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Distributed database system:- A distributed database is a database that is under the control of a central database
management system (DBMS) in which storage devices are not all attached to a common CPU. It may be stored in
multiple computers located in the same physical location, or may be dispersed over a network of interconnected
computers. Collections of data (e g. in a database) can be distributed across multiple physical locations. A
distributed database can reside on network servers on the Internet, on corporate intranets or extranets, or on other
company networks. Replication and distribution of databases improve database performance at end-user worksites.

Advantages of distributed databases

1. Reflects organizational structure — database fragments are located in the departments they relate to.

2.Local autonomy — a department can control the data about them (as they are the ones familiar with it.)

3. Protection of valuable data — if there were ever a catastrophic event such as a fire, all of the data would not be in
one place, but distributed in multiple locations.

4. Improved performance — data is located near the site of greatest demand, and the database systems themselves
are parallelized, allowing load on the databases to be balanced among servers. (A high load on one module of the
database won't affect other modules of the database in a distributed database.)

5. Economics — it costs less to create a network of smaller computers with the power of a single large computer.

6. Modularity — systems can be modified, added and removed from the distributed database without affecting other
modules (systems).

7. Reliable transactions - Due to replication of database.

Communication:-Communication is a process of transferring information from one entity to another.

Communication processes are sign-mediated interactions between at least two agents which share a repertoire of
signs and semiotic rules. Communication is commonly defined as "the imparting or interchange of thoughts,
opinions, or information by speech, writing, or signs". Although there is such a thing as one-way communication,
communication can be perceived better as a two-way process in which there is an exchange and progression of
thoughts, feelings or ideas (energy) towards a mutually accepted goal or direction (information)

Data:- The term data means groups of information that represent the qualitative or quantitative attributes of a
variable or set of variables. Data (plural of "datum", which is seldom used) are typically the results of measurements
and can be the basis of graphs, images, or observations of a set of variables. Data are often viewed as the lowest
level of abstraction from which information and knowledge are derived. Raw data refers to a collection of numbers,
characters, images or other outputs from devices that collect information to convert physical quantities into symbols,
that are unprocessed.

Information:- Information as a concept has many meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. The
concept of information is closely related to notions of constraint, communication, control, data, form, instruction,
knowledge, meaning, mental stimulus, pattern, perception, and representation. In its most restricted technical
meaning, information is an ordered sequence of symbols.
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What is difference between data and information?

Data is a raw fact or an unprocessed information while information is a processed data. When data is processed it is
called information but an unprocessed information is data. In other words, data is a raw fact which when processed
information is obtained. Data can be thought of as measurements - items of fact. Information is what those
measurements mean. For instance one can measure the height of a 1000 14 year old boys and girls, the
measurements are data. If one then performs statistics on the data one can work out what the average height of a 14
year old boy or girl is - this is information.

Management:- Management in all business areas and human organization activity is the act of getting people
together to accomplish desired goals and objectives. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading
or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of
accomplishing a goal. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human resources, financial
resources, technological resources, and natural resources.

Types of Internet Connections

1. Dial-up (analog up to 56k) was the first widely used type of Internet connection. It uses a modem that is
hooked up to the computer and dials in using a phone line.

2. ISDN stands for integrated services digital network. It still requires dialing up to a server to connect to the
Internet.

3. B-ISDN is broadband ISDN, which is basically the same concept as ISDN, but it uses fiber optic phone
lines instead of regular phone lines. This has not been as commonly used.

4. DSL stands for digital subscriber line and is always connected to the Internet, so you don't have to dialup to
connect. It does not use a phone line, therefore it doesn't tie up your phone.

5. Cable Internet connections are possible through the Cable TV lines. It shares the coaxial cables you use to
watch TV without affecting your TV's performance. Cable Internets connection can be as fast as 27 Mbps.
Cable is also called a shared medium.

6. Wireless Internet is one of the newest types of Internet connections. It uses radio frequencies to connect to
the Internet.

7. Satellite is also called Internet over Satellite (IoS) and uses the satellites in space to connect to the Internet.
The satellites act as reflectors, and bounce the signals from Earth to the satellite and back to Earth in
another location.
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Internet Addressing:- An Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label that is assigned to devices
participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication between its nodes. An IP
address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing. Its role has
been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates
how to get there." The designers of TCP/IP defined an IP address as a 32-bit number and this system, known as
Internet Protocol Version 4 or IPv4, is still in use today. However, due to the enormous growth of the Internet and
the resulting depletion of available addresses, a new addressing system (IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, was
developed in 1995 and last standardized by RFC 2460 in 1998. Although IP addresses are stored as binary numbers,
they are usually displayed in human-readable notations, such as 208.77.188.166 (for IPv4), and
2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:1:1 (for IPv6) The Internet Protocol also routes data packets between networks; IP addresses
specify the locations of the source and destination nodes in the topology of the routing system. For this purpose,
some of the bits in an IP address are used to designate a sub network. The number of these bits is indicated in CIDR
notation, appended to the IP address; e.g., 208.77.188.166/24. As the development of private networks raised the
threat of IPv4 address exhaustion, RFC 1918 set aside a group of private address spaces that may be used by anyone
on private networks. They are often used with network address translators to connect to the global public Internet.
The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), which manages the IP address space allocations globally,
cooperates with five Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) to allocate IP address blocks to Local Internet Registries
(Internet service providers) and other entities.. Example:- IP address of www.mathworks.com is 144.212.100.10.

Intranet :-An intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet Protocol technologies to securely share any
part of an organization's information or operational systems within that organization. The term is used in contrast to
internet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network within an organization. Sometimes the
term refers only to the organization's internal website, but may be a more extensive part of the organization's
information technology infrastructure. It may host multiple private websites and constitute an important component
and focal point of internal communication and collaboration.

Internet:- The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet
Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of
private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope that are linked by a broad
array of electronic and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries a vast array of information resources
and services, most notably the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the
infrastructure to support electronic mail.

Difference between Internet and Intranet

Internet:-1.Slow access speeds (e.g. 56Kbps dial up connectivity) 2.Different types of web browsers are used to
view the website (e.g. Netscape, IE, Opera) 3.Different types of operating systems are used to view the website (e.g.
Windows, Mac) 4.Global audience (e.g. multilingual, different cultures) 5.The Internet is an open, public space,

Intranets:-1.Faster access speeds (e.g. 100Mbps LAN connectivity). 2.Standardized type of browser. Minimal or
no compatibility issues 3.Standardized type of operating systems. 4.Primarily local audience

5.An intranet is designed to be a private space.

E-mail:- Electronic mail, most commonly abbreviated email or e-mail, is a method of exchanging digital
messages. E-mail systems are based on a store-and-forward model in which e-mail server computer systems accept,
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forward, deliver and store messages on behalf of users, who only need to connect to the e-mail infrastructure,
typically an e-mail server, with a network-enabled device for the duration of message submission or retrieval.
Originally, e-mail was always transmitted directly from one user's device to another's; nowadays this is rarely the
case. An electronic mail message consists of two components, the message header, and the message body, which is
the email's content. The message header contains control information, including, minimally, an originator's email
address and one or more recipient addresses. Usually additional information is added, such as a subject header field.

The advantages of electronic mail

1.Almost instantaneous

2.Cost of sending an email is zero or negligible

3.Emails can be sent in bulk

4.Email attachments - any digital document can be sent over email

5.Delivery is almost guaranteed

6.Email is accessible

7.Built in spell checking

8.Notification of new arrivals

9.Can be formal as well as informal

10.Automation

11.Email storage and management

12.Email security

Types of Network Topologies

1.Bus Topology: In this type of network topology, all the nodes of a network are connected to a common
transmission medium having two endpoints. All the data that travels over the network is transmitted through a
common transmission medium known as the bus or the backbone of the network. When the transmission medium
has exactly two endpoints, the network topology is known by the name, ‘linear bus topology'. In case the
transmission medium, also called as the network backbone, has more than two endpoints, the network is said to have
a distributed bus topology.

2. Ring Topology: In a ring topology, every node in the network is connected to two other nodes and the first and
the last nodes are connected to each other. The data that are transmitted over the network pass through each of the
nodes in the ring until they reach the destination node. In a ring network, the data and the signals that pass over the
network travel in a single direction. The dual ring topology varies in having two connections between each of the
network nodes.
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3 Mesh Topology: In a full mesh network, each network node is connected to every other node in the network. Due
to this arrangement of nodes, it becomes possible for a simultaneous transmission of signals from one node to
several other nodes. In a partially connected mesh network, only some of the network nodes are connected to more
than one node. This is beneficial over a fully connected mesh in terms of redundancy caused by the point-to-point
links between all the nodes.

4. Star Topology: In this type of network topology, each node of the network is connected to a central node, which
is known as a hub. The data that is transmitted between the network nodes passes across the central hub. A
distributed star is formed by the interconnection of two or more individual star networks.

5. Tree Topology: It is also known as a hierarchical topology and has a central root node that is connected to one or
more nodes of a lower hierarchy. In a symmetrical hierarchy, each node in the network has a specific fixed number
of nodes connected to those at a lower level.

Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as TCP/IP

The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as TCP/IP) is the set of communications protocols used for the
Internet and other similar networks. It is named from two of the most important protocols in it: the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols defined in this
standard. Today's IP networking represents a synthesis of several developments that began to evolve in the 1960s
and 1970s, namely the Internet and LANs (Local Area Networks), which emerged in the mid- to late-1980s, together
with the advent of the World Wide Web in the early 1990s. The Internet Protocol Suite, like many protocol suites,
may be viewed as a set of layers. Each layer solves a set of problems involving the transmission of data, and
provides a well-defined service to the upper layer protocols based on using services from some lower layers. Upper
layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on lower layer protocols to translate
data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted

. Microsoft Access
Microsoft Office Access, previously known as Microsoft Access, is a relational database management system from
Microsoft that combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and software
development tools. It is a member of the Microsoft Office suite of applications, included in the Professional and
higher editions or sold separately.

Uses:- Microsoft Access is used to create simple database solutions. Access tables support a variety of standard
field types, indices, and referential integrity. Access also includes a query interface, forms to display and enter data,
and reports for printing.
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Electronic business
Electronic business, commonly referred to as "e Business" or "e-business", may be defined as the application of
information and communication technologies (ICT) in support of all the activities of business. Commerce constitutes
the exchange of products and services between businesses, groups and individuals and can be seen as one of the
essential activities of any business. Electronic commerce focuses on the use of ICT to enable the external activities
and relationships of the business with individuals, groups and other businesses. Electronic business methods enable
companies to link their internal and external data processing systems more efficiently and flexibly, to work more
closely with suppliers and partners, and to better satisfy the needs and expectations of their customers. In practice, e-
business is more than just e-commerce. While e-business refers to more strategic focus with an emphasis on the
functions that occur using electronic capabilities, e-commerce is a subset of an overall e-business strategy. E-
commerce seeks to add revenue streams using the World Wide Web or the Internet to build and enhance
relationships with clients and partners and to improve efficiency using the Empty Vessel strategy. Often, e-
commerce involves the application of knowledge management systems’-business involves business processes
spanning the entire value chain: electronic purchasing and supply chain management, processing orders
electronically, handling customer service, and cooperating with business partners. Special technical standards for e-
business facilitate the exchange of data between companies. E-business software solutions allow the integration of
intra and inter firm business processes. E-business can be conducted using the Web, the Internet, intranets, extranets,
or some combination of these. Basically, electronic commerce (EC) is the process of buying, transferring, or
exchanging products, services, and/or information via computer networks, including the internet. EC can also be
benefited from many perspective including business process, service, learning, collaborative, community. EC is
often confused with e-business.

Enterprise resource planning(ERP)

Enterprise resource planning (ERP) is an integrated computer-based system used to manage internal and external
resources including tangible assets, financial resources, materials, and human resources. It is a software architecture
whose purpose is to facilitate the flow of information between all business functions inside the boundaries of the
organization and manage the connections to outside stakeholders. Built on a centralized database and normally
utilizing a common computing platform, ERP systems consolidate all business operations into a uniform and
enterprise wide system environment. .An ERP system can either reside on a centralized server or be distributed
across modular hardware and software units that provide "services" and communicate on a local area network. The
distributed design allows a business to assemble modules from different vendors without the need for the placement
of multiple copies of complex, expensive computer systems in areas which will not use their full capacity.
Advantages:- 1.Integration among different functional areas to ensure proper communication, productivity and
efficiency 2.Design engineering (how to best make the product) 3.Order tracking, from acceptance through
fulfillment. 4.The revenue cycle, from invoice through cash receipt. 5. Managing inter-dependencies of complex
processes bill of materials. Disadvantages:-1.Customization of the ERP software is limited. 2.Re-engineering of
business processes to fit the "industry standard" prescribed by the ERP system may lead to a loss of competitive
advantage. 3.ERP systems can be very expensive (This has led to a new category of "ERP light" solution.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF ERP SYSTEMS

When most people refer to the “core” ERP applications or “modules,”
they mean the back-office capabilities to manage human resources, accounting
and finance, manufacturing, and project-management functions.
However, major ERP suites from Oracle, PeopleSoft, and SAP
now provide much more—including modules for sales force automation,
business intelligence, customer relationship management, and
supply chain management.
Although the objectives of our review, evaluation, and testing of
the control framework are the same, there are some significant differences
between ERP and non-ERP systems. These differences are:

1. In ERP systems, certain control procedures leave no

documentary evidence of performance. For some other
procedures, the evidence of performance is indirect; it may be
included in the program logic or in the operator’s instructions.
Therefore, compliance tests may have to be structured
differently in an ERP environment and observation of the
client’s procedures may become more important.

2. In ERP systems, information is often recorded in a form that

cannot be read without the use of a computer.

3. Financial and business information is often generated

automatically by ERP systems based on data previously
entered, without further human instructions.

4. Errors that might be observed in non-ERP systems may go

undetected because of the reduced human involvement in
computerized processing. There is a danger that errors in
processing may be applied to a large number of transactions
without being noticed.

5. With proper controls, ERP systems can be more reliable than

non-ERP systems. This is because ERP systems subject all data

to the same procedures and controls. Non-ERP systems are

subject to random human error. Although computer
processing will usually be consistent, errors may still occur; for
example, if the computer is incorrectly programmed.

6. It is difficult to make changes after an ERP system has been

implemented. Therefore, we should be aware of the
organization’s plans to introduce significant new systems or to
make major modifications to existing systems.