GROUP A)

i)c)

ii)b)

iii)b)

iv)a)

v)a)

vi)a)

vii)c)

viii)a)

ix)c)

x)b)

xi)b)

xii)c)

xiii)b)

xiv)b)
2>EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN POINT TO POINT AND MULTIPOINT CONNECTION.

Ans>a point to point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the
link is rescued for transmission between the two devices.

LINK
Station Station

A multipoint connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link. In a
multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporarily.

Station Station

Station

3> EXPLAIN THE LINK STATE ROUTING.

Ans> In link state routing each node in the domain has the entire topology of the domain-the list of nodes
and links, how they are connected including the type, cost and condition of the links. The node uses
djiktra’s algorithm to build a routing table.

Each node uses the same topology to create a routing table, but the routing table for each
node is unique because the calculations are based on the different interpretations of the topology. The
topology must be dynamic, representing the latest state of each node and each link.

In link state routing,4 sets of action are required to ensure that each node has the routing table
showing the least cost node to every other node

1. Creation of the states of the links by each node ,called the link state packet(LSP)
2. Discrimination of LSPs to every other router, called flooding.
3. Formation of shortest path tree for each node.
4. Calculation of routing table based on the shortest path tree.

4>EXPLAIN THE EFFICIENCY OF PURE ALOHA.COMPARE IT WITH SLOTTED ALOHA.

Ans>If the average number of frames generated by the system during one frame transmission time is
G.Then the average number of successful transmissions for pure ALOHA is

S=GXe-2G

When G=0.5 Smax=0.184

i.e. if one half a frame is generated during one frame transmission time, then 0.184 percent of these
frames reach their destination successfully. This is because the vulnerable time is two times the frame
transmission time.

In case of slotted ALOHA, the average number of successful transmission is

S=GXe-G

When G=1; Smax=0.368

i.e. if a frame is generated during one frame transmission time then 36.8 percent of these frames reach
their destination successfully. This is because the vulnerable time is equal to the frame transmission time

5>EXPLAIN CDMA TECHNIQUE WITH A SUITABLE EXAMPLE.

Ans>CDMA-Code Division Multiple Access. In CDMA only one channel occupies the entire bandwidth
of the link. All station can send data simultaneously.

Example: say we have three stations connected to the same channel. The data from 1 are d 1 from station 2
is d2from station 3 is d3.the code assigned to the stations are c1,c2 and c3.the codes have two properties

1. Each code multiplied by another; yields a 0

2. Each code multiplied by itself ;yields 3(the number of stations)

Station 1 multiplies its data by its code to get d1c1.

Similarly we get d2c2 and d3c3.the data that is present in the channel are the sum of all
these terms. Any station that wants to receive data from one of the other two multiplies
the data on the channel by the code of the sender.

Data=d1c1+d2c2+d3c3
If station 3 wants to receive from station 1 then
Data= (d1c1+d2c2+d3c3).c1
=d1c1.c1+d2c2.c1+d3c3.c1
=4.d1

Now station 3 divides it by 4 to get the data from d1.

6>BRIEFLY EXPLAIN LEAKY BUCKET ALGORITHM FOR CONGESTION CONTROL.

Ans>a leaky bucket algorithm shapes bursty traffic into fixed rate traffic by averaging the data rate .it
may drop the packets if the bucket is full. The input rate can vary but the output rate remains constant.

Removes packet at a constant

rate.

Full?

Arrival N de dProcessor
Departure

Queue

FIG: LEAKY BUCKET ALGORITHM

a FIFO queue holds the packets. If the traffic consists of fixed size packets or of variable length packets
the output is fixed.

The following is an algorithm for variable length packets.

1. Initialize a counter to n at the tick of the clock.

2. If n is greater than size of the packet, send the packet and decrement the counter by the packet
size. Repeat this steps until n is smaller than the packet.
3. Reset the counter and go to step 1.

GROUP-C

7>a)what are the differences between packet switching and circuit switching?

b) Explain with the diagram, how the lost frame, delayed and lost acknowledgements are handled in
Go-Back-N-ARQ.

C) What do you understand by data privacy>how can authentication, integrity and non-repudiation be
implemented by the digital signature technique?

Ans>a) 1.circuit switching statically reserves the required bandwidth in advance whereas packet
switching acquires and releases it as needed.

2. With circuit switching any unused bandwidth on an allocated circuit is just wasted with packet
switching it may be utilized by other packets.
3. Circuit switching needs to set up an end to end path before data can be send.

4. When packet switching is used it is straight forward for router to provide speed and code conversion.

5. In packet switching packet may be delivered in the wrong order.

6. Packets carriers usually base their charge on both the no. of bytes or packets carried and connect line.

With circuit switching, the charge is based on the distance and time only, not traffic.

frame trans-

mission time frame 0

propagation

time ACK transmission time

ACK 1

frame 1

time out interval time

frame o lost ACK 0

A retransmits

frame o

Go back N damaged frame:

 Receiver detests error in frame i

 Receiver sends rejection i
 Transmitter gets rejection i
 Transmitter retransmits frame I and all the subsequent
Go back N lost frame:

 Frame i lost
 Transmitter sends i+1
 Receiver gets frame i+1 out of sequence
 Receiver sends reject i
 Transmitter goes back to frame I and retransmits
 Frame I lost and no additional frame sent
 Receiver gets nothing and returns neither acknowledgement nor rejection
 Transmitter times out and sends acknowledgement frame with P bit set to 1
 Receiver interprets this as a command which it acknowledges with the number of next
frame it expects (frame i)
 Transmitter then retransmits frame i

Go back N damaged acknowledgement:

 Receiver gets frame I and sends acknowledgement (i+1)which is lost

 Acknowledgements are cumulative so next acknowledgement (i+n) may arrive before
transmitter times out on frame i
 If transmitter times out ,it sends acknowledgement with P bit set as before
 This can be repeated a number of times before a reset procedure is initiated

Damaged Rejection:

 Reject for damaged frame is lost

 Handled as for lost frame when transmitter times out.

Part II:
a digital signature or a digital signature scheme is a mathematical scheme for demonstrating the
authenticity of a digital message or document .A valid digital signature gives the recipient
reasons to believe that the message was create by a known sender and it was not altered during
transit .Digital signatures are commonly used for software distribution, financial transactions
and in other cases where it I important to detect forgery and tampering.

AUTHENTICATION: although messages may often include information about the entity sending a
message, that information may not be accurate. Digital signatures can be used to authenticate
the source of messages. When the ownership of a digital signatures secret key is bound to a
specific user, a valid signature shows the message was sent by that user. The importance of high
confidence in sender authenticity is especially obvious in a financial context. For example,
 suppose a bank’s branch office sends instruction to the central office requesting a change in the
balance of the account. If the central office is not convinced that such a message is truly send
from an authorized source, acting on such a request could be a grave mistake.

INTEGRITY: in many scenarios, the sender and receiver of message may have a nees for
confidence that the message has not been altered during transmission .although encryption
hides the contents of a message; it may be possible to change an encrypted message without
understanding it. However if a message is digitally signed, any change in the message after
signature will invalidate the signature. Furthermore there is no efficient way to modify a
message and its signature to produce a new message with a valid signature, because this is still
considered to be computationally infeasible by most cryptographic hash functions.

NON-REPUDIATION: digital signature can also provide non repudiation ,meaning that the signer
cannot successfully claim that they did not sign a message while also claiming that their private
key remains secret; further ,some non-repudiation schemes offer a time stamp for the digital
signature so that even if the private key is exposed, the signature is valid nonetheless. Digitally
signed messages may be anything represent able a bit string: examples include e-mail, contracts
or a message sent via some other cryptographic protocol.

8) A) if the received strings is 110110111011, and then calculate the actual data string .the
data is encoded by 1 bit error correcting code (hamming code).
b) Briefly explain the selective flooding routing algorithm. Why does it differ from flooding
routing algorithm? Why does it differ from flooding technique?
c) Describe 802.3 header formats. Why is padding required?
D) What are the differences between TCP & UDP?
Ans)a)

P1 P2 M1 P3 M2 M3 M4 P4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
P1 0 1 1 1 0 P1=1
P2 0 0 1 0 1 P2=0
P3 1 0 1 1 P3=1
P4 1 0 1 1 P4=1
nd
From the above table naming code is: 100110111011 ,but the given code differ by 2 bit (from left side)
So error bit is as

1 0 0 11 0 11 10 11

1 1 0 11 0 11 10 11

b)flooding is a techique to update topology databases.in simple flooding technique ,each incoming packet
is sent out on every outgoing link or interface except for the interf ace it entered.the flooding process thus
generates a vast number of duplications and what is worse,the process does not stop unless some
measures are taken to damp the generation of duplicates.for instance ,the flooding processs can be
stopped when the time to live(TTL) of the initial packet,which is decremented at each hop ,attains the
value 0.in that case,the flooding process only reaches routers TTL hops away from the initial
router.another technique is to compare sequence numbers of received flooded packets and discard older
ones.as shown in fig the propagation times are obviously not all the same on all the links.but this implies
that the routing tables may grow large since an identification of each new flooded packet needs to be
stored the first time in order to determine and discard later revisits.

The more refined updating technique is selective flooding which is based on multicast.only via a
minimum spanning tree ,topology update information is distributed to all nodes.in case the graph does not
change,selective it may have benefits when the loading of the network is high.indeed ,selective flooding
consumes minimal network capacity provided the network topology does not change and the mulicast tree
entries are already computed.just in heavy traffic when more updates may be necessary ,the more robust
flooding may cause too high an overhead due to duplicate packets.

In addition to its simplicity ,flooding is very robust as long as the network is connected,because flooding
distributes information over all possible paths and hence assures that the information is received in the
shortest time .in fact no other algorithm such as selective flooding can be faster if we make abstraction
from the flooding overhead of duplicates that consumes network resources and causes additional delay.
 FIG: THE FLOODING OF A PACKET AS A FUNCTION OF TIME.

c)frame format:the following illustrate the format of an Ethernet frame is defined in the
original IEEE 802.3 standard:

Preamble( Start Dest Source Length/type( MAC Pad Frame

7 bytes) frame MAC MAC 2 bytes) client (0-p check
delimiter( address( address( data(0 bytes sequence(
1 byte) 6 bytes) 6 bytes) -p ) 4 bytes)
bytes)

 PREAMBLE:a sequence of 56 bits having alternating 1 and 0 values that are used for
synchronization.they serve to give components in the network time to detect the presence of a
signal,and being reading the signal before the frame data arrives.
  START FRAME DELIMITER: a sequencebit configuration of 8 bits having the bit configuration
10101011 that indicates the start of the frame.
 DESTINATION & SOURCE MAC ADDRESS:the destination MAC address field identifies the station
or stations that are to receive the frame.the source MAC address identifies the station that
originated the frame.the 802.3 standard permits these address fields to be either 2bytes or 6
bytes in length,but virtually all Ethernet implementations in existenceuse 6 byte address. A
destination address may specify either an individual destined for a single station or a muticast
address destined for a group of stations.a destination address of all 1 bit refers to all stations on
the LAN and is called a broadcast address.
 LENGTH/TYPE: if the value of this field is less than or equal to 1500,thenthe length /type field
indicates the number of bytes in the subsequent MAC client data field.if the value of this field is
greater than or equal to 1536,then the length/type field indicates the nature of the MAC client
protocol(protocol type).
 MAC client data:this field contains the data transferred from the source station to the
destination station or stations .the maximum size of this field 1500 bytes.if the size of this field is
less than 46 bytes then use of subsequent pad field is necessary to bring the frame size up to
the minimum length.
 PAD:if necessary extra data bytes are appended in this field to bring the frame length up to to its
minimum size.a minimum Ethernet frame size is 64 bytes from the destination MAC address
field through the frame check sequence.
 FRAME CHECK SEQUENCE:this field contains a 4 byte cyclical redundancy check (CRC) value used
for error checking.when a source station assembles a MAC frame ,it performs a CRC calculation
on all the bitys in the frame from the destination MAC address through the pad fields (that is all
fields except the preamble,start frame delimiter and frame check sequence).the source ststion
stores the value in this field and transmits it as a part of theframe.whrn the frame is received by
the destination station it performs an identical check.if the calculated value does not match the
value in this field the destination station assumes that an error has occurred during transmission
and discards the frame.

PART II)in order to avoid unnoticeable frame collisions on a LAN,the padding field ensures that a valid
Ethernet frame has a length of at least 64 bytes,counted from the destination address field to the
checksum field.the last fieldof the Ethernet frame consists the 32 bit checksum for the cyclic redundancy
error detection algorithm.

d)

TCP UDP
It is a connection oriented protocol It is a connectionless protocol
It is reliable It is unreliable
Multicasting is not possible Multicasting capability is embedded in the
software
8)explain CRC with an example.derieve the poll scan time for serial and hub polling.what is the
difference between bit oriented and byte oriented protocol?

Part I)

Part II)analytically serial polling and hub polling may be compared. For such comparison we shall use a
parameter known as poll scan time (PST),PST is the time taken for just polling (and not foe sending data)
all the secondary stations once in a cycle. We assume:

tp=processing time required in primary to initiate a poll.we assume it is same for serial polling and
hub polling.

ts=processing time required in a secondary to process the poll message and to process the response
for serial polling.

th=same as ts but for hub polling

tli=time required both for propagation and transmit for a poll message to be transferred from primary o
secondary,Si

tli=same as tli but for a poll message to be transferred from primary to secondary S i(i=1 to n,j=1 to m)

We also assume tli and tli for all possible is and js are same for serial and hub polling. Under these
assumptions ,we can calculate PST as below:

for serial polling:

for secondary S1 poll scan time will be tp+ts+2tu.for Ss,the same will be tp+ts+2tl2and so on for other
secondaries.thus

(PST)s=(n+m)(tp+ts)+2(tl1+tl2+……+tln)+2(tl1+tl2+……tlm)

FOR HUB POLLING:

On similar grounds

(PST)h=tp+(n+m)tn+2(tln+tlm)
we further assume that all stations are equidistant apart in which case tli=tli =t (constant).then

(PST)s=(n+m)(tp+ts)+2t(1+2+….+n)+2t(1+2+….+m)

as under the assumption of equidistant we have

tl2=tl2=2t

tl3=tl3=3t

tln=nt and tlm=mt

then,(PST)n=(n+m)(tp+ts)+n(n+1)t+m(m+1)t

or (PST)s=[(tp+ts)+(n+1)t]+[m(tp+ts)+(m+1)t]

under the same assumption of equidistant nodes we have

(PST)h=tp+(n+m)th+2(n+m)

=tp+n(th+2t)+m(th+2t)

part III)a synchronous communications protocol requiring only a single bit to communicate a command
signal to the target station.bit oriented protocol transmits information without regard to character
boundaries and thus handle alltypes of information images.bit oriented protocols are much less
overhead intensive as compared to byte oriented protocols also known as character oriented
protocols,bit oriented protocols are usually full duplex(FDX)and operate over dedicated ,four wire
circuits .examples include Synchronous Data Link Control(SDLC) and HIGH LEVEL Data Link Control(HDLC)

a text oriented synchronous communications protocol that handles only full bytes or characters of text
thereby requiring an entire byte to communicate a command signal to the target station.control
characters are embedded in the header and trailer of each data byte or block.as byte oriented protocols
are overhead intensive,they are used exclusively in older computer protocols at the Data Link Layer.byte
oriented protocols generally are synchronous and half duplex(HDX) in natureand operate over dial-
up,two wire circuits.bisynchronous communications(BSC) is an example of a byte oriented protocol.

10a)what is the default mask and broadcast address for class b?specify the private ip range for class A
address

b)why is dynamic routing prefferd over static routingalgorithm in a network which changes
continuously?

c)what is digital signature?

d)describe any one guided and one unguided media withdiagram.

ans)a)the default mask for class B in binary is

1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 0000

the ip range for class A address is 0-127

b)for a network which changes continuously ,dynamic routing is preferred than static routing because a
periodic updation of the routing table is required for efficient delivery of ip packets.

c)

d)twisted paor cables consists of two conductors twisted together

one of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver and the other is used as a ground reference.the
receiver used the difference of the two.

radio waves are unguided media.electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 khz and 1
ghz are normally called radio waves.they are omni directional and propagate in skymode and can travel
long distances .it is used as long distance broadcasting as AM radio.

11)write short notes on any three of the following:

a)ISDN b)IEEE 802.11 c)TELNET d)VLAN e)FTP f)SNMP