, back in New York, he would like to write a book on
the history of the Popes. It was in Rome that he had been enchant­
ed by "the peculiar charm of Latin women" (BD, 13), very much like
Roderick Hudson who had been fascinated by Christina Light. Rome,
in short, gave him "a delightful sense of being very young and free
in a civilization that was very old and free" (BD, 13).
Thus, The Beautiful and Damned develops from one Rome to
another Rome: a Roman idyll forms a sort of framework linking past
and future, and within that absent topography there is New York, al­
ready a harbinger of devastating decadence.
In This Side of Paradise Amory Blaine also has his own Roman
dream. His mother Beatrice had been educated in Rome, "at the Sa­
cred Heart convent - an educational extravagance," Fitzgerald ad­
mits, "that in her youth was only for daughters of exceptional
wealth" (TSP, 11). She lived her youth in Renaissance splendor, up­
to-date with the most recent gossip about the old Roman families,
RSA Journal 10 31

and known "by name as a fabulously wealthy American girl to Car­

dinal Vittori and Queen Margherita and more subtle celebrities that
one must have had some culture even to have heard of" (TSP, 11).
Beatrice O'Hara Blaine had absorbed "the sort of education that will
be quite impossible ever again [...]; a culture rich in all arts and tra­
ditions, barren of all ideas, in the last of those days when the great
gardener clipped the inferior roses to produce one perfect bud"
(TSP, 11). What comes out clearest here is the mocking of a whole
educational tradition, of a certain type of upbringing, of, as it were,
a "sentimental journey."
One senses then, in Fitzgerald's allusions to Rome, an underly­
ing irony, the cynical unmasking of a myth — if that of Rome is a
myth —, which appears definitely a dubious or even an imperfect
one. Rome seems to be the target of the early Fitzgerald's gentle
sneer, of the style typical, for example, of This Side of Paradise,
which consists of a vein at times ironic, full of gibes, epigrams and
paradoxes, at times completely imbued by a "subtle and romantic
despair."3 And yet the protagonists — the young and the not so
young — of his early novels do not give up their Roman dream: suf­
fice it to recall Monsignor Darcy when he announces with great
pride that his post will be Rome (from where, according to Alberto
Arbasino, he will return with the 'Spanish' flu that will cause his
death 4 ). Amory himself dreams of his trip to Italy with Rosalind (TSP,
169), a trip postponed for a very long time, that is since he was thir­
teen when, to the astonishment of the other passengers and after on­
ly four hours of sailing, the ship taking him to Rome gently changes
its tack and returns to New York to deposit him on the pier with a
sudden attack of appendicitis (TSP, 15). Irony at times spills into
pathos.
Fitzgerald eventually reached Rome not with Rosalind but with
Zelda (Rosalind's model) in June 1921. The Beautiful and Damned,
with its peculiar Roman frame, had been completed and, before his
departure, he had set up its serialization in Metropolitan (from Sep­
tember 1921 to March 1922). The publication of the book by Scribn­
er's was planned for March 1922; and in the middle of all that there
was this trip to Rome, a procrastinated honeymoon, with Zelda ex­
pecting Scottie.
32 RS A Journal 10

The main purpose was a visit to the Vatican, desired by his

mother Molly McQuillan, who — incidentally — was the very oppo­
site of the beautiful and refined Beatrice O'Hara Blaine. The couple
stayed at great expense in the sumptuous and rather new Grand Ho­
tel, regrettably infested by fleas. Years later in the famous "Show Mr.
And Mrs. F. to Number—," included in The Crack-Up, Fitzgerald
would remember especially the fleas of Rome: "But there were fleas
on the gilded filigree of the Grand Hotel in Rome; men from the
British Embassy scratched behind the palms; the clerks said it was
the flea season" (CU, 42).
The immediate reactions were in fact much more complex and
not just limited to an admittedly bothersome problem with insects.
Apart from the emotions roused by the pilgrimage to Keats's house,
his first Roman stay was far from pleasant. Actually, it was rather de­
pressing, and made worse by his excessive drinking. Even many
years later, in a long 1930 letter, concerning the bitter history of their
marriage, Zelda could not refrain from reproaching him for "Rome
and your friends from the British Embassy and your drinking, drink­
ing" (LL, 191).
Drinking will be the determining factor in a future Roman de­
bacle. But now, in 1921, Fitzgerald's reactions to the Italians are
more absorbing. In a letter written to Edmund Wilson in June 1921
(not in May as indicated by Andrew Turnbull) he defines them as
"philistine, anti-socialistic, provincial and racially snobbish" (L, 326).
The Italians, in short, seem very different from the Northerners, they
are little more than 'negroes': "The negroid streak creeps northward
to defile the Nordic races," he writes using terms that he will later
lend to Tom Buchanan5; and he goes on arguing: "Already the Ital­
ians have the souls of blackamoors. Raise the bars of immigration
and permit only Scandinavians, Teutons, Anglo-Saxon and Celts to
enter" (L, 326). Not sufficient to calm him down is Wilson's long ap­
peasing answer (an essay in its own right), in which Fitzgerald's
long-time friend entreats him to review such extreme opinions and
to stay longer in Europe so as to discover its beauty and render "a
service to American letters: your novels," Wilson concludes, "would
never be the same afterward. "6
More light-hearted, although still tremendously cutting ("acidu­
RSA Journal 10 33

lous [and rather silly]", as Fitzgerald defines it in a letter to Maxwell

Perkins [DS/DM, 44]), is the sketch entitled "Three Cities," published
in Brentano's Book Chat in the fall of 1921:

We were in Rome two weeks. You can see the fascination of the place. We
stayed two weeks even though we could have left in two days — that is we
could have left if we had not run out of money. I met John Carter, the author
of "These Wild Young People," in the street one day and he cashed me a
check for a thousand lira. We spent this on ointment.
The ointment trust thrives in Rome. All the guests at the two best hotels are
afflicted with what the proprietors call "mosquitos too small for screens." We
do not call them that in America.
John Carter lent us "Alice Adams" and we read it aloud to each other under the
shadow of Caesar's house. If it had not been for Alice we should have collapsed
and died in Rome as so many less fortunate literary people have done.[. ..]
By bribing the ticket agent with one thousand lira to cheat some old general
out of his compartment — the offer was the agent's, not ours — we man­
aged to leave Italy.
"Vous avez quelque chose pour déclarer" Asked the border customs officials
early next morning (only they asked it in better French).
I awoke with a horrible effort from a dream of Italian beggars.
"Qui!' I shrieked, "Je veux déclare que je suis trés, trés heureux a partir d 'Italie"
I could understand at last why the French loved France. They have seen
Italy.7

This sketch was the only thing he managed to produce from his
European and, in particular, Italian experiences. In spite of being
urged by many, Fitzgerald didn't feel like writing anything; as he told
Perkins in December 1921: "I think I may be able to use my Euro­
pean impression a little later but at present [...] I haven't many ideas
on the subject" (DS/DM, 44). No, he had no desire to recount any­
thing, partly because he had no fond memories (even the despised
"carabinieri" make their first appearance in this sketch of 1921), and
partly because, at this point, he was deeply involved with an elabo­
rate revision (on the proofs as was his habit) of The Beautiful and
Damned which was to come out in March 1922. Perhaps that de­
pressing trip caused alterations in the Roman frame of his novel, par­
ticularly apropos of its 'ironic' ending. One may argue as well that
the Roman setting which appears at first so desirable, albeit with a
touch of irony, starts to look like an increasingly decadent and even
3 RSA Journal 10

foreboding scene if one recalls that, among other fictional ill-fated

characters, in the usually joyous Piazza di Spagna in Rome, exactly
100 years earlier died the great Keats.
Disappointments, however, tend to wear off rather quickly. The
Fitzgeralds, excited by alcohol and success, were just embarking at
that time on their never-ending Long Island feast. And it is there that
we find them during the first months of 1924. He was now involved
with The Great Gatsby, having trouble completing it because of his
constant need for money, the eternal problem which forced him to
write short stories (eleven between November 1923 and April 1924,
earning seventeen thousand dollars).
It is a well-known fact that the couple spent lavishly and was
always debt-ridden. The sketch "How To Live On 36,000 Dollars a
Year" dates back to these months, followed in September by its com­
panion "How To Live On Practically Nothing a Year." The first de­
scribes the extravagant life on Long Island, the second that on the
Riviera, where, in fact, the Fitzgeralds moved in April "to economize"
(AA, 101). Since everything on the Riviera was reportedly very
cheap, their stay there would allow him to complete The Great Gats­
by in peace.
In the second sketch one notices the beginning of a new
process. The enchantment of the Riviera — "the more liquid dark,"
the "heavy roses and the nightingales in the pines," "the beauty of
this proud gay land" (AA, 116) — deeply remembered in Tender Is
the Night, was suddenly broken. The Fitzgeralds became aware of
the "High Cost of Economizing" (AA, 114), while their marriage was
on the strain for the first time because of the French aviator Edouard
Jozan with whom Zelda, left alone too long for Gatsby, fell madly in
love. This incident had a direct influence on the famous scene at the
plaza in The Great Gatsby. Zelda's sentimental adventure contributed
to make the (by no means less expensive) air of the Riviera too hot
to boot. Fitzgerald sent Perkins the manuscript on 27 October, 1924
and, despite his first dreadful experience, decided to spend "a warm
quiet economical winter in Rome." 8
After a long trip by car with stops in San Remo, Savona, Pisa,
Florence, a trip sustained by "real Italian food"9 — mostly by "mac­
cheroni" —, the young couple arrived around the middle of Novem­
RSA Journal 10 35

ber in "a large city where everyone was driving on the wrong side
of the street, except me. The man who tried to arrest me told me
this was Rome and I had better do as the Romans do."10 The new
Roman stay occurred in a particularly difficult time for the Fitzger­
alds: Zelda was "trying to have a baby" (LL, 192), and the fascist
rise to power was in full swing 11 together with the hysteria of the
Holy Year. The immediate outcome of this sojourn was a third, lit­
tle known sketch, an unfinished essay full of gaps, with the mean­
ingful title "The High Cost of Macaroni," published posthumously
in 1954. It was conceived as the final part of a triptych on the ma­
terial (merely 'material'?) cost of living on Long Island, the Riviera
and in Rome.
Why Rome again? Was it just because it was cheaper? Or wasn't
Fitzgerald ideally following other pilgrimages: that of Monsignor Fay,
for example, or of his dear Keats, who with his nightingale is im­
mortalized once more in the title of Tender Is the Night and in its epi­
graph? Actually, it was the reading of Roderick Hudson in October
12
1924 that enticed Zelda deeply. Truly there could not have been a
more intriguing and foreboding reading, a more appropriate repre­
sentation of the unraveling of a curious destiny lurking for Fitzgerald
in the Roman ruins, the same pathetic destiny of those Jamesian
characters for whom Rome plays a fatal role: Daisy Miller, Roderick
Hudson, Isabel Archer.
From the very start the Roman sojourn was not under a good
star. The search for an apartment, for example, was complicated by
those whom Fitzgerald calls "speculators":

This was Holy Year. Only one year in every twenty-five is Holy Year — and
we had blundered right into it. To the Roman business man, Holy Year is that
period when he counts on making enough profit out of foreign pilgrims to
enable him to rest for twenty-five years more. A host of speculators — army
officers, black-handers, waiters, mule drivers, morticians and princes of the
blood — round up every edifice that can be disguised as an apartment house
and wait for the Americans. 13

In short, prices were high for makeshift accommodations in old

Rome, hastily restored and 'modernized' with rather rinky-dink bath
tubs. The Fitzgeralds liked better to lodge at the Hotel Quirinale on
36 RSA Journal 10

Via Nazionale, and later at the Hotel des Princes in Piazza di Spagna
(formerly Albergo di Londra, closed in 1931 14) , but neither place left
them with very good memories. The somewhat gloomy atmosphere
of the Quirinale was later summoned in "Show Mr. and Mrs. F. to
Number — ": "Marion Crawford's mother died in the Quirinal Hotel
at Rome. All the chamber-maids remember it and tell the visitors
about how they spread the room with newspapers afterwards"
(CU, 44).
Everything that happened in Rome in those months found its
way into Tender Is the Night. It is in the rooms of the Quirinale that
the love-story between Dick and Rosemary ends. Francis Marion
Crawford, too, makes an appearance in the novel, not at the Quiri­
nale, but at the Excelsior, where late at night: "Baby Warren lay in
bed, reading one of Marion Crawford's curiously inanimate Roman
stories" (TN, 247). Truly a very peculiar irony! For, during that
reading, the most agitated and animated night of the novel takes
place.
The situation at the Hotel des Princes was not any better. In
"The High Cost of Macaroni" it is morbidly renamed "Hotel de la
Morgue":

The building itself had been erected over the tomb of one of the early em­
perors and the elevator shaft was obviously in direct communication with the
open mausoleum. There was an atmosphere for you. [...] There was some­
thing very foreign and "old-world" about it. It was awful. ... 15

Equally "awful" sounds a long list of discomforts and com­

plaints: the cold weather, the damp sheets, the "snores of the people
next door" (CU, 44), the fake mineral water, the terrible driving of the
Romans, the dishonesty and the violence of the Italians and, last but
not least, the eternal problems with the food, basically — and some­
what ironically — "Bel Paese" cheese and the usual macaroni ("Mac­
aroni with grated meat" or "Spaghetti with pulverized tomatoes" or
even "Vermicelli with annihilated cheese"). 16 However, in spite of all
this, things at the Hotel des Princes went a bit better simply because
it offered the enchantment of Piazza di Spagna with a view of Keats's
house.
RSA Journal 10 37

A less disappointing image (possibly for commercial reasons)

of Rome can be found in "Show Mr. and Mrs. F. to Number —":

We were too superior at that time to use the guide books and wanted to dis­
cover the ruins for ourselves, which we did when we had exhausted the
night-life and the market places and the campagna. We liked Castello San­
t'Angelo because of its rounded mysterious unity and the river and the debris
about its base. It was exciting being lost between centuries in the Roman
dusk and taking your sense of direction from the Colosseum. (CU, 44-45)

How apparently joyful and leisurely this family strolling

through the city! And yet how odd, indeed, that they take their
"sense of direction from the Colosseum," the site where so many
American fictional characters lose it: just think of Daisy Miller, Rod­
erick Hudson and Isabel Archer.
The truth is that the Fitzgeralds deeply disliked Rome; there
was no way for them to come to terms with the city. In February
1925, exhausted, they eventually left for Capri. On April 19, while
traveling back to France, Scott wrote to Roger Burlingame:

Italy depressed us both beyond measure — a dead land where everything

that could be done or said was done long ago — for whoever was deceived
by the pseudo-activity under Mussolini is deceived by the spasmodic last jerk
of a corpse. In these days of criticism it takes a weak bunch of desperates to
submit for 3 years to a tyrant, even a mildly beneficent one. (L , 479)

Except for the mention of Mussolini, these words echo those of

the protagonist in "A Penny Spent" (1925), a little known short story
set in Italy, on Capri and in the countryside south of Naples:

in the hot mysterious shin of the Italian boot where the Mafia sprang out of
rank human weeds and the Black Hand rose to throw its ominous shadow
across two continents. [... ] "I'm glad I'm American," [the girl tells her com­
panion]. "Here in Italy I feel that everybody's dead. So many people dead and
all watching from up on those hills - Carthaginians and old Romans and
Moorish pirates and medieval princes with poisoned rings." (BP, 125-126)

One can detect no sympathy at all in that gothic transfiguration

of a piece of our Southern landscape. Fitzgerald seems to be very far
indeed from the unique charm of the Riviera with its nightingales
38 RSA Journal 10

and heavy roses in the "liquid dark." Nevertheless, the Roman win­
ter, however depressing, was of remarkable importance in his career.
The reasons are manifold; all in all, Rome brought about: a success­
ful revision of The Great Gatsby, a renewed relationship with Henry
James's work; the seed of Tender Is the Night, with the Roman-Jame­
sian motif of the gradual ruin of the protagonist; and last but not
least, a direct contact with the American movie world: in those
months, on the Appian Way, by the Porta San Sebastiano, against
grandiose cardboard backdrops, Fred Niblo was filming Ben Hur,
starring Carmel Myers and Ramon Novarro. The Fitzgeralds often
joined the crew -actually, it became their favorite pastime in those
unhappy months. Ben Hur (1925), the last colossal of Hollywood's
adolescence, is a story of ancient Rome at the beginning of her deca­
dence. In Tender Is the Night it will be ironically renamed, perhaps
after Du Bellay, or Pound, or Poe, The Grandeur That Was Rome.
So it was in Rome that Fitzgerald set himself to work on a care­
ful revision of The Great Gatsby, on the galley proofs which arrived
from New York. He worked on them for over two months and sent
them back in such a tormented shape he had to admit to Perkins on
December 20 that they were "one of the most expensive affairs since
Madame Bovary. Please charge it to my account" (DS/DM, 89). The
correspondence with Perkins records the various phases of revision
and rearrangement, of the structural balance of parts and chapters, of
the orchestration of the symbolic details. Moreover, the famous
scene of the Plaza was thoroughly rewritten; the meaning of Doctor
Eckelburg's eyes was clarified; the evocation of the "old island" and
of the "fresh, green breast of the new world" which closed the first
chapter was moved to the end 17 . And while Scott worked, Zelda this
time worked with him too, drawing repeatedly the face of Gatsby
"until her fingers ached" (DS/DM, 89). At the end of such a trial he
could assert with satisfaction: "I know Gatsby better than my own
child" (DS/DM, 89). Of course, this is not to say that Rome had any
part at all in the revision of the novel, Fitzgerald would have done it
anyway: it was his habit to create his masterpieces from proofs.
However, it was Rome where, by his own admission, he definitely
had more time and fewer distractions.
With the corrected proofs back in New York and some regret at
RSA Journal 10 39

the discarded 'Roman' title ("My heart tells me I should have named
it Trimalchio" [DSDM, 94]), in February the family moved to Capri:
"I've brought Gatsby to life," he writes Perkins on February 18, at the
end of his Roman stay: "We're moving to Capri. We hate Rome. I'm
behind financially and have to write three short stories. Then I try
another play, and by June, I hope, begin my new novel" (L, 177).
In fact, as the labored revision of The Great Gatsby was coming
to an end, the seed of Tender Is the Night started germinating and,
unlike Gatsby, it owes everything to the Roman sojourn and to the
so far underestimated influence of Henry James that Fitzgerald ab­
sorbed also through Van Wyck Brooks's The Pilgrimage of Henry
James (1925) 18.
If, as has been mantained, Roderick Hudson is a remaking of
The Marble Faun19, then Tender Is the Night can be read in turn as a
remaking of Roderick Hudson, since it seems to inherit not only the
very subject but also some of its structural faults20. A comparison be­
tween the two novels would take us astray. However, it is worth re­
calling that both of them focus on the dissipation of a young and
promising American against the background of Rome. Roderick
Hudson and Dick Diver - incidentally, both from Virginia- are ru­
ined by a woman and perhaps by too much drinking. After their Ro­
man "catastrophe" (the word "catastrophe" is used by James and by
Fitzgerald as well 21 ), both of them end up in Switzerland. As with
Daisy Miller, the Switzerland-Rome axis proves fatal to them.
Let's now come to the Roman "catastrophe" of Fitzgerald/
Dick Diver and to Tender Is the Night. Besides all the discomforts of
a cold — albeit politically 'hot' — winter in a Holy-Year-dishonest-vi­
olent-petty-fascist-vulgar-Rome, something else occurred around 20
December 1924 which marked Fitzgerald deeply. He would never be
able to open-heartedly recount the serious, debasing incident that
happened to him in the 'eternal city.' On 23 January 1925, replying
to Harold Ober who was urging him to write about Rome, he was
forced to decline: "I hate Italy and the Italiens [sic], so violently that
I can't bring myself to write about them for the Post" (LL, 94). And
in a note apparently written in 1929 he states cryptically: "I've lain
awake whole nights practicing murders. After I — after a thing that
happened to me in Rome I used to imagine whole auditoriums filled
40 RSA Journal 10

with the flower of Italy, and me with a machine gun concealed on

the stage. All ready. Curtain up. Tap-tap-tap-tap-tap."22 Dick Diver's
reactions are very much the same, although not as violent: "What
had happened to him was so awful that nothing could make any dif­
ference unless he could choke it to death, and, as this was unlikely,
he was hopeless. He would be a different person henceforward"
(TN, 254).
The Roman incident described in the novel inexorably under­
mines Dick's moral superiority, and he thus loses his match against
the "very rich" Warrens: "it had been a hard night but she [Baby War­
ren] had the satisfaction of feeling that, whatever Dick's previous
record was, they now possessed a moral superiority over him for as
long as he proved of any use" (TN, 256). As with Fitzgerald himself,
his humiliation forces Dick to conceal it in shameful silence. He will
give "Nicole an expurgated version of the catastrophe in Rome" (TN,
262).
In "The High Cost of Macaroni" the debacle staged in Tender Is
the Night is conveyed less dramatically (definitely in a less dramatic
tone), yet more bitingly and sarcastically, to the point that it becomes
almost comical. After a long series of unpleasant incidents, Fitzger­
ald tells us he had been forced into using the arrogant and uncivi­
lized "methods" of the Italians:

We jumped into a taxicab and drove up to the Hotel Mazuma Americana. The
afternoon tea dance was beginning and our eyes lighted upon the Princess
Dumbella and her two cavaliers of the month before leisurely approaching
the last vacant table. I rushed up to the head waiter. "Look here," I said. "I
have to have that table. I'm Claude Lightfoot, the great American money king
and if I can't have that table I'll call the Italian loan."
"But Signor, the Princess Dumbella—"
"Enough! Get me Signor Mussolini on the telephone."
In a moment the Dumbella party was intercepted. A barricade of waiters
formed in front of them, on both sides of them, jostling, tripping, apologiz­
ing 23

Princess Dumbella becomes, more appropriately, Princess Orsi­

ni in Tender Is the Night. Here the setting is the bar of the Hotel Ex­
celsior and later the cabaret called "Bombonieri" where the first big,
RSA Journal 10 41

albeit confusedly described, fight over the reserved table takes place.
At this point Dick is totally drunk. However, it is in the brawl with
the taxi drivers that the uncivilized ways of the Italians take on a def­
inite shape. "I decided to try my fascisti methods" —Fitzgerald writes
in "The High Cost of Macaroni"—, "I had no castor oil handy but I
approached the first chaffeur with a menacing eye."24 There is no
mention in the sketch of his broken nose, the night in prison with
the hated "carabinieri" and the humiliation suffered as a result of
knocking out "John Alexander Borgia, the chief of the secret police
of the carbonieri [sic]."25 Apparently unharmed, the protagonist of
the sketch decides to leave for Capri, "where the Emperor Tiberius
used to go when Rome got too hot for him. People have been going
there for much the same reasons ever since ... "26
Although it would be worthwhile expanding upon the docu­
mentary significance of "The High Cost of Macaroni" — indeed, it is
a colorful, angry indictment against fascist Rome—, it seems more
appropriate to emphasize the importance that it holds in relation to
Fitzgerald's new novel. This posthumous and unfinished sketch is, in
fact, to be considered in every respect the ur-text (albeit an unpre­
tentious one) of Tender Is the Night. Even by 20 December 1924, he
announces to Perkins:

I'm a bit (not very - not dangerously) stewed tonight & I'll probably write you
a long letter. We're living in a small, unfashionable but most comfortable ho­
tel at $525.00 a month including tips, meals etc. Rome does not particularly
interest me but its (sic) a big year here, and early in the spring we're going to
Paris. [...] I've got a new novel to write - title and all, that'll take about a year.
Meanwhile, I don't want to start it until this is out & meanwhile I'll do short
stories for money. (DS/DM, 88)

He had already in mind "title and all" of his new novel. In fact,
the unfortunate and not at all "tender" Roman night, started giving
life to the "Francis Melarky version" of Tender Is the Night, on which
Fitzgerald worked from 1925 to 1930 when he shifted to the "Kelly­
shipboard version" and then to the final "Dick Diver version." In the
original version (with its four different titles: "Our Type", "The
World's Fair", "The Melarky Case" and "The Boy Who Killed His
Mother") it is Francis Melarky, in Rome with an American movie
42 RSA Journal 10

crew, who suffers the humiliation of being beaten by the "cara­

binieri" after a drunken brawl. The episode constituted the "Pro­
logue" — a real Roman flash-back of about thirty pages — of the first
version which begins in June 1925 on the Riviera, where Melarky ar­
rives with his mother from Italy. Both of them are the prototypes for
Rosemary and Mrs. Hoyt. 2 7 By 1932 that account of the degeneration
of a promising American expatriate becomes chapter VII of the "Dick
Diver version," which will be later included in the second book of
Tender Is the Night. 28 Notwithstanding the numberless alterations to
the theme and the plot of the novel within the span of nine years, it
is amazing that Fitzgerald never discarded the episode of the 'brutal­
ity' of the Roman night. Besides, his moving those original first thir­
ty pages further ahead in the final structure of the novel is much
more important than it might appear at first.
Dick Diver arrives in Rome in search of Rosemary, presumably,
in 1929 (not in 1924-1925)29, when his decline is already quite evi­
dent. This is so because Fitzgerald intended to stress the coincidence
of the Roman catastrophe—his own and that of his character — with
the advent of a particularly inauspicious year. The decadent (even
politically) Roman landscape mirrors a collapse, a 'fall', which is not
only Dick Diver's and Francis Scott Fitzgerald's but that of a whole
era: the roaring Twenties. One seemingly insignificant detail will suf­
fice to illustrate what Fitzgerald had in mind.
Upon his arrival, Dick goes to the Hotel Quirinale and, waiting
for a suit that is being pressed, reads in the Corriere della Sera an ar­
ticle on "una novella di Sainclair [sic] Lewis 'Wall Street' nella quale
l'autore analizza la vita sociale di una piccola citra Americana" (TN,
227). The change from "Main Street" to "Wall Street" is striking: it is
quite unlikely that the Italian journalist could have contributed a
lapse so cynically appropriate to the climate of the novel (there are
other allusions to the "stock market" here), especially since the news
should date back to Fitzgerald's stay in Italy—that is, either 1921 or
1924-1925. 30
There is hardly any need to expand on the descriptions of
Rome in Tender Is the Night, or on the details of Dick's wild night
and of Baby Warren's coming to his rescue. It would be useful to re­
call, however, that Rome is full of fatal omens: from the specter of
RSA Journal 10 43

Marion Crawford and of her mother to that of Keats in Piazza di

Spagna where Dick arrives coming from Via Nazionale after having
passed through the "foul tunnel" (TN, 240) of the Tritone. Even the
walk with Rosemary on the Pincian Hill doesn't foretell anything
promising as the following detail, so pregnant with sterility, shows:
Rosemary "plucked a twig and broke it, but she found no spring in
it" (TN, 240). For Dick Rome will be "the end of his dream of Rose­
mary" (TN, 240). Like Daisy Miller before her, Rosemary (certainly a
much more compromised version of Daisy) will bid him adieu to fol­
low the not quite nice Nicotera, "one of the many hopeful Valenti­
nos" (TN, 231), actually a new and perhaps even more compromised
version of Giovanelli.
The unhealthy air of Rome will certainly not kill Rosemary, it
will rather be waiting for Dick at the nightclub exit (his own Colos­
seum, indeed), with its "marshy vapor," so typical of 19th century
Rome:

There was dirty water in the gutters and between the rough cobblestones; a
marshy vapor from the Campagna, a sweat of exhausted cultures tainted the
morning air. (TN, 244)

The lights and celestial breezes sung by the nightingale do not

mellow Dick Diver's Roman night. His "rough cobblestones" are
more reminiscent of Hawthorne's Rome, "of her narrow, crooked, in­
tricate streets, so uncomfortably paved with little squares of lava that
to tread over them is a penitential pilgrimage."31
Entirely cut off from the romantic idea of the 'eternal city' har­
bored by Keats and Shelley, Fitzgerald's experience may be consid­
ered a trial (further complicated by fascist vulgarity) most American
writers usually undergo before (if at all) they manage to come to
terms with the beauty and the many complexities of the city. Indeed,
for Fitzgerald that night in December 1924 was neither pleasant nor
in the least "tender."

1 F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Beautiful and Damned, Harmondsworth, Penguin,

1974, p. 346. Unless otherwise stated, Fitzgerald's books and collections of letters
will be cited in the text by abbreviations for titles and page numbers. The following
editions are used: This Side of Paradise, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1965, TSP; The
44 RSA Journal 10

Beautiful and Damned (op.cit.), BD; The Great Gatsby, with an introduction by
Tony Tanner, Harmondworth, Penguin, 1990, GG; Tender Is the Night, Har­
mondsworth, Penguin, 1986, TN, The Crack-Up, edited by Edmund Wilson, New
York, New Directions, 1956, CU; Afternoon of an Author: A Selection of Uncollected
Stories and Essays, edited by Arthur Mizener, New York, Scribners, 1957, AA; Bits of
Paradise, selected by Scottie Fitzgerald Smith and Matthew J. Bruccoli, Har­
mondsworth, Penguin, 1976, BP; The Letters of F.S.Fitzgerald edited by Andrew
Turnbull, New York, Dell Publishing Co., Inc., 1965, L; Dear Scott/Dear Max: The
Fitzgerald-Perkins Correspondence, edited by John Kuehl and Jackson R. Bryer,
New York, Scribners, 1971, DS/DM; A Life in Letters, edited by Matthew J. Bruccoli
with the assistance of Judith S. Baugham, New York, Touchstone, Simon & Schus­
ter Inc., 1995, LL.
2 On "the extraordinarily effective irony of the last few paragraphs" see, in
particular, Perkins's letters of December 27 and 31, 1921 (DS/DM, p.49-50) and
Matthew J. Bruccoli, Some Sort of Epic Grandeur: The Life of F. Scott Fitzgerald, New
York, Carrol and Graf Publishers, Inc., 1991, p. 176-184.
3 Elio Chinol, "Due storici della crisi americana: F. Scott Fitzgerald and James
T. Farrell" in Comunità , VII (18 aprile 1953), p. 53-54.
4 Alberto Arbasino, Fratelli d'Italia, Milano, Adelphi, 1993, p. 869.
5 See Tom's tribute to the Northern races, under the influence of Lothrop
Stoddard's The Rising Tide of Colour. " 'The idea is if we don't look out the white
race will be - will be utterly submerged. It's all scientific stuff; it's been proved.' [...]
'It's up to us, who are the dominant race, to watch out or these other races will have
control of things.' [...] 'This idea is that we are Nordics. I am, and you are, and you
are, and [...] (GG, 18).
6 Edmund Wilson, Letters on Literature and Politics 1912-1972, selected and
edited by Elena Wilson, introduction by Daniel Aaron, foreword by Leon Edel, New
York, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1977, p. 63.
7 Reprinted in F. Scott Fitzgerald in His Own Time, edited by Matthew J.
Bruccoli and Jackson R. Bryer, New York, Popular Library, 1971, p. 124-126, 125.
8 F. Scott Fitzgerald, "The High Cost of Macaroni," with a note by H.D. Piper,
Interim, IV, 1-2 ,1954, p. 3-15, 6.
9 Ibidem, p. 7.
10 Ibidem, p. 8.
11 During the period the Fitzgeralds lived in Rome (from November 1924 to
February 1925) the social and political atmosphere in the city was particularly
strained and violent. These were the months following the assassination of the so­
cialist leader Giacomo Matteotti, sanctioned by Mussolini in order to intimidate all
opposition. And, indeed, his fascist squads were ruthlessly imposing their own 'or­
der' to ensure the Duce's total control of Italian affairs. During December 1924,
when Fitzgerald suffered the worst experience of his life (he was beaten by the
'carabinieri' and ended up in jail, more or less around December 20), there was an
escalation of fascist violence. By January 1925 Mussolini was able to declare himself
Italian dictator. Undoubtedly, the unpleasant historical events which were taking
RSA Journal 10 45

place in Rome influenced, as we shall see, Fitzgerald's dislike of the city.

12 See Matthew J. Bruccoli, Some Sort of Epic Grandeur: The Life of F. Scott
Fitzgerald, op. cit., p. 244. Fitzgerald strongly recommended Roderick Hudson and
Daisy Miller to Scottie in 1939, advising her not to start reading James with The Por­
trait of a lady "which is in his 'late second manner' and full of mannerism" (L, 59).
13 F. Scott Fitzgerald, "The High Cost of Macaroni," op. cit., p.8.
14 See Armando Ravaglioli, Gli alberghi storici di Roma, Roma, Tascabili Eco­
nomici Newton, 1996, 32.
15 F. Scott Fitzgerald, "The High Cost of Macaroni," op. cit., pp. 8-9.
16 Ibidem, p. 9.
17 Cfr. F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Great Gatsby: A Facsimile of the Manuscript, ed.
by Matthew J. Bruccoli ,Washington, DC, Microcard Editions Books, 1973, p. 38.
18 Brooks argues that Europe had been a negative rather than a positive in­
fluence on James, a "gifted writer who escaped the environment by living abroad,
to the partial detriment of his work". Cfr. Malcolm Cowley, "Introduction" to Van
Wyck Brooks, The Ordeal of Mark Twain, New York, Meridian Books, 1955, p. 7.
19 See Geoffrey Moore: "The plight of the American artist narrows into the
plight of the American artist in Europe, where, ironically, he finds it difficult to come
to terms either with the profusion of material (which was so lacking in his native
country) or with the temptations which beset him daily. It is a theme which
Hawthorne broached, and in a sense Roderick is the re-doing of The Marble Faun.
The important question for James - and one which he exploits to the full in Roderick
- is whether passion and art can exist together. Can one live one's life and still be a
great writer?" ("Introduction" to Henry James, Roderick Hudson, Harmondsworth,
Penguin, 1986, p.7-32, 31). Fitzgerald deals with more or less the same question in
Tender Is the Night; his reading of Van Wyck Brooks's book on James may have en­
dorsed his view of Europe as an ill-fated setting for the American artist. However, as
we have seen, Edmund Wilson's opinion in 1921 was utterly different.
20 In his "Preface" to the New York Edition James insists on the many 'flaws'
of Roderick Hudson (most of them related to the "time question"), which seem to
me very similar to those of Tender Is the Night. For example, James would argue that
his "mistake on Roderick's behalf - and not in the least of conception, but of com­
position and expression - is that, at the rate at which he falls to pieces, he seems to
place himself beyond our understanding and our sympathy" (ibidem, p. 43). This is
also true of Dick Diver. What James has to say about Roderick's weakness applies
to Diver as well: "where is the provision for so much weakness? One feels indeed,
in the light of this challenge, on how much too scantly projected and suggested a
field poor Roderick and his large capacity for ruin are made to turn round. It has all
began too soon, as I say, and too simply, and the determinant function attributed to
Christina Light, the character of well-nigh sole agent of his catastrophe that this un­
fortunate young woman has forced upon her, fails to commend itself to our sense
of truth and proportion" (ibidem, p. 43). All in all, however, the problem is that of
a chronological correctness in Roderick Hudson as well as in Tender Is the Night. It
is worthwhile quoting one more (famous) comment by James: "This eternal time­
46 RSA Journal 10

question is accordingly, for the novelist, always there and always formidable; always
insisting on the effect of the great lapse and passage, of the 'dark backward and
abysm,' by the terms of truth, and on the effect of compression, of composition and
form, by the terms of literary arrangement" (ibidem, p. 44). Thus, possibly, all the
discussion on the shortcomings and structural flaws of Tender Is the Night may even­
tually find a new light and a new critical evaluation if matched against James's "Pref­
ace" to Roderick Hudson.
21 As already quoted in the previous footnote, in his "Preface" James main­
tains that Christina Light is the "sole agent" of Roderick's "catastrophe." In Tender Is
the Night Dick's ruinous behavior in Rome is concordantly termed a "catastrophe"
(TN, 262).
22 See Arthur Mizener, The Far Side of Paradise: A Biography of F. Scott
Fitzgerald, Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1951, 165-166.
23 F. Scott Fitzgerald, "The High Cost of Macaroni," op. cit., p. 14.
24 Ibidem.
25 Ibidem, p. 15.
26 Ibidem.
27 For the whole vexed question of the composition of Tender Is the Night and
its many versions, cfr. Matthew J. Bruccoli, The Composition of 'Tender Is the Night':
A Study of the Manuscripts, Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963.
28 Ibidem, p. 36.
29 Dates are often confused in Tender Is the Night. Dick meets Rosemary in
Rome four years after their first encounter on the Riviera (TN, 227), when she is
twenty-four, thus in the autumn (November) of 1929. However, a few hours later,
in Rosemary's room at the Hotel Quirinale, he clearly states that the year is 1928:
"Looking at you as a perfectly normal girl of twenty-two, living in the year nineteen
twenty eight" (TN, 231). Fitzgerald is probably ambiguously playing with dates. If
the Roman episode is placed in November 1929 ("Then in a taxi they rode along
cheerless streets through a dank November night," TN, 241), then the Wall Street
crack-up (October 1929) has already occurred.
30 As far as I was able to check, no review of Main Street appears on the
pages of the Corriere della Sera for the years 1921 (May-June) and 1924-1925 (Oc­
tober-April). Carlo Linati, a distinguished Italian critic and an expert of English and
American literature, who was at the time the official reviewer for the Corriere, would
not have mistaken "Main" for "Wall." It is possible that the quotation from the Cor­
riere is Fitzgerald's own invention. Always suffering from his colleagues' success, he
may have also been deriding Sinclair Lewis (his feelings towards Lewis always fluc­
tuated between admiration and envy). All in all, the quotation is grammatically cor­
rect, except for the misspelling of Lewis's first name (it was Fitzgerald's habit to mis­
spell names) and the capital 'A' in the word "Americana," which would be right in
the English but not in the Italian orthography. Moreover, 'novella' (meaning 'short
story' in Italian) looks more like a literal translation of the word 'novel.' Incidental­
ly, Main Street (1920) was translated into Italian only in 1935.
31 Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Marble Faun, New York, Signet, 1961, p. 235.