i EXPLORING SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL 11-14 Mark Levesley, Sue Kearsey, lain Brand, Penny Johnson Pp PearsonHow to use this book Biology 7A Cells, tissues, organs and systems 7Aa Tha 7Ab 7Ab 7Ac 7Ac 7Ad 7ARe The Doctors past and present Life processes Organs Medical doctors (STEM) Tissues Microscopes (WS) Cells Organ systems Transplants 7B Sexual reproduction in animals 7Ba 7Ba 7Ba 7Bb 7Be 78d 78d 7Be 7Be Escaped 00 animals The scientific method (WS) Animal sexual reproduction Reproductive organs Becoming pregnant Gestation and birth Endandered species (STEM) Growing up The work of zoos 7C Muscles and bones 7Ca 7a 7b 7b 7c 7Cd 7¢d Fitness ‘Muscles and breathing Muscles and blood Scientific questions (WS) The skeleton Muscles and moving Artificial limbs (STEM) 10 12 14 16 18 20 21 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 37 38 40 42 44 46 48 7Ce 7Ce Drugs Drugs and sport 7D Ecosystems 7Da 7Da 7Da 7Db 7De 7Dd 7Dd 7De 7De Exploring the world Variation Charts and graphs (WS) Adaptations Effects of the environment Effects on the environment Greener cities (STEM) Transfers in food chains Nomads Chemistry 7E Mixtures and separation 7Ea 7Ea 7eEa 7Eb 7Ec 7Ec 7ed 7Ee 7Ee Mixtures and separation Forensic science (STEM) Mixtures Solutions Safety when heating (WS) Evaporation Chromatography Distillation Safe drinking water 7F Acids and alkalis 7Fa 7Fa 7Fa 7Fb 7Fc Chemistry in the home Hazards Controlling risk (WS) Indicators Acidity and alkalinity 50 52 53 54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68 69 70 n2 74 76 78 80 82 84 85 86 88 90 927Fd_ Neutralisation 7Fd_ The chemical industry (STEM) 7Fe Neutralisation in daily life 7Fe Danger at home 7G The particle model 7Ga_ Sorting rubbish 7Ga_ Solids, liquids and gases 7Gb Hypotheses and theories (WS) 7Gb Particles 7Gc Brownian motion 7Gd_ Diffusion 7Ge Air pressure 7Ge Forecasting the weather (STEM) 7Ge Waste 7H Atoms, elements and molecules 7Ha Our material world 7Ha_ Sorting resource data (WS) 7Ha The airwe breathe 7Hb_ Earth's elements 7He_ Metals and non-metals 7He Obtaining metals (STEM) 7Hd_ Making compounds 7He Chemical reactions 7He Problems with elements Physics 71 Energy 7la__ Energy and changes Tla Energy from food 7la Fair comparisons and ratios (WS) 71b Energy transfers and stores Tle Fuels Tic Transporting goods (STEM) Tid Other energy resources Tle Using resources Tle Making changes 04 96 98 100 101 102 104 106 108 10 12 14 116 17 us 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 133 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 7) Current electricity 7Ja_ Discovering electricity Zia Switches and current 7b Models in science (WS) 7Jb Models for circuits 7Je_ Series and parallel circuits 73d Changing the current 7Jd Building robots (STEM) 7Je Using electricity Te Aworld without electricity 7K Forces 7Ka_ Forces 7Ka_ Different forces 7Kb Springs 7Kc Friction 7Kd_ Pressure 7Kd_ Slunits (WS) 7Ke Balanced and unbalanced 7Ke Designing structures (STEM) 7Ke Safety standards 7L Sound 7La Animal sounds 7La Making sounds 7Lb Moving sounds 7Lb Line graphs and scatter graphs (WS) 7Lc Detecting sounds 7Ld_ Using sound 7Ld_ Working with sound (STEM) 7Le Comparing waves Tle Animals and noise Glossary Periodic table Index 149 150 152 154 156 158 160 162 164 165 166 168 170 172 174 176 178 180 181 182 184 186 188 190 192 194 196 197 205 206HOW TO USE You should be able to answer the question at the top of the page by the time you have finished the page. The Key words for the page are in bold. You can look up the meaning of these words in the Glossary, on pages 197-204. Questions are spread throughout the page so you can answer them as you go along. Ifyou are having trouble finding information about something, use the Index, on pages 206-207. ean ... boxes help you to reflect on what you have learned. Consider each statement carefully and think about how well this applies to you.DOCTORS PAST AZ AND P For thousands of years people have gone to see doctors when they feel unwell. Some of the ways in ‘which doctors examine patients have not changed! For example, 3000 years ago, Ancient Egyptian doctors knew that ifa person's heart was not beating as well as usual that person could be ill. Today, doctors still find out how well your heart is beating, They may also measure temperature and do blood and urine tests to see if there are ‘changes in your body compared to normal, These changes are called symptoms. Different problems cause different symptoms. The symptoms of a cold Include a sore throat and runny nose. Meee eee eee Ae Lg Ce ent oem =o B | Doctors have written instructions for how to l mummies and found that many had heart problems. treat problems for thousands of years. This Ancient Egyptian carving records the range o instruments ae ; and medicines that a doctor used to treat patients A doctor sees if there is a match between a patient’ Dens urate tae symptoms and a known problem. if there is a match, ‘the symptoms are evidence that the person has a certain illness. Luckily, if you need a medicine today it will not ingredient of Ancient Egyptian al A patient has a high temperature, a headache and a stuffy nose. Which word in bold on this page best describes these findings? b| Suggest what illness the patient has. A doctor tells a patient that they have acne. Suggest what evidence the doctor has found to make them think this a| Which of the following best describes the heart: Al anorgan 8] acell C| atissue | a system? b| State one job that the heart does.—— LIFE 7A2PROCESSES WHAT DO ALL LIVING THINGS DO? The Ancient Egyptians believed they had cures for death, including one made from onions. tis doubtful that this worked! When they died, the bodies of important people were treated to stop them rotting - they were mummified. This was done because Ancient Egyptians believed that living things contained a'life force’ called ka, which needed somewhere to live. Today, we have different ideas about what it means to be alive. We look at what things do. If something can do the following life processes, itis a’living thing’ or organism: Amann See oa) = move = grow = need nutrition. leo ansent= oi ocuet « reproduce «= respire pharaohs) were placed inside huge stone i Sees = sensethings = excrete waste Copy and complete the table below with the items in the lst ‘Amnemonicisa word or phrase that car, chair, coal, cow, helps you remember a ist tis usually daffodil, goldfish, Organism Notan organism made using the frst letters of the words mouse, octopus, robot, ina lst. What mnemonics spelled out Aan by the frst letters of the life processes? rock, snake, Sun Movement Reproduction Allliving things can either move from place to place Organisms can make more living things like ‘or move parts of themselves. themselves. We say that they can reproduce. _ Sees Eee eu Ue Their flowers turn to follow the Sun during the day. Te ue Eaten ce esc) EE) Szeestone citference between how most EE] Svagest one thing that many plants do to animals move and how most plants move. reproduce but animals do not do,Re und eee Ue eure ea) Ree een a ee cond ir Living things use a process called res} nto ‘Organisms produce waste materials, When they get rid release energy for them to use. of these waste materials we say that they excrete them. F | Humans, like many living things, need oxygen and food in order to respire G | Waste materials include liquids (urine). Describe two ways in which you show Living things require sensitivity. various substances to help carry out other life processes. We say that they need nutrition, Suggest one difference between how trees grow and how humans grow. Suggest one difference between how fish and humans get their oxygen. a| In what ways is a car like an organism? ere Prey food. However, even plants Pee unt Aree ur rnd ear b Why isa car not an organism?UK NC, iLS, CEE TAD WHAT DO ORGANS DO? fee Vey Rr aT ersten blood for respiration, and een Tee Mt oa) Cc ane aay Pree geet cd edie cca gee erect By Pret t clean the blood and, eee ota In Ancient Egypt. the heart was thought to be the most important part of a person, When people were mummified, the organs in their bodies were removed but the heart was left in place. The stomach, intestines, lungs and liver were thought to be useful on the person's journey in the afterlife and these organs were preserved. They did not think the brain was important and so it was often thrown away. The heart, stomach, intestines, lungs and liver are organs. Every organ has an important function (job). We now know that the brain is also an organ and has the very important function of controlling the body! Your body's biggest organ is on the outside. I's your skin. Skin is used for protection and sensing things. Mega ces er Rat re PSU ecg ee as) Say Cee se En) Teer cloned CicloDraw a table to show the functions of ive different organsin your body. Which organ gets bigger as it fills with air? List the organs that help to get nutrition into the body. List the organs that excrete waste materials. List two organs that store solid or liquid wastes. Plant organs Photo D shows some of the main organs in plants. __leaf traps sunlight to make food — for the plant ~~ stem caries substances around the plant and supports the leaves and flowers root holds the plant in place. Roots also take water and small amounts of other substances from the soil. Sau Plants make their own food using a process called photosynthesis. This process occurs in the leaves when there is light. Photosynthesis needs carbon dioxide from the air, and water. Some plants also have storage organs, which they use to store some of the food that they make. Potatoes and carrots are storage organs. Which organ is the main organ of nutrition in a plant? al What process produces the food stored in plant storage organs? b| Why won't potato grow if the potato plant does not get much light? Which human organ is most similar to a leaf? Explain your. reasoning. a | ear casera erect) pen ene me a often eat these.MEDICAL ZADDOCTORS STEM stands for sceince, technology, engineering and maths. There are many interesting jobs open to people Te Ne es eet eo Fee eee eo a Denne heen AUS een ease. similar skills are needed for each one eer Mee eae cen ns POT see te PU nee et ae CeO eRe Meee neh aks SNe Suen teeter ated (information used to decide if an idea is correct or eta ee eRe nee te Ey Rees oan Pree ae eee ea do SE una tuna Sede ee har ee ake eRe cl Eucla Ceres aT) Nba RUE} Eo ame oneness tried pee eee en esa pe en ee Mie Ua Re the organs inside our bodies. Engineers also ee mce mon Kassie ea Peete Ey 2lhena siti broke her leg, twas pt in plaster for 2 months. Suggest how a doctor might check to see ifthe two ends of the broken bone have now joined together? | Adoctor thinks that a patient has a heart problem. Suggest why the patient is put in an ray scanner. Look at photo B. What organs the doc testing? ‘Aman has been getting pains in his chest. His doctor thinks the man may have a heart problem. a | What does the heart do? bb | Suggest two tests the doctor uses to discover ifthe man’s heart is working properly A patient has yellow skin. The doctor thinks the patient's liver has a problem and is leasing a substance called bilirubin into the blood. A test finds bilirubin in the patient's urine. The doctor says that the patient has liver disease. a | What does the liver do? b |Whatiis the doctors diagnosis? [What d |Which organ produces urine? e|Which organ stores urine? ance does the doctor use?a ean oes ae eee ae organs. Pathologists use their knowledge of the body and problem-solving skills Peon ene ta Men case Physiotherapists help people to recover from muscle Eo ene ae eure UE cs Pen econ euch cuts To develop their skills and knowledge, people who want to become physiotherapists, nurses or doctors do more training after they leave school. Doctors, for example, usually train at a university for six or seven Ne a a Yaad Pee Rr Ra a eg Olson Ee neg neo Work with others in your group to think about the different jobs that need a knowledge of the human body and its organs. Write down as many jobs as you can think of. For each job, give a reason why a knowledge of the human body is useful. DYN uae cesUK NC, iLs, CEE ZACTISSUES WHY ARE TISSUES IMPORTANT? Many good detective stories have a ‘pathologist who inspects a dead body to look for evidence to help to solve a murder. Pathologists have a long history; dead bodies were examined in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and in Roman times. Pathologists are fully trained doctors. Some pathologists examine dead bodies to try to work out causes of death. Others examine small pieces taken from living people to try to identify diseases. wy CTE ad A pathologist will look at a heart in detail because it is such an important organ and damage to it often causes death. Its function is to pump blood around the body. The blood carries oxygen and nutrients (from food) for all the different parts of the body to use. The heart has different parts. In photo B, the whiter parts are fat and the reddish parts are muscle, These are tissues. All organs are made up of different tissues. Each tissue in an organ has a certain function. For example, the muscle tissue in the heart is the part that moves, to pump blood. The fat tissue helps to protect the heart. | Pathologists use microscopes, which magnify things. Ths allows pieces taken from a body to be examined in great detail What des a microscope do? @ z EBB) took at photo 8, Describe what a heart looks lke.al Name two tissues found in the heart. b| What does each of these tissues do? ‘A pathologist says that the liver in photo D comes from someone with fatty liver disease Compare it with the healthy liver in diagram B on page 8. What evidence supports the pathologist’ conclusion? Your intestines move, so that food is pushed along, What tissue would you expect to find in intestines? Plant tissues Plants also have organs made out of tissues. Many roots, like the one shown in photo E, have hairs on the outside. This is root hair issue and it helps the root to take water out of the soil quickly. Ifyou cut opena plant organ, you can see more tissues. Photo F shows that a carrot contains different tissues. The tissue in the middle of the carrot is called xylem tissue (pronounced zy-lem). Xylem tissue carries water. Ina carrot, the xylem tissue carries water up from the roots, through the carrot and on into the rest of the plant. xylem tissue E | root hair tissue on a radish plant al What sort of organ is a carrot? | How many tissues does a carrot contain? Explain your reasoning. al Name two tissues you would expect to find in a radish plant root | What does each of these tissues do? Name a plant organ that is above ground and contains xylem tissue. ‘Which life process does xylem tissue help with? TETUK NC, iLS, CEE 7ACMICROSCOPES HOW IS A LIGHT MICROSCOPE USED TO EXAMINE A SPECIMEN? To find out what is wrong with an organ, doctors do tests. Some tests involve taking a small piece of tissue {a biopsy) from an organ and looking at it under a light microscope. Microscopes make things appear bigger; they magnify things. The Method below shows how to use a light microscope. Method A| Place the smallest B | Place the slide objective lens (the under the clips lowest magnification) on the stage. over the hole in the stage.Tum the coarse The slide contains the specimen (the thing focusing wheel you want to look at) tomake the gap Then adjust the light between the objective source so that light lens and the stage as goes up through small as possible. the hole. G | Look through the eyepiece lens, Turn the coarse focusing wheel slowly until what you see isin focus (clear and sharp). D |Toseea bigger image, place the next largest objective lens over your specimen. WH MONI E | Use the fine focusing wheel toget your image infocus again. Do not use the coarse focusing wheel since you can break the slide and damage the objective lens. If you cannot see your specimen clearly go back toa lower magnification.WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY A microscope has a x10 eyepiece lens and ax15 objective lens. ‘What sits total magnification? Preparing a specimen ‘The specimen on a microscope slide needs to be thin so that light can pass through it. A thin, glass coverslip is put on the specimen to keep it flat, hold it in place and stop it drying out. The Method below shows how to prepare a slide of onion tissue. Wear eye protection when carrying out this method. Slides and coverslips are made of thin Be very careful when using them. Why does a specimen need to be thin? Why do we use coverslips? Suggest the names of two plant and two animal tissues you could examine using alight microscope. Plan an investigation to examine rhubarb stem tissue in detail Jake sets up a microscope but only sees darkness when looking into the eyepiece lens. What might be wrong? Write down as many things as you can think of.wee] ELL Mummification preserves tissues. In 1825, Dr Augustus Granville tried to work out how a 2500-year-old Egyptian'‘mummy’ had died, His study included using a microscope to examine tissues. His conclusion was ‘cancer’ Technology has now advanced and another examination of the same mummy in 2009 concluded that the person died from a lung disease called tuberculosis (TB). Bled eC ered ee eee ad of them can show things that are one ee ace ee A| Hooke's microscope (far left) had a total magnification of about x30. Early 19th-century tes i Rene Ou Rut kee ccna ed Robert Hooke was the first person to study tissues with a microscope. In 1665, he examined the bark of a cork oak tree and saw little box shapes. He thought that they looked like the cells (small rooms) in a monastery and so that’s what he called them. Today we know that cells are the basic units from which all tissues and all living things are made. A tissue is a group of cells of the same type working together. Whatiisa cell? Granville was able to see much more in the ‘mummy tissues than Hooke saw in the cork tissue. Why was this? What do organisms always have that things B | Hooke's drawing of cork cells, published that have never been alive do not? se ec)Animal cells Photo C shows a cell from someone's cheek, viewed using a modern microscope. The photograph has a magnification of x600, which means that itis 600 times bigger in the photo than in real life, The different parts of the cell are labelled. All animal cells have the same basic parts, but cells from different D|Heart muscle cells work together in tissues have different shapes, sizes and functions to help them do ae ae their jobs. The cells are specialised. ene co) cell surface membrane —_ This is a very thin bag. It keeps the cell together and controls ‘what enters and leaves the cell. | Look at photo D. What are the dark blobs? b| What do these structures do? —— nucleus ——__ | What other parts would you find This controls the cell. ina heart muscle cell? —— cytoplasm ——__* dj What do these parts do? This is a watery jelly. Most of the cell's activities happen here. This includes respiration, which happens in tiny jelly-bean-shaped structures called mitochondria | Measure the widest part of the “ animal cell in photo C. Work out its real width, b] Measure the length of the plant Cell in photo €. Work out its real length. | adrawing and microscope image of a cheek cell showing its parts (magnification x600) Draw a table to compare the parts that can be found in animal cells Plant cells and plant cells. al What makes some plant cells green? b| Which are bigger chloroplasts cormitochondria? Explain your evidence. Plant cells have thick cell walls and may have some other features that are not found in animal cells. chloroplasts — These are green discs in the — ‘cytoplasm that contain chlorophyll They make food for the plant, using photosynthesis. mucous — cytoplasm “containing mitochondria ___—~ vacuole ——_ This is a large storage space, filed with cell sap, cell surface membrane Eh Drew and tabet a root haircell ait re alised to take water from the s coll wall (magnification *30). —— This is a box with holes in it — that supports the cell. It is made of cellulose, which is very strong, PE eee eS ie een (magnification x:_—=_ ORGAN 7Ac SYSTEMS HOW DO CELLS, TISSUES AND ORGANS WORK TOGETHER? When cells of the same type are grouped together they forma tissue. Different tissues are found grouped together in an organ. Name three tissues found in the heart, Doctors in Ancient Egypt could see that organs were connected but did not understand how or why. For example, they thought that you breathed air into your lungs and your heart, and all the tubes going to and from your heart. They could only examine the heart and its tubes in dead bodies when these organs were full of air, and so they thought that they always contained air. Today we know that the heart and its tubes carry blood around the body. The tubes are called blood vessels and work with the heart to form an organ system called the circulatory system. ‘An organ system is a group of organs that work together. Other organ systems in humans include the locomotor (muscles and bones), digestive, urinary, nervous and breathing systems. (The last of these is also called the respiratory system.) al Why did Ancient Egyptians think that blood vessels contained air? b| Suggest a piece of evidence that we have today that shows this is not conect. watisan organ syste? EO ee Ee uci Ce uke eek Ld etc kurt Rn ene Ucn) carries oxygen and nutrients MM breaks down food and takes Cea Mutucr cetteCO Ue cid dean all of your blood every es spinal brain nerves cord What organs are found in the breathing system? (Hint: You may find page Bhelpful) Draw a table to show the organs found in each human organ system mentioned on pages 18-19. (Hint: You may find page 8 helpful) Which life processes do the organ systems in diagrams C, Dand € help with? acu Ses ene ks | The urinary system gets rid ur ates} a cg Plants also have organs made up of tissues. Plant organs work together in organ systems too. For example, the water transport system takes water from the ground up to the leaves. Water is always flowing through this organ system because leaves constantly lose water (by evaporation). acs G| A plant root is made up of different tissue: eee i J root hair cell root hair ssue root vylem tissue xylem cel | Whatare the organsina plant's water transport system? ican... b| Name one tissue you would expectto findinallthese organs. 1 identify and recall the main organs in the Leaves lose water through small holes. How would you examine pplant water transport system, a leaf to find out whether more water is lost from its upper or = identify and recall the main organs in the under side? Plan an investigation, human locomotor, digestive, circulatory, breathing, urinary and nervous systems.7ACTRANS WHAT IS AN ORGAN TRANSPLANT? LANTS. Doctors today know a lot about cells, tissues and ‘organs. They also have microscopes and other tools to help investigate problems with our bodies. Ifa doctor thinks there is something wrong with an ‘organ, a biopsy (piece of tissue) might be taken from the organ and examined. This can help to identify the problem and a doctor can plana treatment. | biopsy samples under a microscope Sometimes an organ cannot be treated and doctors may consider doing an organ transplant. This is when an unhealthy organ is replaced with ahealthy organ (usually from a person who has recently died). Cue Cue ance 7 = Cololitelme-lee} Ce ‘The idea of replacing damaged tissues and organs Po goes back at least 2700 years to an Indian doctor, called their organs Sushruta. He successfully replaced skin on a part of to be used for someone's body using nearby skin from the same person. eked ui Today doctors can transplant hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys pe a ad 4 and even faces, arms and legs between different people. De eu unc to show this. EE 2 22wone call fom biopsy sample x. Label its parts and their functions. | In some cancer cells the nuclei become very large. Which biopsy sample (X or Y) shows cancerous tissue? ‘People should carry cards only if they Caged: Car eur eee ee uy Cee ete ee Leste Ne ete Draw a diagram to show how organ systems, organs, tissues and cells are linked. In your diagram use one example from plants and one from humans.7Ba ‘There are reports of big cats, such as panthers and leopards, living wild in the United Kingdom. One ideas that these cats have escaped from zoos, which often keep rare animals such as large cats to breed them and for visitors to learn about them. Most of the reports are unlikely to be true because people are mistaken about the sizes of the cats they see. However, there is a little evidence that big cats could be living in the UK. The Canadian lynx in photo B was discovered in 1903 in Devon. This is the only big cat that has ever been found in the UK, dead or alive. There is good evidence that other animals have escaped from zoos and live in the wild. In the 1970s, pair of wallabies escaped from Curraghs Wildlife Park on the Isle of Man and now there are about 100 of them living on the island. Cenc ei aus Se eras CRON kee eo the UK. Why are there now about 100 wallabies on the Isle of Man if only two escaped? Why do you think there are not large numbers of Canadian lynx in Devon, even though one escaped? What evidence supports the conclusion that there are wallabies on the Isle of Man? Suggest why most sightings of big cats in the UKare probably cases of mistaken identity. Wallabies and cats are both mammals. Suggest two ways in which you would expect their reproduction to be similar.UK NC, CEE IN eee ed eee PT became extinctin the wild in the 1970s. What life process do organisms use to increase their numbers? Suggest why people used to think that rotting rubbish produced rats. Thisis normally based on an observation eg. why do frogs appear on the mud by riversand ponds atcertain times of year?) Thissupplies an idea that answersthe question (eq. the process by which frogs are made depends on there being mud) New hypothesis This states what you needed a thinkwill happen in an experiment ifyour hypothesisis correct (eaiifthere sno mud, then no frogs willay ‘An example might bein an experiment one pond had mud and another had no mud. InJune, therewere frogsnextto both ponds. looks correct WHY Is IT USEFUL? Allorganisms must reproduce to increase their numbers and make sure that their type of organism does not die out (become extinct). Reproduction is obvious in some animals. Mammals (such as humans) give birth to babies and many other animals hatch from large eggs. People did not always know how new animals were made! This was especially true for smaller animals whose reproduction could not be seen easily. For example, when some rivers flood in spring they leave areas of mud, which attract lots of frogs. So, people thought that frogs were produced by mud. Until a few hundred years ago many people thought that rotting rubbish produced rats, that old fruit produced flies and that meat produced maggots. ‘These sorts of ideas were not scientific. People observed maggots in old meat and so they thought that the meat produced maggots, but they did not test this idea. Today, scientists test their ideas using the scientific method! The scientific method is any way of testing that involves collecting information in order to show whether an idea is right or wrong. Diagram B shows how itis often done. First, you use an observation to think up a question that can be answered using experiments. Then you think of an idea to answer your question, which can be tested using experiments. This is called a hypothesis. Next, you say what will happen in a certain experiment if the hypothesis is right. This is called’making a prediction’ The results from an experiment are called data. If the data matches the prediction, this is evidence that the hypothesis is correct.WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY EE (2% teliagrams. al Whatiisa hypothesis? b| What prediction has been made? ¢| Do the results match the prediction? 4| What would the scientist do next? Decide whether each of these statements is a hypothesis, a prediction ora result. ‘Al The seeds at the warmer temperature sprouted fast. 8) The ability of animals to reproduce depends on there being males and females. If people lack vitamin C in their food, then they will get a disease called scurvy. Redi’s experiment In 1668, the Italian scientist Francesco Redi (1626-1697) had an idea that maggots were caused by flies laying tiny eggs on meat. He tested this hypothesis by putting meat into a set of jars. He sealed some of the a| Inthe banana peel experiment, what jars, put gauze over the tops of others and left others question has been asked? open. He put all the jars in an area where there were b| What hypothesis is being tested? flies. Maggots were only found in the open jars. This gl ttocrgnstea was evidence that his hypothesis was correct. EEE al what was reais hypothesis? b| Suggesta prediction that Redi might have made. ¢| Explain how Redi’s results provide evidence to support his hypothesis.UK NC, CEE 7Ba HOW DO DIFFERENT ANIMALS REPRODUCE SEXUALLY? Endangered animals are those that are in danger of becoming extinct because there are very few left. Many zoos try to stop endangered animals becoming extinct by breeding the animals. itis hoped that the offspring can be released back into the wild, Animals living in zoos do not always mate successfully and sometimes their offspring die for unknown reasons. So it is important that scientists study sexual reproduction in different animals to work out how to help them breed. ENIRRE GMC MER Recaro Petes etd only in z00s. Thanks to a breeding programme, there are now hundreds of Przewalski's horses living wild in their natural EB wnat are human offspring called? rere west rane Scientists from all over the world work together Sexual reproduction requires two individuals De Ua una cua is to produce new organisms of the same type. Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) to publish a list Usually, two types of specialised cells are CT eg used. These are called sex cells or gametes. aE Males make gametes called sperm cells and females make egg cells (or ova). During fertilisation, a sperm cell enters an egg cell and the two cell nuclei fuse (become one}, Asingle fertilised egg cell or zygote is formed, which can grow into a new organism. Ces es Ree Oe Ca iene Perc setae ater ee) Ey het of reproduction needs males and females? EBB 2! Which are biager inal ite, sperm cells or egg cells? b| Usea ruler and photo 8 to calculate the actual sizes of sperm cells and egg cells. EEBE 2 tnanimats,whatis the male gamete? b| What happens to this cell during fertilisation?For fertilisation to happen, the sperm cells must reach the egg cells. External fertilisation is when this happens outside the bodies of the animals (e.g. in fish). This. usually occurs in water. Other animals use internal fertilisation, in which the male parent places sperm cells inside the female. In external fertilisation, some egg cells do not get fertilised because the sperm cells are ‘washed away, Many animals that use external ferilisation do not protect their fertilised egg cells,s0 alot of cells are eaten by other animals. Animals that use external fertilisation must produce huge numbers of egg cellsto ensure a| Name an animal tat uses external fertilisation. that some of them get fertilised and survive. ga’ ee gees en See ee eee ce b| Give two reasons why the females of the animal you chose produce many egg cells. Birds and mammals use internal fertilisation. They produce fewer egg cells because sperm cells are more likely to reach the egg cells. These animals also usually care for their fertilised egg cells and offspring. Birds lay their fertilised eggs in nests and protect them. In mammals, the offspring grow inside the mother. Birds and mammals protect their new offspring until they are able to survive on their own. Dee ee iene te otto) Se aici eee Mu eeete etNel have fallen by over 80 per cent since 1940. Ses oer eee eC gs homs, use internal fertilisation, The offspring develop inside the mother (internally). b| Give two reasons why the females ofthe animal you chose produce only afew egg cells Why s external fertilisation unusual for animals that live away from water? ‘Afemale mouthbrooder fish sucks her fertilised eggs into her mouth, where they hatch. Would you expect mouthbrooder females to produce more or fewer egg cells than other fish of the same size? Explain your reasoning,UKNC, CEE rz 7Bb r WHAT ARE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS LIKE? Scientists are trying to stop some animals from becoming extinct, including helping them to reproduce in zoos and game parks. Methods include artificial insemination, in which male gametes (sperm cells) are placed into a female using a thin tube. Gametes are produced in reproductive organs, which form an organ system called the reproductive system. In mammals, the male gametes are made in the testes. The testes hang outside the body ina bag of skin called the scrotum. Their position helps to keep the sperm cells at the correct temperature to develop properly. After puberty, males produce sperm cells for the rest of their lives (up to 100 million every day). A sperm cell has certain features tohelp it do its job. tis adapted to its function. ‘When sperm cells are released from the testes, they travel through sperm ducts, where fluids are added from glands. The fluids provide a source of energy for the sperm cells. The mixture of sperm cells and fluids is called semen, and it leaves the body through the urethra (which is inside the penis). This tube also carries urine from the bladder, but never at the same time as semen. The head of the penis is sensitive and is protected bya covering of skin (the foreskin). This can be removed in a process called circumcision. bladder (not part of the reproductive system) glands — urethra sperm duct _ pane testis of energy for the tal lion cubs, born in 2018, were the first big cats to be bred using artificial insemination. ‘streamlined shape __The top of the head contains substances that attack the outside of the egg cell This allows the sperm cell to enter. /The tall allows cing itto swim, of closely-packed cell surface mitochondria can release lots membrane FE) (Which organ sin both the male urinary andthe reproductive systems? al Where are sperm cells made? b| Doyou think sperm cells need to be warmer or cooler than the body to develop? Explain your reasoning, Explain how a sperm cells adapted for swimming, The prostate gland (in yellow on diagram C) controls the flow of semen and urine. It sometimes swells up. Suggest a problem this may cause and explain your reasoning.The female reproductive system In females, each ovary contains small, undeveloped egg cells (ova). After puberty, egg cells start to develop and one is usually released from an ovary every 28-32 days. A woman's ovaries stop releasing egg cells at about the age of 45-55 years - atime known as the menopause. Like sperm cells, egg cells are adapted to their function (as shown in photo €). ‘A woman releases an egg cell every 28 days for 35 years. How many egg cells does she release in total? Show your working. Which organ makes and releases female gametes? Girls are born with about 100 000 Pie ec re ace with hairs, called cilia, and these sweep egg cells towards the uterus. The uterus is where a baby will develop. It has strong, muscular walls and a soft lining. The lower end of the uterus is made of a ring of muscle called the cervix. The cervix holds the baby in place during pregnancy. The cervix opens into ‘the vagina. Which female reproductive organs contain muscles? How does an egg cell reach the uterus? Explain how a developing fertilised egg cell has a supply of energy. Suggest reasons why a certain woman's ovaries are not releasing egg cells. Think of as many reasons as you can. oviduct < ovary uterus ~ —— cervix vagina —_ By taeur ei ‘sure that only one ‘sperm cell enters. The cytoplasm contains a aL it of food to provide energy forthe fertilised egg cell (zygote). nucleus Bee nit ease) Ecc=— BECOMING 7BCPREGNANT HOW DOES SEXUAL INTERCOURSE LEAD TO A GROWING FOETUS? In animals that use internal fertilisation, the male must place sperm cells inside the female. Male mammals have penises for this purpose. Before sexual intercourse the man’s penis fills with blood, making it hard (an erection). During sexual intercourse, the penis is inserted into the vagina. The penis is stimulated, which leads to ejaculation (in which semen is left at the top of the vagina). The semen is sucked up through the cervix. Small movements of the uterus wall carry it to the oviducts. From here the sperm cells swim along the oviducts. Ifa sperm cell meets an egg cell, the sperm cell can enter the egg cell and fertilise it. During fertilisation, the nuclei of the cells fuse. Each nucleus contains half the instructions for a new human and so the baby will have features from both its mother and its father. Sperm cells are moved Up through the cervix and uterus, and then bal of els swim down the oviduots (embryo), (fallopian tubes), fertilisation ‘An egg cal is released from an ovary An embryo implants into the lining of| the uterus. These cells start to form the placenta. ‘Semen, containing sperm cells, is left. here during sexual intercourse. ‘A|a human sperm cell entering an egg cell Cece ere) Eh here does tertsationocurt How is a sperm cell adapted to enter an egg cell? (Hint: Look back at page 26.) The fertilised egg cell divides into two. Each of these cells then divides into two again. The cells carry on dividing and form a ball of cells as they travel towards the uterus. In the uterus, the ball of cells (called an embryo) sinks into the soft lining. This is called implantation. The woman is now pregnant. In diagram B, the ‘bal ofcelsis the result of cells dividing a total of four times. How many cells does it contain? Explain your reasoning. COE aut) cert two, the cells can separate. They may both grow into new embryos and form identical twins. However, if these cells do not fully Ee eu Sees parts of their body. They are j Sur gcTe en ete eT Pregnancy After implantation, the embryo continues to grow and becomes surrounded by watery amniotic fluid, to protect it. The fluid is contained within a bag called the amnion. A placenta also grows. Thisis a plate-shaped organ that is attached to the uterus lining. Inside the placenta, oxygen, water and food from the mother’s blood go into the embryo's blood. Waste materials (like earbson dioxide) go from the embryo’ blood into the mother's blood. The umbilical cord carries the embryo's blood to and from the placenta. The mother's blood does not mix with the embryo’s blood. This is because the mother’s blood is pumped around her body under alot of pressure, which would damage the blood vessels of the delicate embryo. al List three substances the embryo needs to grow. b] Name one substance the embryo excretes Is the placenta made by the embryo or the mother? What is the function of: al the placenta | the umbilical cord | amniotic uid? ‘As an embryo grows, its cells become specialised. Suggest one type of specialised cell that would be in the embryo in photo D and one type that would not. Each of a woman's ovaries might release an egg at the same time. If both are fertilised, twins are produced. These twins will not be identical. Sometimes, when a fertilised egg cell divides in two, the two new cells get separated. Both of these cells can grow into embryos and produce identical twins. Having more than one baby is called a multiple birth and most types of animal have multiple births. al Which children in photo C are identical? b| Explain what happened in the mother’ body to produce these triplets D| This is a 7-week-old embryo. By this stage it has a tiny heart, pumping blood. It is about 2.3 om long, Nearer FM pccerta, §—uterstning, —_foodmater, engen roy ean poe Ican .. 1 describe how sexual intercourse can lead to the implantation of an embryo 1 describe how an embryo i protected and cared forin the uterus. 29= GESTATION 7BOAND BIRTH WHAT HAPPENS DURING THE GESTATION PERIOD AND BIRTH? The gestation period is the time from fertilisation until birth. It lasts about 9 months (40 weeks) in humans. The gestation period is very ong in some animals, which can make breeding them in zoos difficult. Once an embryo has developed a full set of organs itis called a foetus (pronounced fee-tus’). This takes about 8 weeks in humans. ee aes eee eeu ‘About how long does a human spend as a foetus? a] What are the parts labelled X and Y on photo A? b| Explain the importance of these parts for the developing foetus. i= This probe on a woman's bel A pregnant woman needs a healthy diet because she ad provides the growing and developing foetus with toproduce an ims food, including vitamins and minerals. She should of a developing also exercise to keep her muscles strong and her =~ baby, on a comp] circulatory system working well. 8 Screg Most pregnant women go for ultrasound scans, which | vtech scanners Usual Produce, Dae Q Pre eu hence ese keane te produce images ofthe foetus. Doctors use scansto check Sha eae na RE the stage of development and for any problems. Alcohol, illegal drugs (such as heroin), nicotine from cigarette smoke and some viruses can go through the placenta and harm the foetus (particularly its brain). Doctors also need to be careful about what medicines they give to pregnant women. EER) 21 Asn shows foetusis7 cm long. What can you say about its age? Explain your reasoning, | Suggest two advantages of having ultrasound scans during pregnancy.The blood of a woman who smokes carries less oxygen than. it should, which means that the foetus may not get enough oxygen. A foetus like this is more likely to be premature (born small and early). Viruses are tiny microorganisms that can cause diseases. The virus that causes rubella can cause a foetus to become deformed. Girls are often vaccinated against rubella. Describe how a foetus can be harmed by substances in cigarette smoke. Birth When a baby is ready to be born, the uterus begins to contract (squeeze). This is the start of labour. The contractions start gently but become more powerful and more frequent. The muscles of the cervix then slowly relax, making it wider. At some stage, the amnion breaks and the amniotic fluid flows out of the vagina. Tea Dee cont umbilical cord Placenta ~ Once the cervix is about 10 cm wide, the strong contractions of the uterus push the baby through it, usually head first. This is painful and the woman may be given medicine to ease the pain. uterus ~ When the baby is out, its umbilical cord is cut, leaving a short stump. This falls off after about a week and leaves a scar called the navel (or‘belly button’). Within 30 minutes after birth, the placenta detaches and passes out through the vagina. This is called the afterbirth and is the end of labour. Anew baby’s fed on milk from mammary glands in the breasts. This contains nutrients to give the baby energy and help it grow. It also contains antibodies ~ substances that help to prevent diseases caused by microorganisms. After a few months the baby can start eating semi-solid food. List the main stages of labour. Write a caption for photo E. Why does the cervix needto open after contractions start? Explain the actions that a woman can take to care for her foetus. Make notes, perhaps using a table of actions and reasons, before writing a paragraph,ENDANGERED 7B1 SPECIES Deen ce OCU E ce endangered, which means they may soon be As a eee extinct. Scientists count organisms to find out PMN eteae oeee satellites and drones, helps to do this. Ue ee a eee kes ad became very low, due to hunting, So, scientists . fee che reat Etec) erie ead ™ « Se Peete tart ake een) . 6% ) encod nt oa St nee ee ee eet coe ate CO ea an eure eee eT deyre sinker eon ells ee Ee en Cake SCLC rated taken in a z00 while training a computer to recognise animals bs a paw pianiete rn cores from thermal images. A drone carries the thermal camera and Se USOC i asd sends images to the computer. oryx lived, Soa Ne pee an aa epee ce DO see eee eng ed eeu aad into the wild in Oman, Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Jordan. The scientists saved Recipients oe Ketem ct eake eecRe ee Ce a ee Tea sR ec ae Diener nes | Name the animal in photo A. | Suggest why itis difficult to count these animals in areas covered with large bushes. ¢ | Explain how drone technology could make it easier to count the animals. State why Arabian oryx became extinct in the wild. ‘The gestation period of an Arabian oryx is 8 months. What does this mean? 32a See eR eer eho acne WT Ay their natural habitats (eg. forests, deserts, the Arctic). Other zoologists help to breed endangered species in z00s, og a Zoologists need a university degree and must be good Berne aie Chem eet nea zee ciate Ee Peek kL eur a cee) an anima’ habitat and then apply that knowledge to create similar conditions in the zoo. They start by | listing the natural conditions and the zoo conditions ‘ eeu aon Pe eget Rene nea ae) mn enlace) eee ee ed match the conditions of the natural tiger habitat cy Zoologists also apply their knowledge of human reproduction to POE age ree eesMe Naa ets ‘Suggest an advantage of transporting sperm cells to a 200 people have children, such as by placing sperm cells directly ane dane Ceo Mes Tete pe eee Ae ee le eed ee eee ete eet Re Ee oy Using your knowledge of ee ieee ae ne EM sperm cells from a male animal can be transported to a z00 instead Cee ene hole animal humans, suggest how a zoo could ccheck the health of an unborn baby animal Red pandas are endangered. They live up in the trees in mountain forests in Bhutan, India, Myanmar and China. The temperature range is usually 10-25°C but their thick fur means that the pandas can survive periods ofsnow. ‘Az00 in your country wants totum an open, grassy area into a home for red pandas. Workin a group to design an ent) enclosure, Present your ideas was the result of sperm eeepc ky Oued asa diagram and write a report to show all the steps in your design process. GC ue Lg Coded edUKNC, CEE Anewbom animal needs to grow and go through puberty before it can reproduce. Puberty isa process in which big changes happen in its body, including fast growth and development of the reproductive system. Puberty in humans usually starts between the ages of 10 and 15 years, with girls often starting before boys. During puberty, the testes begin making sperm cells and the ovaries begin releasing egg cells. Puberty is usually finished by the age of 18. Veer ea ama Ta Seen See ee ei hea eae Puberty is started by sex hormones, which are substances released by the brain, ovaries and testes. Sex hormones also cause spots (acne) and emotional changes, including becoming more aware of others. The Changes in boys during puberty Changes in girls during puberty shoulders get wider hips get wider hair grows on arms, face and chest underarm hair grows stronger body smell stronger body smell pubic hair grows pubic hair grows testes start to make sperm cells, ‘ovaries start releasing eqg cells (ova) time when all these emotional and physical changes occur is called adolescence. al What is puberty? | What chemicals control puberty? | Where ate these chemicals produced in gits? What is adolescence? Suggest three ways in which the changes during puberty are similar for boys and girs Describe the changes that happen toa male ‘mandrill during puberty. Imagine you write a magazine advice column. Somebody asks why they have suddenly got acne. Writea response. voice deepens (or'breaks’) testes and penis get bigger Cee) eed eran) Pree) Ee Peace a er ee ca ed Pay eat) Ca Er) Pu ud mee aeThe menstrual cycle The menstrual cycles a series of events that occur in the female reproductive system. It starts soon after puberty begins and stops at the menopause. Each cycle takes about 28 days and is controlled by sex hormones. About 14 days after ovulation, if the egg cell Menstruation (‘having a Bi has not been fertilised, the lining of the uterus period’) is when the soft lining of breaks apart again and the cycle restarts with the uterus breaks apart, It another period. If the woman becomes passes out of the vagina along pregnant the cycle stops and the thick uterus with a litle blood and an lining continues to grow to provide the unfertiised egg cell. A period placenta with a good supply of nutrients and oxygen. Cilia sweep the egg cell along the oviduct towards the uterus. Ifit meets a sperm cell it can be fertilised. The lining of the uterus helps to support, feed and protect an embryo, so itis replaced every cycle with fresh material to make sure it is in as good a condition as possible. It continues to thicken for usually lasts for 3-7 days. Immediately after menstruation, an egg cell starts to develop in ‘one of the ovaries. While this happens, the lining of the uterus starts to build up again, and to develop a network of blood vessels. About 14 days after the ‘cycle has started, the egg cell is released, This is ovulation. about a week after ovulation. How long does one complete menstrual cycle usually take? Describe what happens about 14 days after menstruation starts. How might a woman tell that she is pregnant? Why does the lining of the uterus have to become thick? Periods usually occur once every 28-32 days, but this can vary a lot, especially when periods first start. Sanitary towels or tampons are used to absorb the blood. Life cycles The changes in an organism from birth until it can have offspring are called its life cycle. Humans have a long life cycle - it takes a long time for offspring to be able to reproduce. Mice have short life cycles ~ baby mice can reproduce in 5 weeks. BE 22 cet human ie cyte tabelit with information about what happens. at the different stages.7Be HOW CAN STUDYING REPRODUCTION HELP ENDANGERED SPECIES? Animals with short life cycles often produce many offspring, which are quickly able to reproduce. This can make it reasonably easy to breed these animals in captivity. On the other hand, animals with long life cycles can be difficult to save from extinction because they take so long to reproduce and only produce small numbers of offspring. For example, a female Sumatran rhinoceros takes 7 years to become sexually mature. She has one calf at a time with a gestation period of 16 months. Scientists in z00s try to help endangered animals like the Sumatran thinoceros reproduce. They care for the animals and their offspring, and help them reproduce successfully by using technology that has been developed for humans. Ue ucu ue eee ceo Oa tec) SUL cee ace Re Things do not always go to plan. In the 1980s and 1990s, 40 Sumatran rhinoceroses were caught and sent to zoos. By 1997, 36 had died and no live calves had been born. The difficulty was that zoos did not know enough about their diet or reproduction. A solution was found in 2000 and the first calf was born in the USA in 2001, helped by sex hormone treatments. Since then other calves have been born in captivity. ‘What is meant by gestation period’? Suggest one technology developed for humans that is used to help endangered animals breed. Explain how this technology helps. TE) 2202 Hite cycle forthe Sumatran rhinoceros Label it with as much detail as you can,7Ca FI Being ‘fit means that your body is able to do the activities that your lifestyle demands. This. includes things like being able to run upstairs ‘without getting out of breath or being strong enough to lift things. Fitness therefore means different things to different people, but we can think of fitness being made up of four S-factorss’suppleness,'strength, ‘speed’ and’stamina! A dancer needs to be supple tobe able to tur their bodies and wave their arms smoothly, a wheelchair athlete needs speed, bike rider needs stamina to goa long way without getting tired and in judo you need strength. Just being able to do everyday things does not give you any idea of how fit you are. Scientists Use criteria (standards) to work out how fit someone is. For example, how far you can could be used as a criterion to judge fitness. People exercise to develop different S-factors and keep their organs and organ systems working properly. windpipe (trachea) @ lungs get oxygen into ~ , the blood for respiration and excrete carbon dioxide “gy heart pumps blood diaphragm helps = breathing liver makes and stores. a some substances, . and destroys other substances ’idneys (one on each side) clean the blood and produce urine to excrete wastes an bladder stores urine run ‘oesophagus (gullet) stomach breaks up food ‘small intestine breaks up food and absorbs it to produce nutrition for the body large intestine removes water from unwanted food rectum stores faeces (waste materials excreted by the liver and unwanted food) cee Lookat the photos above. Foreach activity write down which $-factor you thinkis the most important: Explain yourreasoningin each case. Atrange this listin order of size, starting with the smallest: cell, organ, organ system, tissue. The breathing (or gas exchange) system is important for athletes. Name three parts ofthis system. What organ system do each ofthe organs in photo 8 belong to? Use a table to show your answers. long-distance runners training toincrease her stamina, Suggest a titerion she could use to judge whether her training programme is. working,