Chapter 2

Database System Concepts

and Architecture

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 1

Outline
◼ Data Models and Their Categories
◼ History of Data Models
◼ Schemas, Instances, and States
◼ Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Data Independence
◼ DBMS Languages and Interfaces
◼ Database System Utilities and Tools
◼ Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
◼ Classification of DBMSs

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Data Models
◼ Data Model:
◼ A set of concepts to describe the structure of a database,
the operations for manipulating these structures, and
certain constraints that the database should obey.
◼ Data Model Structure and Constraints:
◼ Constructs are used to define the database structure
◼ Constructs typically include elements (and their data
types) as well as groups of elements (e.g. entity, record,
table), and relationships among such groups
◼ Constraints specify some restrictions on valid data; these
constraints must be enforced at all times

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Data Models (continued)
◼ Data Model Operations:
◼ These operations are used for specifying database
retrievals and updates by referring to the
constructs of the data model.
◼ Operations on the data model may include basic
model operations (e.g. generic insert, delete,
update) and user-defined operations (e.g.
compute_student_gpa, update_inventory)

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Categories of Data Models
◼ Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
◼ Provide concepts that are close to the way many users
perceive data.
◼ (Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)
◼ Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
◼ Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored
in the computer. These are usually specified in an ad-hoc
manner through DBMS design and administration manuals
◼ Implementation (representational) data models:
◼ Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by
many commercial DBMS implementations (e.g. relational
data models used in many commercial systems).

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Schemas versus Instances
◼ Database Schema:
◼ The description of a database.
◼ Includes descriptions of the database structure,
data types, and the constraints on the database.
◼ Schema Diagram:
◼ An illustrative display of (most aspects of) a
database schema.
◼ Schema Construct:
◼ A component of the schema or an object within
the schema, e.g., STUDENT, COURSE.

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Schemas versus Instances
◼ Database State:
◼ The actual data stored in a database at a
particular moment in time. This includes the
collection of all the data in the database.
◼ Also called database instance (or occurrence or
snapshot).
◼ The term instance is also applied to individual
database components, e.g. record instance, table
instance, entity instance

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Database Schema
vs. Database State
◼ Database State:
◼ Refers to the content of a database at a moment
in time.
◼ Initial Database State:
◼ Refers to the database state when it is initially
loaded into the system.
◼ Valid State:
◼ A state that satisfies the structure and constraints
of the database.

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Database Schema
vs. Database State (continued)
◼ Distinction
◼ The database schema changes very infrequently.
◼ The database state changes every time the
database is updated.

◼ Schema is also called intension.

◼ State is also called extension.

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 9

Example of a Database Schema

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Example of a database state

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Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:
◼ Program-data independence.
◼ Support of multiple views of the data.
◼ Not explicitly used in commercial DBMS products,
but has been useful in explaining database
system organization

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Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
◼ Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical
storage structures and access paths (e.g indexes).
◼ Typically uses a physical data model.
◼ Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the
structure and constraints for the whole database for a
community of users.
◼ Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.
◼ External schemas at the external level to describe the
various user views.
◼ Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual schema.

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The three-schema architecture

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Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Mappings among schema levels are needed to
transform requests and data.
◼ Programs refer to an external schema, and are
mapped by the DBMS to the internal schema for
execution.
◼ Data extracted from the internal DBMS level is
reformatted to match the user’s external view (e.g.
formatting the results of an SQL query for display
in a Web page)

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Data Independence
◼ Logical Data Independence:
◼ The capacity to change the conceptual schema
without having to change the external schemas
and their associated application programs.
◼ Physical Data Independence:
◼ The capacity to change the internal schema
without having to change the conceptual schema.
◼ For example, the internal schema may be changed
when certain file structures are reorganized or new
indexes are created to improve database
performance

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Data Independence (continued)
◼ When a schema at a lower level is changed, only
the mappings between this schema and higher-
level schemas need to be changed in a DBMS
that fully supports data independence.
◼ The higher-level schemas themselves are
unchanged.
◼ Hence, the application programs need not be
changed since they refer to the external schemas.

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 17

DBMS Languages
◼ Data Definition Language (DDL)
◼ Data Manipulation Language (DML)
◼ High-Level or Non-procedural Languages: These
include the relational language SQL
◼ May be used in a standalone way or may be
embedded in a programming language
◼ Low Level or Procedural Languages:
◼ These must be embedded in a programming
language

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 18

DBMS Languages
◼ Data Definition Language (DDL):
◼ Used by the DBA and database designers to
specify the conceptual schema of a database.
◼ In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define
internal and external schemas (views).
◼ In some DBMSs, separate storage definition
language (SDL) and view definition language
(VDL) are used to define internal and external
schemas.
◼ SDL is typically realized via DBMS commands
provided to the DBA and database designers

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DBMS Languages
◼ Data Manipulation Language (DML):
◼ Used to specify database retrievals and updates
◼ DML commands (data sublanguage) can be
embedded in a general-purpose programming
language (host language), such as COBOL, C,
C++, or Java.
◼ A library of functions can also be provided to access
the DBMS from a programming language
◼ Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be
applied directly (called a query language).

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Types of DML
◼ High Level or Non-procedural Language:
◼ For example, the SQL relational language
◼ Are “set”-oriented and specify what data to retrieve
rather than how to retrieve it.
◼ Also called declarative languages.
◼ Low Level or Procedural Language:
◼ Retrieve data one record-at-a-time;
◼ Constructs such as looping are needed to retrieve
multiple records, along with positioning pointers.

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DBMS Interfaces
◼ Stand-alone query language interfaces
◼ Example: Entering SQL queries at the DBMS
interactive SQL interface (e.g. SQL*Plus in
ORACLE)
◼ Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in
programming languages
◼ User-friendly interfaces
◼ Menu-based, forms-based, graphics-based, etc.

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DBMS Programming Language Interfaces

◼ Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in a

programming languages:
◼ Embedded Approach: e.g embedded SQL (for C,
C++, etc.), SQLJ (for Java)
◼ Procedure Call Approach: e.g. JDBC for Java,
ODBC for other programming languages
◼ Database Programming Language Approach:
e.g. ORACLE has PL/SQL, a programming
language based on SQL; language incorporates
SQL and its data types as integral components

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User-Friendly DBMS Interfaces

◼ Menu-based, popular for browsing on the web

◼ Forms-based, designed for naïve users
◼ Graphics-based
◼ (Point and Click, Drag and Drop, etc.)
◼ Natural language: requests in written English
◼ Combinations of the above:
◼ For example, both menus and forms used
extensively in Web database interfaces

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 24

Other DBMS Interfaces
◼ Speech as Input and Output
◼ Web Browser as an interface
◼ Parametric interfaces, e.g., bank tellers using
function keys.
◼ Interfaces for the DBA:
◼ Creating user accounts, granting authorizations
◼ Setting system parameters
◼ Changing schemas or access paths

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 25

Database System Utilities
◼ To perform certain functions such as:
◼ Loading data stored in files into a database.
Includes data conversion tools.
◼ Backing up the database periodically on tape.
◼ Reorganizing database file structures.
◼ Report generation utilities.
◼ Performance monitoring utilities.
◼ Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring,
data compression, etc.

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 26

Other Tools
◼ Data dictionary / repository:
◼ Used to store schema descriptions and other
information such as design decisions, application
program descriptions, user information, usage
standards, etc.
◼ Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS
software and users/DBA.
◼ Passive data dictionary is accessed by
users/DBA only.

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 27

Other Tools
◼ Application Development Environments and
CASE (computer-aided software engineering)
tools:
◼ Examples:
◼ PowerBuilder (Sybase)
◼ JBuilder (Borland)
◼ JDeveloper 10G (Oracle)

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 28

Typical DBMS Component Modules

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 29

Centralized and
Client-Server DBMS Architectures
◼ Centralized DBMS:
◼ Combines everything into single system including-
DBMS software, hardware, application programs,
and user interface processing software.
◼ User can still connect through a remote terminal –
however, all processing is done at centralized site.

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A Physical Centralized Architecture

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Basic 2-tier Client-Server Architectures

◼ Specialized Servers with Specialized functions

◼ Print server
◼ File server
◼ DBMS server
◼ Web server
◼ Email server
◼ Clients can access the specialized servers as
needed

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Logical two-tier client server architecture

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Clients
◼ Provide appropriate interfaces through a client
software module to access and utilize the various
server resources.
◼ Clients may be diskless machines or PCs or
Workstations with disks with only the client
software installed.
◼ Connected to the servers via some form of a
network.
◼ (LAN: local area network, wireless network, etc.)

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DBMS Server
◼ Provides database query and transaction services to the
clients
◼ Relational DBMS servers are often called SQL servers,
query servers, or transaction servers
◼ Applications running on clients utilize an Application
Program Interface (API) to access server databases via
standard interface such as:
◼ ODBC: Open Database Connectivity standard
◼ JDBC: for Java programming access
◼ Client and server must install appropriate client module
and server module software for ODBC or JDBC
◼ See Chapter 9

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Two Tier Client-Server Architecture
◼ A client program may connect to several DBMSs,
sometimes called the data sources.
◼ In general, data sources can be files or other
non-DBMS software that manages data.
◼ Other variations of clients are possible: e.g., in
some object DBMSs, more functionality is
transferred to clients including data dictionary
functions, optimization and recovery across
multiple servers, etc.

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Three Tier Client-Server Architecture
◼ Common for Web applications
◼ Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web
Server:
◼ Stores the web connectivity software and the business logic
part of the application used to access the corresponding
data from the database server
◼ Acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data
between the database server and the client.
◼ Three-tier Architecture Can Enhance Security:
◼ Database server only accessible via middle tier
◼ Clients cannot directly access database server

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Three-tier client-server architecture

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Classification of DBMSs
◼ Based on the data model used
◼ Traditional: Relational, Network, Hierarchical.
◼ Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational.
◼ Other classifications
◼ Single-user (typically used with personal
computers)
vs. multi-user (most DBMSs).
◼ Centralized (uses a single computer with one
database)
vs. distributed (uses multiple computers, multiple
databases)

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 39

Variations of Distributed DBMSs
(DDBMSs)
◼ Homogeneous DDBMS
◼ Heterogeneous DDBMS
◼ Federated or Multidatabase Systems
◼ Distributed Database Systems have now come to
be known as client-server based database
systems because:
◼ They do not support a totally distributed
environment, but rather a set of database servers
supporting a set of clients.

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 40

Cost considerations for DBMSs
◼ Cost Range: from free open-source systems to
configurations costing millions of dollars
◼ Examples of free relational DBMSs: MySQL, PostgreSQL,
others
◼ Commercial DBMS offer additional specialized modules,
e.g. time-series module, spatial data module, document
module, XML module
◼ These offer additional specialized functionality when
purchased separately
◼ Sometimes called cartridges (e.g., in Oracle) or blades
◼ Different licensing options: site license, maximum number
of concurrent users (seat license), single user, etc.

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History of Data Models
◼ Network Model
◼ Hierarchical Model
◼ Relational Model
◼ Object-oriented Data Models
◼ Object-Relational Models

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History of Data Models
◼ Network Model:
◼ The first network DBMS was implemented by
Honeywell in 1964-65 (IDS System).
◼ Adopted heavily due to the support by CODASYL
(Conference on Data Systems Languages)
(CODASYL - DBTG report of 1971).
◼ Later implemented in a large variety of systems -
IDMS (Cullinet - now Computer Associates), DMS
1100 (Unisys), IMAGE (H.P. (Hewlett-Packard)),
VAX -DBMS (Digital Equipment Corp., next
COMPAQ, now H.P.).

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Example of Network Model Schema

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Network Model
◼ Advantages:
◼ Network Model is able to model complex
relationships and represents semantics of
add/delete on the relationships.
◼ Can handle most situations for modeling using
record types and relationship types.
◼ Language is navigational; uses constructs like
FIND, FIND member, FIND owner, FIND NEXT
within set, GET, etc.
◼ Programmers can do optimal navigation through the
database.

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Network Model
◼ Disadvantages:
◼ Navigational and procedural nature of processing
◼ Database contains a complex array of pointers
that thread through a set of records.
◼ Little scope for automated “query optimization”

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 46

History of Data Models
◼ Hierarchical Data Model:
◼ Initially implemented in a joint effort by IBM and
North American Rockwell around 1965. Resulted
in the IMS family of systems.
◼ IBM’s IMS product had (and still has) a very large
customer base worldwide
◼ Hierarchical model was formalized based on the
IMS system
◼ Other systems based on this model: System 2k
(SAS inc.)

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Hierarchical Model
◼ Advantages:
◼ Simple to construct and operate
◼ Corresponds to a number of natural hierarchically organized
domains, e.g., organization (“org”) chart
◼ Language is simple:
◼ Uses constructs like GET, GET UNIQUE, GET NEXT, GET
NEXT WITHIN PARENT, etc.
◼ Disadvantages:
◼ Navigational and procedural nature of processing
◼ Database is visualized as a linear arrangement of records
◼ Little scope for "query optimization"

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History of Data Models
◼ Relational Model:
◼ Proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd (IBM), first commercial
system in 1981-82.
◼ Now in several commercial products (e.g. DB2, ORACLE,
MS SQL Server, SYBASE, INFORMIX).
◼ Several free open source implementations, e.g. MySQL,
PostgreSQL
◼ Currently most dominant for developing database
applications.
◼ SQL relational standards: SQL-89 (SQL1), SQL-92 (SQL2),
SQL-99, SQL3, …
◼ Chapters 5 through 11 describe this model in detail

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History of Data Models
◼ Object-oriented Data Models:
◼ Several models have been proposed for implementing in a
database system.
◼ One set comprises models of persistent O-O Programming
Languages such as C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or
VERSANT), and Smalltalk (e.g., in GEMSTONE).
◼ Additionally, systems like O2, ORION (at MCC - then
ITASCA), IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).
◼ Object Database Standard: ODMG-93, ODMG-version 2.0,
ODMG-version 3.0.
◼ Chapters 20 and 21 describe this model.

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History of Data Models
◼ Object-Relational Models:
◼ Most Recent Trend. Started with Informix
Universal Server.
◼ Relational systems incorporate concepts from
object databases leading to object-relational.
◼ Exemplified in the latest versions of Oracle-10i,
DB2, and SQL Server and other DBMSs.
◼ Standards included in SQL-99 and expected to be
enhanced in future SQL standards.
◼ Chapter 22 describes this model.

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Summary
◼ Data Models and Their Categories
◼ History of Data Models
◼ Schemas, Instances, and States
◼ Three-Schema Architecture
◼ Data Independence
◼ DBMS Languages and Interfaces
◼ Database System Utilities and Tools
◼ Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
◼ Classification of DBMSs

Copyright © 2007 Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe Slide 2- 52