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Learning Module 2 : Content and Contextual Analysis

Asso. Prof. 1: Eduardo M. Abad , EdD

Topic:

1. Content and contextual analysis on selected primary sources

2. Identification of Historical importance of the text
3. Examination of the authors main argument and point of view

Objectives:

1. Analyze the context , content and perspective of different kinds of primary sources
2. Determine the contribution of different kinds of primary sources in understanding
the Philippine History
3. Develop critical and analytical skills with exposure o primary sources

Discussion:

A. Context Analysis

Context Analysis considers the time and place the historical document was written
as well as the situation or the circumstances during the time. Works pertaining to
events in the past are analyzed by also taking into account the author of the
document, his/her biographical background, role in the event, and the intent for
writing the documents.

The two other questions to consider when doing a context analysis are as follows:

1. How authoritative is the account/source?

2. How is it relevant today?

Historical sources are written by various authors with different perspectives.

Perspective refers to the point of view of the said writer who was a witness to the
event. Though historical sources are important in the writing of history, the historian
is careful in using these sources as the writer may be biased or prejudiced on the
subject he/she is discussing. For example, missionary chronicles or narratives that
were written by the religious missionaries who came to the Philippines to spread
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Christianity in the islands usually referred to the early Filipinos as barbarians or

uncivilized. This, of course, is not true as it is known that Filipinos already had a form
of civilization and had contact with Asian neighbors before the Spaniards arrived.

Different participants who also wrote their accounts can also give varied opinions and
statements about a single event. For example, the Philippine Revolution of 1896 can
be read from the point of view of the Filipinos and from the side of the Spaniards. The
same event can be viewed from the lens of foreigners who were in the Philippines at
that time and were just passive observers. In any case, reading a historical event from
the points of view of all sides will enable us to form our own studies about the said
event. In this learning module, we will study the content and contextual analysis of
selected primary sources; identification of the historical importance of the text; and
examination of the author’s main argument and point of view.

Readings in Philippine History

1. Analyze the content, context, and perspective of the document

2. Discuss Magellan expedition and experience based on the journal

3. Explain the importance of Pigafetta’s account on the study of Philippine history

Note: Individual copy on the excerpts from Pigafetta’s account shall be distributed to
the student.

Historical Context One of the benefits that the Europeans gained from the Crusades
was the discovery of some products that were not available in their home country.
These included porcelain, silk, incense, herbs, perfumes, fabrics, carpets, spices, and
other oriental products. Of all these Asian products, spices, became the most
expensive and in-demand commodity among Europeans because of their numerous
uses such as food preservation, flavor enhancement, and even medicine.

Since spices were a very lucrative commodity, many merchants aspired to monopolize
their supply and distribution in the European markets. Asian goods reached Europe
either via the Silk Road or The Arabian-Italian trade route. Both routes were expensive
and oftentimes disrupted by wars, natural calamities, and bandits. The closing of the
land route of the Spice trade with the conquest by the Ottoman Empire of
Constantinople (present-day Turkey and the “gateway to the West” then) in 1453
forced European kingdoms to look for ways to explore the oceans to look for a way to
the famed Spice Islands. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal put up a maritime
school that trained sailors who would later discover an eastern sea route going to the
Spice Islands (the modern-day Moluccas Islands) and other islands in Southeast Asia
via the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean. This route enabled them to trade directly
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with the producers of spices and other Oriental goods. The numerous economic
benefits it gave to Portugal made other monarchs envious and prompted them to
search for a new trade route to Asia. This led to the discovery of many territories
previously unknown to the Europeans, though inhabited already and known to other
races. The marriage of Queen Isabella of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon (1469)
coupled with the victory of the Catholic monarchs over the Moors in the Battle of
Granada (1492) resulted in the rise of Spain as a world power.

With the domestic problems already under control, Spain started to explore their
economic options outside the Iberian Peninsula. Inspired by the success of Portugal,
they aspired to have a fair share in spice trade. They financed the trans-Atlantic voyage
of Christopher Columbus (1492 to 1502) which resulted in the discovery of the
territories on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean. Decades later, the Spanish monarch
also supported the plan of Ferdinand Magellan to go to the East by sailing westward,
a proposal that Portugal refused to finance. The Magellan expedition left the port of
Sanlucar de Barrameda in Seville on August 20, 1519 with around 270 men of different
nationalities.

One of its main objectives was to search for a new maritime path to the Spice Islands
that would not violate Spain’s treaty with Portugal. Along the way, the expedition
suffered natural and man-made challenges and out of the five ships that left Spain
only three reached the Philippines . The first couple of weeks of their stay in the
Philippines were marked with hospitality and cordial exchange of goods. The local
inhabitants traded with them and some were even converted to Christianity. Lapu-
lapu, the chieftain of Mactan, refused to trade with the Spaniards and when Magellan
learned this, he waged war with him.

Despite the superiority in terms of arms and training, the Spaniards lost the battle and
one of the casualties was Magellan himself. When the survivors returned to Cebu, they
were also treacherously attacked by their former allies. This prompted them to leave
the island. By that time, their number was just enough to man two ships, the Victoria
(now under the command of Juan Sebastian Elcano) and the Trinidad. The expedition
finally reached the Spice Islands and managed to purchase a large amount of spices
before leaving. Unfortunately, the Trinidad and her crew were captured by the
Portuguese on their journey back. On September 7, 1522, Elcano and 17 survivors
arrived in Spain aboard the ship Victoria. One of them was Antonio Pigafetta, the
assistant of Magellan who kept a journal that became the main source of what we
know about the first encounter of the Spaniards and the Filipinos.

About the Author Antonio Pigafetta (1491-1534), born around 1490 in the town of
Vicenza, Italy, was the eldest son of Giovanni Pigafetta to second wife Angela Zoga. He
studied astronomy, geography, and cartography and during his younger years
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worked in the ships owned by the Knights of Rhodes. His biographers describe him as
a well-educated young man possessing an avid curiosity of the world around him. He
joined the delegation of Monsignor Francesco Chieregati when the latter was
assigned as Papal Nuncio to Spain in 1519. It was during this time when Pigafetta
became acquainted with lucrative spice trade and heard the news of the voyage to
be undertaken by Ferdinand Magellan. After getting the approval of the Spanish
sovereign, he left Barcelona and went to Seville.

He presented his credentials to Magellan and to the Casa de La Contratacion, the

office in charge of voyages to the New World. He was admitted as one of the
sobresalientes (supernumeraries), or men coming from prominent families who will
join the trip for the love of adventure and for the advancement of military service.
Pigafetta survived the challenges and catastrophes that the expedition encountered
along the way, including being wounded in the Battle of Mactan. He was among the
18 survivors who returned to Spain on September 6, 1522 aboard the Victoria with Juan
Sebastian Elcano. From Seville, Pigafetta reported to his Majesty King Carlos V and
gave him a handwritten account of what happened to them during the journey before
retu rning to his native Italy. Very little is known as to what happened to him during
the latter part of his life except on some accounts that he joined the Knights of St.
John of Jerusalem in its battle against the Turks. He died sometime in 1534.

About the Book Pigafetta kept a detailed journal of what happened to them from the
time they left Seville in 1519 until they returned to Spain three years after. When he
returned to Italy, many of his associates asked him to write a formal account of the
Magellan expedition and have it published. He followed their advice and, after doing
it, he presented his draft to Pope Clement VII, Philippe de Villiers L’Isle-Adam
(grandmaster of the Knights of Rhodes) and to Louis of Savoy (mother of King Francis
I of France), hoping that they would help him finance its publication. Unfortunately,
he was unable to find a financier who would pay the deposit required by the printer
because by that time, the accounts of Maximilianus Transylvanus and Peter Martyr
were already out and interest on Magellan expedition had died down. Sometime in
1536, a condensed version of his manuscript was published in Venice by Jacques
Fabre.

The original journal of Pigafetta did not survive time. What was handed down
to us are copies of the manuscript that were never printed in his lifetime. Three of
them were in French and two are kept in the Bibliiotheque Nationale in Paris. The
third one was originally owned by British collector Sir Thomas Phillipps. Later,
Beinecke Rare Book bought it and it is now kept in the Manuscript Library of Yale
University in New Haven. The fourth copy was written in mixed Italian, Spanish, and
Venetian languages and could be found in the Ambrosian Library in Milan. In 1800,
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Carlo Amoretti published an Italian version and the following year a French version
came out in Paris. An English version was published in 1819. James Alexander
Robertson made his own English version of the Ambrosian copy and it appeared in
The Philippine Islands opus (Volume 33) as well as in a separate edition. Of the four
known primary sources that dealt with the Magellan expedition, Pigafetta’s account
is the longest and most comprehensive. It recounted the individual fates of the five
ships (Trinidad, San Antonio, Concepcion, Santiago, and Victoria) that gallantly
survived the unforeseen problems and challenges, such as shortage of food, various
types of diseases, the crew’s lack of confidence in Magellan’s leadership, and the
hostile attitude of the people they encountered during the journey. Pigafetta’s
account also included maps, glossaries of native words, and geographic information
and descriptions of the flora and fauna of the places they visited.

Pigafetta’s travelogue contributed immensely to the enrichment of Philippine

historiography. It is one of the most cited documents by historians who wished to
study the precolonial Philippines. As one of the earliest written accounts, Pigafetta
was seen as a credible source for a period, which was prior unchronicled and
undocumented. His writing provided us a glimpse of the political, economic, and
social conditions of the islands in the Visayan region during the 16 th century. He
described vividly the physical appearance, social life, religious beliefs, and cultural
practices of the people they encountered in the islands of Samar, Leyte, and Cebu. His
account also contains data about the economic activities of the local folks and the
goods they offered for trade. He got all this information through the help of
Magellan’s slave/interpreter, Enrique de Malacca. Pigafetta likewise gave us an
eyewitness account of the death of Magellan in the Battle of Mactan.

The report of Pigafetta is quite long and is not presented here in its entirety.
The excerpts are limited to the narration of what happened to the expedition upon
reaching the Philippines – from the time they landed on Homonhon up to the Battle
of Mactan. Since Pigafetta and Enrique de Malacca were not natives of the Visayan
region, there were inaccuracies in the information about and the spelling of the
names and places they visited. Thus, the correct equivalent and translation are
provided to make the excerpts understandable to contemporary students. Relevance
of the Book Pigafetta’s chronicle contributed immensely to Eureopean historiography
as it preserved and popularized the achievements of the Magellan expedition.

If Pigafetta did not survive the journey, we would have very little knowledge of
Magellan’s numerous contributions in the fields of geography, navigation, history, and
other related areas. First, credit must be given to Magellan expedition for proving that
the earth is not flat but an oblate sphere. Moreover, they demolished the myth that
there is boiling water at the Equator. Second, Magellan and his men completed the
first circumnavigation of the world. Third, they confirmed that the Portuguese route
is not the only way to the Spice Islands. They proved the theory that one can go to the
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east by sailing west. Fourth, they brought to the attention of the Europeans that on
the other side of the American continent exists a large body of water which the named
Pacific Ocean (Mar Pacifico). All of these discoveries altered the European map of the
world and resulted in the inclusion of new territories in their world view.

The account of Pigafetta also enriched Philippine historiography because it

contains important details about the conditions of the Visayan Islands in the 16 th
century. Some of the prominent leaders during that time, their economic activities,
social and cultural practices, and religious beliefs were identified. Moreover, local
textbook writers use his book as their source of historical information about the
beginning of Christianity in the Philippines.

The accounts about the First Mass in the Philippines, the conversion of Rajah
Humabon and his wife, and the story of the image of the Sto. Niño were mostly takes
from Pigafetta’s book. Finally, Pigafetta has numerous accounts about the reaction
of the Filipinos when they met the Spaniards. Some Filipinos were easily befriended
by the Spaniards while others refused to interact and trade with them. Lapu-lapu is
the most prominent character in Pigafetta’s narrative. He was the first Filipino who
led the resistance movement against Spanish rule and successfully thwarted the
first attempt of the Spaniards to take control of the Philippines.

Readings in Philippine History

Learning Activities

Name:___________________________________________Score/Rating:___________________
Year & Section:______________________Day/Time:____________Date:___________________
Directions: READ the excerpts from the book Magellan’s Voyage Around the World
by Antonio Pigafetta. Analyze the content, context and perspective of the document
by answering the following question.

1. Who is Antonio Pigafetta? What is his role in the Magellan expedition?

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. According to Pigafetta, how did the locals of the island welcome Magellan and his
crew? (indicate the page number/s on which you based your answer)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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3. How are the islander’s way of life, cultural practices, and religious beliefs described
from the book ( indicate the page number/s on which you based your answer) ?
What does Pigafetta’s account tell us about the conditions of the Visayan Islands in
the 16 th century? Cultural Practices
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Religious Beliefs
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Conditions of the Visayan islands in the 16 th century according to Pigafetta’s
account

______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

4. Based on Pigafetta’s account, how did the battle of Mactan start? (indicate the
page number/s on which you based your answer)
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

5. What particular traits of early Filipinos would you consider are still evident today?
Do you agree that such particular traits contributed to the present problems we
have as a nation? Do you agree that Filipinos are becoming more passive, more self-
centered in their attitude in resolving so many issues besetting our country? Justify
your answer.
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Source: https://pdfcoffee.com/w2-chapter-2-content-and-contextual-analysis-of-
selected-primary-sources-pdf-free.html

Content Analysis

Content analysis is a widely used qualitative research technique. Rather than being a
single method, current applications of content analysis show three distinct approaches:
conventional, directed, or summative. All three approaches are used to interpret
meaning from the content of text data and, hence, adhere to the naturalistic paradigm.

The major differences among the approaches are coding schemes, origins of codes, and
threats to trustworthiness. In conventional content analysis, coding categories are
derived directly from the text data. With a directed approach, analysis starts with a theory
or relevant research findings as guidance for initial codes. A summative content analysis
involves counting and comparisons, usually of keywords or content, followed by the
interpretation of the underlying context.

Approaches of Content Analysis

Conventional Analysis

Researcher X used a conventional approach to content analysis in her study(Table 1).

Conventional content analysis is generally used with a study design whose aim is to
describe a phenomenon, in this case the emotional reactions of hospice patients. This
type of design is usually appropriate when existing theory or research literature on a
phenomenon is limited. Researchers avoid using preconceived categories (Kondracki &
Wellman, 2002), instead allowing the categories and names for categories to flow from
the data. Researchers immerse themselves in the data to allow new insights to emerge
(Kondracki & Wellman, 2002), also described as inductive category development
(Mayring, 2000).
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Many qualitative methods share this initial approach to study design and analysis. If data
are collected primarily through interviews, open-ended questions will be used. Probes
also tend to be open-ended or specific to the participant’s comments rather than to a
preexisting theory, such as “Can you tell me more about that?” Data analysis starts with
reading all data repeatedly to achieve immersion and obtain a sense of the whole
(Tesch, 1990) as one would read a novel. Then, data are read word by word to derive
codes (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Morgan, 1993; Morse & Field, 1995) by first highlighting
the exact words from the text that appear to capture key thoughts or concepts. Next,
the researcher approaches the text by making notes of his or her first impressions,
thoughts, and initial analysis. As this process continues, labels for codes emerge that are
reflective of more than one key thought. These often come directly from the text and are
then become the initial coding scheme. Codes then are sorted into categories based on
how different codes are related and linked. These emergent categories are used to
organize and group codes into meaningful clusters (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996; Patton,
2002). Ideally, the numbers of clusters are between 10 and 15 to keep clusters broad
enough to sort a large number of codes (Morse & Field, 1995).

Depending on the relationships between subcategories, researchers can combine or

organize this larger number of subcategories into a smaller number of categories. Atree
diagram can be developed to help in organizing these categories into a hierarchical
structure (Morse & Field, 1995). Next, definitions for each category, subcategory, and
code are developed. To prepare for reporting the findings, exemplars for each code and
category are identified from the data. Depending on the purpose of the study,
researchers might decide to identify the relationship between categories and
subcategories further based on their concurrence, antecedents, or consequences
(Morse & Field, 1995). With a conventional approach to content analysis, relevant
theories or other research findings are addressed in the discussion section of the study. In
Researcher X’s study, she might compare and contrast her findings to Kübler-Ross’s (1969)
theory. The discussion would include a summary of how the findings from her study
contribute to knowledge in the area of interest and suggestions for practice, teaching,
and future research. The advantage of the conventional approach to content analysis
is gaining direct information from study participants without imposing preconceived
categories or theoretical perspectives. Researcher X’s study depicts a research question
appropriate for this approach. Knowledge generated from her content analysis is based
on participants’ unique perspectives and grounded in the actual data. Her sampling
technique was designed to maximize diversity of emotional reactions, and the analysis
techniques were structured to capture that complexity. One challenge of this type of
analysis is failing to develop a complete understanding of the context, thus failing to
identify key categories. This can result in findings that do not accurately represent the
data. Lincoln and Guba (1985) described this as credibility within the naturalistic
paradigm of trustworthiness or internal validity within a paradigm of reliability and validity.
Credibility can be established through activities such as peer debriefing, prolonged
engagement, persistent observation, triangulation, negative case analysis, referential
adequacy, and member checks (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Manning, 1997). Another
challenge of the conventional approach to content analysis is that it can easily be
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confused with other qualitative methods such as grounded theory method (GTM) or
phenomenology. These methods share a similar initial analytical approach but go
beyond content analysis to develop theory or a nuanced under standing of the lived
experience. The conventional approach to content analysis is limited in both theory
development and description of the lived experience, because both sampling and
analysis procedures make the theoretical relationship between concepts difficult to infer
from findings.

At most, the result of a conventional content analysis is concept development or model

building (Lindkvist, 1981). For example, Researcher X might find that patients who are new
to hospice care express worry about how their social obligations will be met (such as
finding care for a pet), whereas patients who have been in hospice for long periods might
express more anticipatory grief. Researcher X might compare her findings to those of
Kübler-Ross (1969) and conclude that an additional emotional reaction to entering
hospice care is the process of “tying up loose ends,” which she might define as making
both financial and social arrangement.

Little is known about the emotional reactions of terminally ill patients who are receiving
hospice care, possibly because of their reluctance to discuss death issues (Wilson &
Fletcher, 2002). Some patients might feel relieved to have active therapy end, whereas
others might feel afraid or even abandoned. Researcher X wanted to learn more about
the emotional experiences of hospice patients to be able to address their needs more
effectively. Because there was no existing theory to serve as a framework for her study,
her research question was “What are the emotional reactions of terminally ill patients who
are receiving hospice care?” Based on her clinical experience, Researcher X suspected
that the emotional reactions of patients who were new to hospice care differed from
those who had been in hospice care for a longer period. She also suspected that those
receiving home hospice care had different experiences from those receiving in-patient
hospice care. Researcher X therefore decided to use a stratified sampling technique to
ensure heterogeneity of the sample. The target sample size was 10 home hospice
patients and 10 inpatient hospice patients, with 5 from each group being recruited within
48 hours of enrollment into hospice and 5 recruited 7 to 10 days following enrollment. In
addition, the sample would include both men and women and both older and middle-
aged people. Prior to recruitment and data collection, the research procedures were
approved for use with human subjects. Informed consent was obtained from all
participants. Researcher X collected data through individual interviews using open-
ended questions such as “What has it been like to be in hospice care?” followed by
specific probes. All interviews were audiotape-recorded and trascribed verbatim.
Researcher X used content analysis to analyze the data. She began by reading each
transcript from beginning to end, as one would read a novel. Then, she read each
transcript carefully, highlighting text that appeared to describe an emotional reaction
and writing in the margin of the text a keyword or phrase that seemed to capture the
emotional reaction, using the participant’s words. As she worked through the transcript,
she attempted to limit these developing codes as much as possible. After open coding
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of three to four transcripts, Researcher X decided on preliminary codes. She then coded
the remaining transcripts (and recoded the original ones) using these codes and adding
new codes when she encountered data that did not fit into an existing code. Once all
transcripts had been coded, Researcher X examined all data within a particular code.
Some codes were combined during this process, whereas others were split into
subcategories. Finally, she examined the final codes to organize them into a hierarchical
structure if possible. In the findings, the emotional responses of hospice patients were
described using the identified codes and hierarchical structure. In discussion of the
findings, the results from this content analysis were compared and contrasted with Kübler-
Ross’s (1969) model to highlight similarities and differences.

DIRECT CONTENT ANALYSIS

Sometimes, existing theory or prior research exists about a phenomenon that is

incomplete or would benefit from further description. The qualitative researcher might
choose to use a directed approach to content analysis, as Researcher Y did
(Table 2). Potter and Levine-Donnerstein (1999) might categorize this as a deductive use
of theory based on their distinctions on the role of theory. However the key tenets of the
naturalistic paradigm form the foundation of Researcher Y’s general approach to the
study design and analysis.

The goal of a directed approach to content analysis is to validate or extend

conceptually a theoretical framework or theory. Existing theory or research can help
focus the research question. It can provide predictions about the variables of interest or
about the relationships among variables, thus helping to determine the initial coding
scheme or relationships between codes. This has been referred to as deductive
category application (Mayring, 2000). Content analysis using a directed approach is
guided by a more structured process than in a conventional approach (Hickey &
Kipping, 1996). Using existing theory or prior research, researchers begin by identifying
key concepts or variables as (Potter & Levine-Donnerstein, 1999).

Next, operational definitions for each category are determined using the theory. In
Researcher Y’s study, Kübler-Ross’s (1969) five stages of grief served as an initial
framework to identify emotional stages of terminally ill patients. If data are collected
primarily through interviews, an open-ended question might be used, followed by
targeted questions about the predetermined categories. After an open-ended
question, Researcher Y used probes specifically to explore participants’ experiences of
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Coding can begin with one of
two strategies, depending on the research question. If the goal of the research is to
identify and categorize all instances of a particular phenomenon, such as emotional
reactions, then it might be helpful to read the transcript and highlight all text that on first
impression appears to represent an emotional reaction. The next step in analysis would
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be to code all highlighted passages using the predetermined codes. Any text that
could not be categorized with the initial coding scheme would be given a new code.

The second strategy that can be used in directed content analysis is to begin coding
immediately with the predetermined codes. Data that cannot be coded are identified
and analyzed later to determine if they represent a new category or a subcategory of
an existing code. The choice of which of these approaches to use depends on the data
and the researcher’s goals. If the researcher wants to be sure to capture all possible
occurrences of a phenomenon, such as an emotional reaction, highlighting identified
text without coding might increase trustworthiness. If the researcher feels confident that
initial coding will not bias the identification of relevant text, then coding can begin
immediately. Depending on the type and breadth of a category, researchers might
need to identify subcategories with subsequent analysis. For example, Researcher Y
might decide to separate anger into subcategories depending on whom the anger was
directed toward. The findings from a directed content analysis offer supporting and non-
supporting evidence for a theory. This evidence can be presented by showing codes
with exemplars and by offering descriptive evidence. Because the study design and
analysis are unlikely to result in coded data that can be compared meaningfully using
statistical tests of difference, the use of rank order comparisons of frequency
of codes can be used (Curtis et al., 2001). Researcher Y might choose to describe his
study findings by reporting the incidence of codes that represented the five main
categories derived from Kübler-Ross (1969) and the incidence of newly identified
emotional reactions. He also could descriptively report the percent of supporting versus
nonsupporting codes for each participant and for the total sample.

The theory or prior research used will guide the discussion of findings. Newly identified
categories either offer a contradictory view of the phenomenon or might further refine,
extend, and enrich the theory. In Researcher Y’s study, the discussion might focus on the
extent to which participants’ emotional journeys paralleled Kübler-Ross’s (1969) model
and the newly identified emotional reactions or stages that were experienced by
participants in the study. The main strength of a directed approach to content analysis is
that existing theory can be supported and extended. In addition, as research in an area
grows, a directed approach makes explicit the reality that researchers are unlikely to be
working from the naive perspective that is often viewed as the hallmark of naturalistic
designs.

The directed approach does present challenges to the naturalistic paradigm. Using
theory has some inherent limitations in that researchers approach the data with an
informed but, nonetheless, strong bias. Hence, researchers might be more likely to find
evidence that is supportive rather than nonsupportive of a theory. Second, in answering
the probe questions, some participants might get cues to answer in a certain way or
agree with the questions to please researchers. In Researcher Y’s study, some patients
might agree with the suggested emotional stages even though they did not experience
the emotion. Third, an overemphasis on the theory can blind researchers to contextual
aspects of the phenomenon. In Researcher Y’s study, the emphasis on Kübler-Ross’s
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(1969) stages of emotional response to loss might have clouded his ability to recognize
contextual features that influence emotions. For example, the cross-sectional design of
the study might have overemphasized current emotional reactions. These limitations are
related to neutrality or confirmability of trustworthiness as the parallel concept to
objectivity (Lincoln & Guba,1985). To achieve neutral or unbiased results, an audit trail
and audit process can be used. In Researcher Y’s study, the vague terminology used in
Kübler-Ross’s description of the model would be a challenge for the researcher in
creating useful operational definitions. Having an auditor review and examine these
definitions before the study could greatly increase the accuracy of predetermined
categories.

Summative Content Analysis

Typically, a study using a summative approach to qualitative content analysis starts with
identifying and quantifying certain words or content in text with the purpose of
understanding the contextual use of the words or content (Table 3). This quantification is
an attempt not to infer meaning but, rather, to explore usage. Analyzing for the
appearance of a particular word or content in textual material is referred to as manifest
content analysis (Potter & Levine-Donnerstein, 1999). If the analysis stopped at this point,
the analysis would be quantitative, focusing on counting the frequency of specific words
or content (Kondracki & Wellman, 2002). A summative approach to qualitative content
analysis goes beyond mere word counts to include latent content analysis. Latent
content analysis refers to the process of interpretation of content (Holsti, 1969). In this
analysis, the focus is on discovering underlying meanings of the words or the content
(Babbie, 1992; Catanzaro, 1988; Morse & Field,1995). In Researcher Z’s study, the initial
part of the analysis technique, to count the frequency of death, die, and dying is more
accurately viewed as a quantitative approach. However, Researcher Z went on to
identify alternative terms for death and to examine the contexts within which direct
versus euphemistic terms were used. Hence, Researcher Z used a summative approach
to qualitative content analysis. Researchers report using content analysis from this
approach in studies that analyze manuscript types in a particular journal or specific
content in textbooks.

Examples include studies examining content related to EOL care in medical text books
(Rabow, Hardie, Fair, & McPhee, 2000), EOL care in critical care nursing textbooks
(Kirchhoff, Beckstrand, & Anumandla, 2003), palliative care in nursing textbooks (Ferrell,
Virani, Grant, & Juarez, 2000), death and bereavement in nursing textbooks (Ferrell, Virani,
Grant, & Borneman, 1999), and spirituality in nursing textbooks (McEwen, 2004). These
researchers started with counting the pages that covered specific topics followed by
descriptions and interpretations of the content, including evaluating the quality of the
content. Others have compared the results of a content analysis with other data
collected within the same research project, such as comparing preferences for various
types of television programming with socioeconomic indicators of participants
(Krippendorff, 1980). In a summative approach to qualitative content analysis, data
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analysis begins with searches for occurrences of the identified words by hand or by
computer. Word frequency counts for each identified term are calculated, with source
or speaker also identified. Researcher Z wanted to know the frequency of words that
were used to refer to death but also to understand the underlying contexts for the use of
explicit versus euphemistic terms.

He or she illuminated the context of euphemistic versus explicit terms by reporting how
their usage differed by variables such as the speaker (patient versus clinician), the
clinician’s specialization, and the age of the patient. Counting is used to identify patterns
in the data and to contextualize the codes (Morgan, 1993). It allows for interpretation of
the context associated with the use of the word or phrase. Researchers try to explore
word usage or discover the range of meanings that a word can have in normal use. A
summative approach to qualitative content analysis has certain advantages. It is an
unobtrusive and nonreactive way to study the phenomenon of interest (Babbie, 1992). It
can provide basic insights into how words are actually used. However, the findings from
this approach are limited by their inattention to the broader meanings present in the
data. As evidence of trustworthiness, this type of study relies on credibility. Amechanism
to demonstrate credibility or internal consistency is to show that the textual evidence is
consistent with the interpretation (Weber, 1990). For Researcher Z’s study, validation by
content experts on what terms are used to replace the death terms would be essential.
Alternatively, researchers can check with their participants as to their intended meaning
through the process of member check (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).