Computer Fundamentals: Input-Process-Output Model

Computer Fundamentals
Definition of a Computer:
 A computer is an electronic device that operates under the control of
a set of instructions that is stored in its memory unit.
 A computer is a collection of hardware and software components
that help you complete many different tasks.
A computer can be more accurately defined as an electronic device that
takes data as input, stores, and processes it, and displays the output
according to the given instructions.
Computer is an electronic device that receives input, stores or processes the input
as per user instructions and provides output in desired format.
Input-Process-Output Model
Computer input is called data and the output obtained after processing it, based on
user’s instructions is called information. Raw facts and figures which can be
processed using arithmetic and logical operations to obtain information are
called data.
The corresponding figure for an actual computer looks something like this −
Control unit, arithmetic logic unit and memory are together called the central
processing unit or CPU. Computer devices like keyboard, mouse, printer, etc. that
we can see and touch are the hardware components of a computer. The set of
instructions or programs that make the computer function using these hardware
parts are called software. We cannot see or touch software. Both hardware and
software are necessary for working of a computer.
There are many reasons for using computers:
Computers can work much faster than humans;

Computers never get tired or need a rest;
Computers can do jobs that it would be dangerous for a human to do;
Computers can store large amounts of information in a very small space;
Computers can find information very quickly;
Computers never lose or misplace information.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has following three components.
 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal
storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory
(RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary
memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory unit
are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an
output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out
any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among
other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from
storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by making
repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data.
Data & Information

 Data is any collection of numbers, characters or other symbols that has been
coded into a format that can be input into a computer and processed.
 Data on its own has no meaning, or context.
 It is only after processing by a computer that data takes on a context and
becomes information.
 There are many types of data
 All data ends up being stored as a series of numbers inside the computer.
 Data can be input to the computer by the user in many different ways.
 The main types of data that can be input into a computer and processed are
numeric, text, dates, graphics and sound.
Data processing Concept

I-P-O Cycle –
The cycle of activities performed by a computer is referred to as the Input-
Process-Output cycle or the I-P-O cycle. A computer consists of several
components. Each component participates in either one of the inputs,
process, or Output phases
Data
A computer usually accepts input in the form of data. Data is the raw
material. Data refers to numerical (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,0), alphabetical (A,B,C,D
……Z) and special characters (e.g., @,#,$,%,^,&,!). A set of numbers could be
examples of data. OR
Data is a word of Latin used to describe a collection of natural phenomena
like numbers, characters, images, or symbols, in a very broad sense.
Information
Information is the finished product (manipulation of raw facts). Information
refers to data in a particular context, which helps us understand facts.
Example- +91(011) 2555-1212 is a telephone no. of a directory. It includes
country code 91, an area code 011, a telephone exchange 2555, and a
number within the exchange 1212.
Booting Your Computer
Introduction
Booting is a startup sequence that starts the operating system of a computer when it is turned
on. A boot sequence is the initial set of operations that the computer performs when it is
switched on. Every computer has a boot sequence. The average computer doesn’t understand
the boot sequence but is important to know for customizing and troubleshooting your
computer.
Boot Loader
Computers powered by the central processing unit can only execute code found in the
systems memory. Modern operating systems and application program code and data are
stored on nonvolatile memories or mass storage devices. When a computer is first powered
on, it must initially rely only on the code and data stored in nonvolatile portions of the
systems memory. At boot time, the operating system is not really loaded and the computer’s
hardware cannot peform many complex systems actions.
The program that starts the “chain reaction” which ends with the entire operating system
being loaded is known as the boot loader (or bootstrap loader). The term creatively came
from early designiners imagining that before a computer “runs” it must have it’s “boots
strapped”. The boot loader’s only job is to load other software for the operating system to
start. Often, multiple-stage boot loaders are used, in which several small programs of
increasing complexity sequentially summon one after the other, until the last of them loads
the operating system.
Boot Devices
The boot device is the device from which the operating system is loaded. A modern PC BIOS
(Basic Input/Output System) supports booting from various devices. These include the local
hard disk drive, optical drive, floppy drive, a network interface card, and a USB device.
Typically, the BIOS will allow the user to configure a boot order. If the boot order is set to:
1. CD Drive
2. Hard Disk Drive
3. Network
then the BIOS will try to boot from the CD drive first, and if that fails then it will try to boot
from the hard disk drive, and if that fails then it will try to boot from the network, and if that
fails then it won’t boot at all.
Steps of Booting
We can describe the boot process in six steps:
1. The Startup
It is the first step that involves switching the power ON. It supplies electricity to the main
components like BIOS and processor.
2. BIOS: Power On Self Test
It is an initial test performed by the BIOS. Further, this test performs an initial check on the
input/output devices, computer’s main memory, disk drives, etc. Moreover, if any error occurs,
the system produces a beep sound.
3. Loading of OS
In this step, the operating system is loaded into the main memory. The operating system starts
working and executes all the initial files and instructions.
4. System Configuration
In this step, the drivers are loaded into the main memory. Drivers are programs that help in the
functioning of the peripheral devices.
5. Loading System Utilities
System utilities are basic functioning programs, for example, volume control, antivirus, etc. In
this step, system utilities are loaded into the memory.
6. User Authentication
If any password has been set up in the computer system, the system checks for
user authentication. Once the user enters the login Id and password correctly the system finally
starts.

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Computer Fundamentals

Computers can work much faster than humans;

Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Data & Information

Data processing Concept

Booting Your Computer

2. BIOS: Power On Self Test

5. Loading System Utilities

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