Saraswati - The River and the goddess

Wasudha Korke and Dr Uday Dokras

 INTRODUCTION

The Sarasvati River (IAST: Sárasvatī-nadī́) is a deified river mentioned in the Rig

Veda and later Vedic and post-Vedic texts. It played an important role in the Vedic religion,
appearing in all but the fourth book of the Rigveda.
As a physical river, in the oldest texts of the Rig Veda she is described as a "great and holy
river in north-western India," but in the middle and late Rig Vedic books she is described as a
small river ending in "a terminal lake (samudra)." As the goddess Sarasvati, the other referent
for the term "Sarasvati" which developed into an independent identity in post-Vedic times,
she is also described as a powerful river and mighty flood.The Sarasvati is also considered
by Hindus to exist in a metaphysical form, in which it formed a confluence with the sacred
rivers Ganges and Yamuna, at the Triveni Sangam.  According to Michael Witzel,
superimposed on the Vedic Sarasvati river is the heavenly river Milky Way, which is seen as
"a road to immortality and heavenly after-life."[
Rigvedic and later Vedic texts have been used to propose identification with present-day
rivers, or ancient riverbeds. The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the
Page 2
Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west, while RV 7.95.1-2,
describes the Sarasvati as flowing to the samudra, a word now usually translated as
'ocean',  but which could also mean "lake." Later Vedic texts such as the Tandya
Brahmana and the Jaiminiya Brahmana, as well as the Mahabharata, mention that the
Sarasvati dried up in a desert.
Since the late 19th-century, numerous scholars have proposed to identify the Sarasvati with
the Ghaggar-Hakra River system, which flows through northwestern India and
eastern Pakistan, between the Yamuna and the Sutlej, and ends in the Thar desert. Recent
geophysical research shows that the supposed downstream Ghaggar-Hakra paleochannel is
actually a paleochannel of the Sutlej, which flowed into the Nara river, a delta channel of
the Indus River. 10,000-8,000 years ago this channel was abandoned when the Sutlej
diversed its course, leaving the Ghaggar-Hakra as a system of monsoon-fed rivers which did
not reach the sea.
The Indus Valley Civilisation prospered when the monsoons that fed the rivers diminished
around 5,000 years ago, and ISRO has observed that major Indus Valley Civilization urban
sites
at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banawali and Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Dholavira and Lothal (Gujar
at) lay along this course. When the monsoons that fed the rivers further diminished the
Hakra dried-up some 4,000 years ago, becoming an intermittent river, and the urban
Harappan civilisation declined, becoming localized in smaller agricultural communities. [11][f][13]
[12][14]

Identification of a mighty physical Rig Vedic Sarasvati with the Ghaggar-Hakra system is

therefore problematic, since the Gagghar-Hakra had dried-up well before the time of the
composition of the Rig Veda. In the words of Wilke and Moebus, the Sarasvati had been
reduced to a "small, sorry trickle in the desert", by the time that the Vedic people migrated
into north-west India. Rig Vedic references to a physical river also indicate that the Sarswati
"had already lost its main source of water supply and must have ended in a terminal lake
(samudra) approximately 3000 years ago,”  "depicting the present-day situation, with the
Sarasvatī having lost most of its water." Rig Vedic descriptions of the Sarasvati also don't fit
the actual course of the Gagghar-Hakra.
"Sarasvati" has also been identified with the Helmand or Haraxvati river in
southern Afghanistan, the name of which may have been reused in its Sanskrit form as the
name of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, after the Vedic tribes moved to the Punjab. Sarasvati of
the Rig Veda may also refer to two distinct rivers, with the family books referring to the
Helmand River, and the more recent 10th mandala referring to the Ghaggar-Hakra.
The identification with the Ghaggar-Hakra system took on new significance in the early 21st
century,] with some suggesting an earlier dating of the Rig Veda; renaming the Indus Valley
Civilisation as the "Sarasvati culture", the "Sarasvati Civilization", the "Indus-Sarasvati
Civilization" or the "Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization," suggesting that the Indus Valley
and Vedic cultures can be equated; and rejecting the Indo-Aryan migrations theory, which
postulates an extended period of migrations of Indo-European speaking people into South
Asia between ca. 1900 and 1400 BCE
Sarasvatī is the feminine nominative singular form of the adjective sarasvat (which occurs in
the Rigveda as the name of the keeper of the celestial waters), derived from ‘sarasa’ + ‘vat’,
meaning ‘having’. Saras appears, in turn, to be the compound of ‘sa’, a prefix meaning ‘with’,
Page 3
plus ‘rasa’, sap or juice, or water, and is defined in the first instance as ‘anything flowing or
fluid’ according to Monier-Williams dictionary. Mayrhofer considers unlikely a connection
with the root *sar- ‘run, flow’ but does agree that it could have been a river that connected
many lakes due to its abundant volumes of water-flow
Sarasvatī may be a cognate of Avestan Haraxvatī, perhaps[32] originally referring to Arədvī
Sūrā Anāhitā (modern Ardwisur Anahid), the Zoroastrian mythological world river, which
would point to a common Indo-Iranian myth of a cosmic or mystical Sáras-vat-ī river. In the
younger Avesta, Haraxvatī is Arachosia, a region described to be rich in rivers, and its Old
Persian cognate Harauvati, which gave its name to the present-day Hārūt River
in Afghanistan, may have referred to the entire Helmand drainage basin (the center of
Arachosia).
The Saraswati river was revered and considered important for Hindus because it is said
that it was on this river's banks, along with its tributary Drishadwati, in the Vedic state
of Brahmavarta, that Vedic Sanskrit had its genesisv and important Vedic scriptures like
initial part of Rigveda and several Upanishads were supposed to have been composed by
Vedic seers. In the Manusmriti, Brahmavarta is portrayed as the "pure" centre of Vedic
culture. Bridget and Raymond Allchin in The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan took
the view that "The earliest Aryan homeland in India-Pakistan (Aryavarta or Brahmavarta)
was in the Punjab and in the valleys of the Sarasvati and Drishadvati rivers in the time of the
Rigveda.
Rigveda

Map of northern India in the late Vedic period

As a river[
The Sarasvati River is mentioned in all but the fourth book of the Vedas Macdonell and Keith
provided a comprehensive survey of Vedic references to the Sarasvati River in their Vedic
Index. In the late book 10, only two references are unambiguously to the river: 10.64.9,
calling for the aid of three "great rivers", Sindhu, Sarasvati and Sarayu; and 10.75.5, the
geographical list of the Nadistuti sukta.
In the oldest texts of the Rig Veda she is described as a "great and holy river in north-western
India," but Michael Witzel notes that the Rig Veda indicates that the Sarswati "had already
lost its main source of water supply and must have ended in a terminal lake (samudra)
approximately 3000 years ago”  The middle books 3 and 7 and the late books 10 "depict the
present-day situation, with the Sarasvatī having lost most of its water." The Sarasvati
acquired an extalted status in the mythology of the Kuru Kingdom, where the Rig Veda was
compiled.

Page 4
As a goddess

Painting of Goddess Saraswati by Raja Ravi Varma

Main article: Saraswati
Sarasvati is mentioned some fifty times in the hymns of the Rig Veda. [39] It is mentioned in
thirteen hymns of the late books (1 and 10) of the Rigveda. [40] All but two of these invoke
Sarasvati as a goddess without direct connection to a specific river.[citation needed]
The most important hymns related to Sarasvati goddess are RV 6.61, RV 7.95 and RV 7.96. As
a river goddess, she is described as a mighty flood, and is clearly not an earthly river.
According to Michael Witzel, superimposed on the Vedic Sarasvati river is the heavenly river
Milky Way, which is seen as "a road to immortality and heavenly after-life." The description
of the Sarasvati as the river of heavens, is interpreted to suggest its mythical nature
In 10.30.12, her origin as a river goddess may explain her invocation as a protective deity in a
hymn to the celestial waters. In 10.135.5, as Indra drinks Soma he is described as refreshed by
Sarasvati. The invocations in 10.17 address Sarasvati as a goddess of the forefathers as well as
of the present generation. In 1.13, 1.89, 10.85, 10.66 and 10.141, she is listed with other gods
and goddesses, not with rivers. In 10.65, she is invoked together with "holy thoughts" (dhī)
and "munificence" (puraṃdhi), consistent with her role as a goddess of both knowledge and
fertility.[Though Sarasvati initially emerged as a river goddess in the Vedic scriptures, in later
Hinduism of the Puranas, she was rarely associated with the river. Instead she emerged as an
independent goddess of knowledge, learning, wisdom, music and the arts. The evolution of
the river goddess into the goddess of knowledge started with later Brahmanas, which
identified her as Vāgdevī, the goddess of speech, perhaps due to the centrality of speech in
the Vedic cult and the development of the cult on the banks of the river It is also possible to
postulate two originally independent goddesses that were fused into one in later Vedic
times. Aurobindo has proposed, on the other hand, that "the symbolism of the Veda betrays
itself to the greatest clearness in the figure of the goddess Sarasvati ... She is, plainly and
clearly, the goddess of the World, the goddess of a divine inspiration ".
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Other Vedic texts]
In post-Rigvedic literature, the disappearance of the Sarasvati is mentioned. Also the origin of
the Sarasvati is identified as Plaksa Prasravana (Peepal tree or Ashwattha tree as known in
India and Nepal).
In a supplementary chapter of the Vajasaneyi-Samhita of the Yajurveda (34.11), Sarasvati is
mentioned in a context apparently meaning the Sindhu: "Five rivers flowing on their way
speed onward to Sarasvati, but then become Sarasvati a fivefold river in the land." [  According
to the medieval commentator Uvata, the five tributaries of the Sarasvati were the Punjab
rivers Drishadvati, Satudri (Sutlej), Chandrabhaga (Chenab), Vipasa (Beas) and
the Iravati (Ravi).
The first reference to the disappearance of the lower course of the Sarasvati is from
the Brahmanas, texts that are composed in Vedic Sanskrit, but dating to a later date than the
Veda Samhitas. The Jaiminiya Brahmana (2.297) speaks of the 'diving under (upamajjana) of
the Sarasvati', and the Tandya Brahmana (or Pancavimsa Br.) calls this the 'disappearance'
(vinasana). The same text (25.10.11-16) records that the Sarasvati is 'so to say meandering'
(kubjimati) as it could not sustain heaven which it had propped up.
The Plaksa Prasravana (place of appearance/source of the river) may refer to a spring in the
Siwalik mountains. The distance between the source and the Vinasana (place of
disappearance of the river) is said to be 44 Ashwin (between several hundred and
1,600 miles) (Tandya Br. 25.10.16; cf. Av. 6.131.3; Pancavimsa Br.).
In the Latyayana Srautasutra (10.15-19) the Sarasvati seems to be a perennial river up to the
Vinasana, which is west of its confluence with the Drshadvati (Chautang). The Drshadvati is
described as a seasonal stream (10.17), meaning it was not from Himalayas. Bhargava [51] has
identified Drashadwati river as present day Sahibi river originating from Jaipur hills in
Rajasthan. The Asvalayana Srautasutra and Sankhayana Srautasutra contain verses that are
similar to the Latyayana Srautasutra.
Post-Vedic texts
Wilke and Moebus note that the "historical river" Sarasvati was a "topographically tangible
mythogeme", which was already reduced to a "small, sorry trickle in the desert", by the time
of composition of the Hindu epics. These post-Vedic texts regularly talk about drying up of
the river, and start associating the goddess Sarasvati with language, rather than the river.
Mahabharata
According to the Mahabharata the Sarasvati River dried up to a desert (at a place named
Vinasana or Adarsana) and joins the sea "impetuously".MB.3.81.115 locates the state of
Kurupradesh or Kuru Kingdom to the south of the Sarasvati and north of the Drishadvati.
The dried-up, seasonal Ghaggar River in Rajasthan and Haryana reflects the same
geographical view described in the Mahabharata.
According to Hindu scriptures, a journey was made during the Mahabharata by Balrama
along the banks of the Saraswati from Dwarka to Mathura. There were ancient kingdoms too
(the era of the Mahajanapads) that lay in parts of north Rajasthan and that were named on
the Saraswati River.

Page 6
Puranas
Several Puranas describe the Sarasvati River, and also record that the river separated into a
number of lakes (saras).
In the Skanda Purana, the Sarasvati originates from the water pot of Brahma and flows
from Plaksa on the Himalayas. It then turns west at Kedara and also flows underground. Five
distributaries of the Sarasvati are mentioned. The text regards Sarasvati as a form of
Brahma's consort Brahmi.[61] According to the Vamana Purana 32.1-4, the Sarasvati rose from
the Plaksa tree (Pipal tree).
The Padma Purana proclaims:
One who bathes and drinks there where the Gangā, Yamunā and Sarasvati join
enjoys liberation. Of this there is no doubt."
Smritis

 In the Manu Smriti, the sage Manu, escaping from a flood, founded the Vedic culture
between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati rivers. The Sarasvati River was thus the western
boundary of Brahmavarta: "the land between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati is created by
God; this land is Brahmavarta."[]
 Similarly, the Vasistha Dharma Sutra I.8-9 and 12-13 locates Aryavarta to the east of
the disappearance of the Sarasvati in the desert, to the west of Kalakavana, to the north of
the mountains of Pariyatra and Vindhya and to the south of
the Himalaya. Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya defines Aryavarta like the Vasistha Dharma Sutra.
 The Baudhayana Dharmasutra gives similar definitions, declaring that Aryavarta is
the land that lies west of Kalakavana, east of Adarsana (where the Sarasvati disappears in
the desert), south of the Himalayas and north of the Vindhyas.
Contemporary religious significance

Triveni Sangam, Allahabad – the confluence of Ganga, Yamuna and the "unseen" Sarasvati.
Diana Eck notes that the power and significance of the Sarasvati for present-day India is in
the persistent symbolic presence at the confluence of rivers all over India. Although
"materially missing",she is the third river, which emerges to join in the meeting of rivers,
thereby making the waters thrice holy.
After the Vedic Sarasvati dried, new myths about the rivers arose. Sarasvati is described to
flow in the underworld and rise to the surface at some places. [19] For centuries, the Sarasvati
river existed in a "subtle or mythic" form, since it corresponds with none of the major rivers
of present-day South AsiaThe confluence (sangam) or joining together of
the Ganges and Yamuna rivers at Triveni Sangam, Allahabad, is believed to also converge
Page 7
with the unseen Sarasvati river, which is believed to flow underground. This despite
Allahabad being at a considerable distance from the possible historic routes of an actual
Sarasvati river.
At the Kumbh Mela, a mass bathing festival is held at Triveni Sangam, literally "confluence of
the three rivers", every 12 years. [6][66][67] The belief of Sarasvati joining at the confluence of the
Ganges and Yamuna originates from the Puranic scriptures and denotes the "powerful legacy"
the Vedic river left after her disappearance. The belief is interpreted as "symbolic". [68] The
three rivers Sarasvati, Yamuna, Ganga are considered consorts of the Hindu Trinity
(Trimurti) Brahma, Vishnu (as Krishna) and Shiva respectively.
In lesser known configuration, Sarasvati is said to form the Triveni confluence with rivers
Hiranya and Kapila at Somnath. There are several other Trivenis in India where two physical
rivers are joined by the "unseen" Sarasvati, which adds to the sanctity of the confluence. [69]
Romila Thapar notes that "once the river had been mythologized through invoking the
memory of the earlier river, its name - Sarasvati - could be applied to many rivers, which is
what happened in various parts of the [Indian] subcontinent." [22]
Several present-day rivers are also named Sarasvati, after the Vedic Sarasvati:

 Sarsuti is the present-day name of a river originating in a submontane region

(Ambala district) and joining the Ghaggar near Shatrana in PEPSU. Near Sadulgarh
(Hanumangarh) the Naiwala channel, a dried out channel of the Sutlej, joins the Ghaggar.
Near Suratgarh the Ghaggar is then joined by the dried up Drishadvati river.
 Sarasvati is the name of a river originating in the Aravalli mountain range
in Rajasthan, passing through Sidhpur and Patan before submerging in the Rann of
Kutch.
 Saraswati River, a tributary of Alaknanda River, originates near Badrinath
 Saraswati River in Bengal, formerly a distributary of the Hooghly River, has dried up
since the 17th century.
Already since the 19th century, attempts have been made to identify the mythical
Sarasvati of the Vedas with physical rivers.[11] Many think that the Vedic Sarasvati river once
flowed east of the Indus (Sindhu) river. Scientists, geologists as well as scholars have
identified the Sarasvati with many present-day or now defunct rivers.
Two theories are popular in the attempts to identify the Sarasvati. Several scholars have
identified the river with the present-day Ghaggar-Hakra River or dried up part of it, which is
located in Northwestern India and Pakistan. A second popular theory associates the river
with the Helmand river or an ancient river in the present Helmand Valley in Afghanistan.
Others consider Sarasvati a mythical river, an allegory not a "thing"
The identification with the Ghaggar-Hakra system took on new significance in the early 21st
century, suggesting an earlier dating of the Rig Veda, and renaming the Indus Valley
Civilisation as the "Sarasvati culture", the "Sarasvati Civilization", the "Indus-Sarasvati
Civilization" or the "Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization," suggesting that the Indus Valley
and Vedic cultures can be equated

Page 8
Rig Vedic course

Vedic rivers
The Rig Veda contains several hymns which give an indication of the flow of the geography of
the river, and an identification of the Sarasvati as described in the later books of the Rig Veda
with the Ghaggra-Hakra:

 RV 3.23.4 mentions the Sarasvati River together with the Drsadvati River and the
Āpayā River.
 RV 6.52.6 describes the Sarasvati as swollen (pinvamānā) by the rivers (sindhubhih).
 RV 7.36.6, "sárasvatī saptáthī síndhumātā" can be translated as "Sarasvati the
Seventh, Mother of Floods," but also as "whose mother is the Sindhu", which would
indicate that the Sarasvati is here a tributary of the Indus.
 RV 7.95.1-2, describes the Sarasvati as flowing to the samudra, a word now usually
translated as "ocean," but which could also mean "lake."
 RV 10.75.5, the late Rigvedic Nadistuti sukta, enumerates all important rivers from the
Ganges in the east up to the Indus in the west in a clear geographical order. The sequence
"Ganges, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Shutudri" places the Sarasvati between the Yamuna and
the Sutlej, which is consistent with the Ghaggar identification.
Yet, the Rig Veda also contains clues for an identification with the Helmand river in
Afghanistan:

 The Sarasvati River is perceived to be a great river with perennial water, which does
not apply to the Hakra and Ghaggar.
 The Rig Veda seems to contain descriptions of several Sarasvatis. The earliest Sararvati
is said to be similar to the Helmand in Afghanistan which is called the Harakhwati in the
Āvestā
 Verses in RV 6.61 indicate that the Sarasvati river originated in the hills or mountains
(giri), where she "burst with her strong waves the ridges of the hills (giri)". It is a matter of
interpretation whether this refers only to the Himalayan foothills, where the present-day
Sarasvati (Sarsuti) river flows, or to higher mountains.
The Rig Veda was composed during the latter part of the late Harappan period, and according
to Shaffer, the reason for the predominance of the Sarasvati in the Rigveda is the late
Harappan (1900-1300 BCE) population shift eastwards to Haryana.
Ghaggar-Hakra River
The present Ghaggar-Hakra River is a seasonal river in India and Pakistan that flows only
during the monsoon season, but satellite images in possession of the ISRO and ONGC have
Page 9
confirmed that the major course of a river ran through the present-day Ghaggar River. The
supposed paleochannel of the Hakra is actually a paleochannel of the Sutlej, flowing into
the Nara river bed, presently a delta channel c.q. paleochannel of the Indus RiverAt least
10,000 years ago, well before the rise of the Harappan civilization, the sutlej diverted it's
course, leaving the Ghaggar-Hakra as a monsoon-fed river. Early in the 2nd millennium BCE
the monsoons diminished and the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system dried up, which affected the
Harappan civilisation.
Paleochannels and ancient course

Vedic and present-day Gagghar-Hakra river-course, with Aryavarta/Kuru Kingdom, and

(pre-)Harappan Hakra/Sutlej-Yamuna paleochannels, as proposed by Clift et al.
(2012) and Khonde et al. (2017).[n] See also this satellite image.
1 = ancient river
2 = today's river
3 = today's Thar desert
4 = ancient shore
5 = today's shore
6 = today's town
7 = dried-up Harappan Hakkra course, and pre-Harappan Sutlej paleochannels (Clift et al.
(2012))
Main article: Ghaggar-Hakra River
While there is general agreement that the river courses in the Indus Basin have frequently
changed course, the exact sequence of these changes and their dating have been problematic
Pre-Holocene diversion of the Sutlej and Yamuna
Older publications have suggested that the Sutlej and the Yamuna drained into the Hakra
well into Mature Harappan times, providing ample volume to the supply provided by the
monsoon-fed Ghaggar. The Sutlej and Yamuna then changed course between 2500 BCE and
1900 BCE, due to either tectonic events or "slightly altered gradients on the extremely flat
plains," resulting in the drying-up of the Hakra in the Thar Desert. More recent publications
have shown that the Sutlej and the Yamuna shifted course well before Harappan
Page 10
times, leaving the monsoon-fed Ghaggar-Hakra which dried-up during late Harappan times.
[11]

Clift et al. (2012), using dating of zircon sand grains, have shown that subsurface river
channels near the Indus Valley Civilisation sites in Cholistan immediately below the
presumed Ghaggar-Hakra channel show sediment affinity not with the Ghagger-Hakra, but
instead with the Beas River in the western sites and the Sutlej and the Yamuna in the eastern
ones. This suggests that the Yamuna itself, or a channel of the Yamuna, along with a channel
of the Sutlej may have flowed west some time between 47,000 BCE and 10,000 BCE. The
drainage from the Yamuna may have been lost from the Ghaggar-Hakra well before the
beginnings of Indus civilisation.
Ajit Singh et al. (2017) show that the paleochannel of the Ghaggar-Hakra is a former course of
the Sutlej, which diverted to its present course between 15,000 and 8,000 years ago, well
before the development of the Harappan Civilisation. Ajit Singh et al. conclude that the urban
populations settled not along a perennial river, but a monsoon-fed seasonal river that was not
subject to devastating floods.
Khonde et al. (2017) confirm that the Great Rann of Kutch received sediments from a
different source than the Indus, but this source stopped supplying sediments after ca. 10,000
years ago Likewise, Dave et al. (2019) state that "[o]ur results disprove the proposed link
between ancient settlements and large rivers from the Himalayas and indicate that the major
palaeo-fluvial system traversing through this region ceased long before the establishment of
the Harappan civilisation."[90]
According to Chaudhri et al. (2021) "the Saraswati River used to flow from the glaciated peaks
of the Himalaya to the Arabian sea," and an "enormous amount of water was flowing through
this channel network until BC 11,147."[91]
IVC and diminishing of the monsoons

The Helmand River, Afghanistan, known in ancient Iranian Avestan

v
as Harax atī and Harahvaiti, is identified by some as the ancient Sarasvati river/
Outline of the Indus Civilization, with concentration of settlements along the Ghaggar-Hakra,
which had dried-up by the time of the Indo-Aryan migrations. See Sameer et al. (2018) for a
more detailed map.
Many Indus Valley Civilisation (Harrapan Civilisation) are found on the banks of and in the
proximity of the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, due to the "high monsoon rainfall" which fed
the Ghaggar-Hakra in Mature Harappan Times.

Page 11
Giosan et al., in their study Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilisation, make clear that
the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system was not a large glacier-fed Himalayan river, but a
monsoonal-fed river. They concluded that the Indus Valley Civilisation prospered when the
monsoons that fed the rivers diminished around 5,000 years ago. When the monsoons, which
fed the rivers that supported the civilisation, further diminished and the rivers dried out as a
result, the IVC declined some 4000 years ago. [11] This in particular effected the Ghaggar-
Hakra system, which became an intermittent river and was largely abandoned.[93] Localized
Late IVC-settlements are found eastwards, toward the more humid regions of the Indo-
Gangetic Plain, where the decentralised late Harappan phase took place.
The same widespread aridification in the third millennium BCE also led to water shortages
and ecological changes in the Eurasian steppes, leading to a change of vegetation, triggering
"higher mobility and transition to nomadic cattle breeding," These migrations eventually
resulted in the Indo-Aryan migrations into South Asia.
Identification with the Sarasvati
A number of archaeologists and geologists have identified the Sarasvati river with the
present-day Ghaggar-Hakra River, or the dried up part of it despite the fact that it had
already dried-up and become a small seasonal river before Vedic times
In the 19th and early 20th century a number of scholars, archaeologists and geologists have
identified the Vedic Sarasvati River with the Ghaggar-Hakra River, such as Christian
Lassen (1800-1876), Max Müller (1823-1900),[106] Marc Aurel Stein (1862-1943),[94] C.F.
Oldham and Jane Macintosh. Danino notes that "the 1500 km-long bed of the Sarasvati" was
"rediscovered" in the 19th century. According to Danino, "most Indologists" were convinced
in the 19th century that "the bed of the Ghaggar-Hakra was the relic of the Sarasvati." [
Recent archaeologists and geologists, such as Philip and Virdi (2006), K.S. Valdiya (2013)
have identified the Sarasvati with Ghaggar. [110] According to Gregory Possehl, "Linguistic,
archaeological, and historical data show that the Sarasvati of the Vedas is the modern
Ghaggar or Hakra."
According to R.U.S. Prasad, "we [...] find a considerable body of opinions [sic] among the
scholars, archaeologists and geologists, who hold that the Sarasvati originated in the Shivalik
hills [...] and descended through Adi Badri, situated in the foothills of the Shivaliks, to the
plains [...] and finally debouched herself into the Arabian sea at the Rann of
Kutch."[111] According to Valdiya, "it is plausible to conclude that once upon a time the
Ghagghar was known as "Sarsutī"," which is "a corruption of "Sarasvati"," because "at Sirsā
on the bank of the Ghagghar stands a fortress called "Sarsutī". Now in derelict condition, this
fortress of antiquity celebrates and honours the river Sarsutī."

Page 12
Textual and historical objections[Ashoke Mukherjee (2001), is critical of the
attempts to identify the Rigvedic Sarasvati. Mukherjee notes that many
historians and archaeologists, both Indian and foreign, concluded that the
word "Sarasvati" (literally "being full of water") is not a noun, a specific
"thing". However, Mukherjee believes that "Sarasvati" is initially used by the
Rig Vedic people as an adjective to the Indus as a large river and later evolved
into a "noun". Mukherjee concludes that the Vedic poets had not seen the
palaeo-Sarasvati, and that what they described in the Vedic verses refers to
something else. He also suggests that in the post-Vedic and Puranic tradition
the "disappearance" of Sarasvati, which to refers to "[going] under [the]
ground in the sands", was created as a complementary myth to explain the
visible non-existence of the river.
Rajesh Kocchar further notes that, even if the Sutlej and the Yamuna had drained into the
Ghaggar during Rig Vedic, it still would not fit the Rig Vedic descriptions because "the snow-
fed Satluj and Yamuna would strengthen lower Ghaggar. Upper Ghaggar would still be as
puny as it is today."[
Helmand river

Helmund river basin with tributary Arghandab River originate in Hindu Kush mountain in

north Afghanistan and fall in to Hamun Lake in southern Afghanistan at the border
of Iran. Helmund basin in ancient Iranian Avestan Haraxvatī and Harahvaiti, is cognate with
the mythological Iranian Avestan Arədvī Sūrā Anāhitā river and Sarasvati river. An
alternative suggestion for the identity of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati River is the Helmand
River and its tributary Arghandab in the Arachosia region in Afghanistan, separated from the
watershed of the Indus by the Sanglakh Range. The Helmand historically besides
Avestan Haetumant bore the name Haraxvaiti, which is the Avestan form cognate to
Sanskrit Sarasvati. The Avesta extols the Helmand in similar terms to those used in the
Rigveda with respect to the Sarasvati: "The bountiful, glorious Haetumant swelling its white
waves rolling down its copious flood". [ However unlike the Rigvedic Sarasvati, Helmand river
never attained the status of a deity despite the praises in the Avesta.
The identification of the Sarasvati river with the Helmand river was first proposed by
Thomas (1886), followed by Alfred Hillebrandt a couple of years thereafter. However, in the
Page 13
same year, geologist R.D. Oldham, refuted this Afghan Sarasvatī thesis. Rajesh Kocchar, after
a detailed analysis of the Vedic texts and geological environments of the rivers, concludes that
there are two Sarasvati rivers mentioned in the Rigveda. The early Rigvedic Sarasvati, which
he calls Naditama Sarasvati, is described in suktas 2.41, 7.36, etc. of the family books of the
Rigveda, and drains into a samudra. The description of the Naditama Sarasvati in the
Rigveda matches the physical features of the Helmand River in Afghanistan, more precisely
its tributary the Harut River, whose older name was Haraxvatī in Avestan. The later Rigvedic
Sarasvati, which he calls Vinasana Sarasvati, is described in the Rigvedic Nadistuti sukta
(10.75), which was composed centuries later, after an eastward migration of the bearers of the
Rigvedic culture to the western Gangetic plain some 600 km to the east. The Sarasvati by this
time had become a mythical "disappeared" river, and the name was transferred to
the Ghaggar which disappeared in the desert.[24] The later Rigvedic Sarasvati is only in the
post-Rig Vedic Brahmanas said to disappear in the sands. According to Kocchar the Ganga
and Yamuna were small streams in the vicinity of the Harut River. When the Vedic people
moved east into Punjab, they named the new rivers they encountered after the old rivers they
knew from Helmand, and the Vinasana Sarasvati may correspond with the Ghaggar-Hakra
river.
Contemporary politico-religious meaning
Drying-up and dating of the Vedas
The Vedic description of the goddess Sarasvati as a mighty river, and the Vedic and Puranic
statements about the drying-up and diving-under of the Sarasvati, have been used by some as
a reference point for a revised dating of the Vedic culture. [6] Some see these descriptions as a
mighty river as evidence for an earlier dating of the Rig Veda, identifying the Vedic culture
with the Harappan culture, which flourished at the time that the Gaggar-Hakra hadn't dried
up, and rejecting the Indo-Aryan migrations theory, which postulates a migration at 1500
BCE
Michel Danino places the composition of the Vedas therefor in the third millennium BCE, a
millennium earlier than the
Identification with the Indus Valley Civilisation
The Indus Valley Civilisation is sometimes called the "Sarasvati culture", "Sarasvati
Civilization", "Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilisation," "Indus-Sarasvati Civilization," or "Sindhu-
Sarasvati Civilization" by Hindutva revisionists, referring to the Sarasvati river mentioned in
the Vedas, and equating the Vedic culture with the Indus Valley Civilisation. In this view, the
Harappan civilisation flourished predominantly on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra, not the
Indus For example, Danino notes that his proposed dating of the Vedas to the third
millennium BCE coincides with the mature phase of the Indus Valley civilisation, and that it
is "tempting" to equate the Indus Valley and Vedic cultures
Hetalben Sindhav notes that claims of a large number of Ghaggar-Hakra sites are politically
motivated and exaggerated. While the Indus remained an active river, the Ghaggar-Hakra
dried-up, leaving mant sites undisturbed. [  Sidhav further notes that the Ghaggar-Hakra was
a tributary of the Indus, so the proposed Sarasvati nomenclatura is redundant. According to
archaeologist Shereen Ratnagar, many Ghaggar-Hakra sites in India are actually those of
local cultures; some sites display contact with Harappan civilization, but only a few are fully
developed Harappan ones. Moreover, around 90% of the Indus script seals and inscribed

Page 14
objects discovered were found at sites in Pakistan along the Indus river, while other places
accounting only for the remaining 10%.
Revival
In 2015, Reuters reported that "members of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh believe that
proof of the physical existence of the Vedic river would bolster their concept of a golden age of
Hindu India, before invasions by Muslims and Christians." The Bharatiya Janata
Party Government had therefore ordered archaeologists to search for the river. [134]
According to the government of Indian state of Haryana, research and satellite imagery of the
region has confirmed to have found the lost river when water was detected during digging of
the dry river bed at Yamunanagar. The government constituted Saraswati Heritage
Development Board (SHDB) had conducted a trial run on 30 July 2016 filling the river bed
with 100 cusecs of water which was pumped into a dug-up channel from tubewells at Uncha
Chandna village in Yamunanagar. The water is expected to fill the channel until Kurukshetra,
a distance of 40 kilometres. Once confirmed that there is no obstructions in the flow of the
water, the government proposes to flow in another 100 cusecs after a fortnight. At that time,
there were also plans to build three dams on the river route to keep it flowing perennially
In 2021, the Chief Minister of the State of Haryana stated that over 70 organizations were
involved with researching the Saraswati River's heritage, and that the river "is still flowing
underground from Adi Badri and up to Kutch in Gujarat."[
The Saraswati revival project seeks to build channels and dams along the route of the lost
river, and develop it as a tourist and pilgrimage circuit.

Page 15
 PROLOGUE By WASUDHA KORKE
THE LOST RIVER SARASWATI

The first time I heard about the river Saraswati was on a visit to Prayag , Allahabad
when I was very young. At the Sangam (the confluence), the two mighty rivers Ganga
and Yamuna merge together and one can very distinctly see the two different rivers
coming together as they have different colours.

There, we were told that there is a third river which also joins them and that is the
Saraswati, hence the Sangam is known as "Triveni" Sangam. On enquiring about its
whereabouts we were told that she is a ‘gupta’ river and cannot be seen. In order not to
sound rude it was accepted silently, albeit without being convinced.

Triveni Sangam at Prayag

After more than 35 years, I encountered the Saraswati at Badrinath. About 3 km from
Badrinath is a village called Mana. On the way, there is a natural rock structure which
lies supine over a rivulet gurgling down the mountains.

As mythology goes, when the Pandavas were on their way to reach Swarga, they
encountered this rivulet. Draupadi could not cross the river and therefore Bheem lifted a
big boulder and put it across the river which today is known as ‘Bhim pul’. Here the river
is of course Saraswati. A few hundred meters down the line it disappears into the earth.
So instead of an imaginary river here she was in reality!

Bhim Pul near Mana Village at Badrinath

That was more than 25 years ago. Now that I am in a more relaxed frame of mind I
decided to explore things which I had never done before. Top of the list was taking a
glimpse of the Vedic period and Vedic literature. The more I explored it the more
fascinated I became and here I met the mighty river Saraswati
Rig Veda is the first compilation of hymns or suktas in Hindu scriptures, in fact it is the
first compilation in the history of mankind. In the Rigveda, three suktas or hymns are
totally dedicated to the river Saraswati.
In at least 45 suktas she is showered with praise. She is called as ‘great among
greatest’,‘animpetuous river’,’ one who was created vast and limitless, unbroken,
starting in the mountains ‘giribhya’ and reaching the seas ‘a samudrat’ ,swift moving,
one who comes onward with tumultuous roar, ‘the mother of all waters’ and many such
adjectives. From being an impetuous river, in Vedic symbolism she becomes the
embodiment of illumination and inspiration. All the Sages or Rishis drew inspiration
and revelations while contemplating on her banks. She was described as the impeller of
truth which awakens the consciousness and illuminates all thought. Saraswati was the
best of mothers, best of rivers, and the best of goddesses. This was the beginning of the
deification of rivers. Many centuries later in the Yajur Veda the Saraswati additionally
becomes the goddess of speech. Somewhere along the line she became the ‘Mother of
Vedas’.

In the Rigveda the Nadi Stuthi sukta, makes the geographical location of the Saraswati
very clear. This remarkable sukta starts from the Ganga and moves westward till the
Indus and its tributaries. It is indeed a bird's eye view, sweeping across more than 1000
km. It is made clear that the Saraswati flows between the Yamuna and the Shutudri or
Sutlej.
However, the other three Vedas (Yajur Sama and Atharva) do not add any significant
descriptions. Much later in the next generation of Vedic literature, the Brahamanas, we
read that the unbroken flow was interrupted and the river disappeared at a place called
Vinashana, which means loss or disappearance.

This place is also called Adarshana or invisible. In later literature like the Bhagwat
Purana The Vinashana moves eastward, eventually reaching Kurukshetra. This means
that the river’s drying up was not sudden but gradual.

She finds mention in Ramayana as Ikshumati that is Brahma‘s daughter, but in

Mahabharata Sarasvati remains important. It is an echo of the Rigveda. Here we find
the river still flowing from the mountains to the sea but with a crucial difference. In
some parts she is visible and in some parts she is not, rather broken up into separate
segments or lakes.

Places of reappearance are considered sacred - Tirtha,and in today’s Western Rajasthan

we can identify more than 50 villages and towns having names ending in ‘sar’ which
means a lake. In fact the Mahabharata also recounts Balarama‘s pilgrimage along the
left bank of the Saraswati starting
from ‘Prabhas, that is today’s Somnath and proceeding eastwards, visiting hundreds of
famous “tirthas'' on the way.

Savants or Seers like Baudhyana, Vashishta (not the Rig Vedic Rishi)and Patanjali
( between the 6th and 2nd century BCE)mention Saraswati when they describe
Aryawarta, Madhyawarta and Brahmavarta. The Puranas also have their say on
Saraswati. In the latter literature like the Meghdoot as well as Abhigyan Shakuntalam,
Kalidasa refers to Saraswati, So also the sixth century Savant Varāhamihira

Epigraphy also has its say in this matter through the inscriptions on tablets belonging to
the middle of ninth century CE which confirms the literary references we have seen so
far.

But today the Saraswati which is embedded in our ancient literature is physically not
present. Then how did the mighty river and where did the mighty river disappear? There
are many foreign as well as Indian scholars like Romila Thapar, Rajesh Kochhar and
Irfan Habib who claim that Saraswati never existed in reality , or in the form it is
described, except in the poetic imagination of the Rishis and in the minds of the people
of India.

The question of a disappearance has plagued many scholars, geographers, archaeologists

and explorers world over, since the early 19th century. Their expeditions, research,
surveys unearth many facets of the river and the civilization it nurtured more than 6000
years ago. They were also able to find out it’s systematic decline over a couple of
millennia. This was further confirmed in recent times through satellite photography.
But let us explore more of this in our next part and for the time being we
remember that over centuries great rivers die because they too are living organisms,
they are born, they thrive, they decline and they disappear. This may be true for our
snow-fed Himalayan rivers like the Ganga ,the Brahmaputra, the Indus, where their
source is fast depleting due to global warming.
All these may be myths,or history or imagination, but they are deeply embedded in our
psyche as knowledge, beliefs, folklore, and rituals. And maybe that is what must have
prompted our ancestors to recreate an imaginary Saraswati at Prayag, when the real one
was lost.

Notes:

Veda simply means “Knowledge”. It is a Sanskrit word from the root “Vid”, which
means finding, knowing, acquiring, or understanding. What you acquire or
understand is knowledge. The term Veda as a common noun means “knowledge”.

Vedic Philosophy regard the Vedas as Apaurusheya; meaning, not of a man or

impersonal and also not belonging to a particular author.

There are four Vedas: Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva
Veda, and all of them together are attributed to as ‘Chaturveda’.

Rig Veda- is the principal and oldest of the four Vedas. Rigveda, in
contemporary Hinduism, has been a reminder of the ancient cultural heritage and
point of pride for Hindus, with some hymns still in use in major rites of passage,
ceremonies

Yajur Veda, is composed of Yajus and Veda; the two words translate to ‘prose
mantras dedicated to religious reverence or veneration’ and knowledge respectively. It
is famous as the ‘book of rituals’.

The words of Rig Veda put to music, and sungrather than to just be read or recited is
elaborated in Sama Veda. It isalso the Veda of Melodies and Chants. It is the
third in the series of the four principle scriptures of Hinduism. ‘Book of Songs’, -the
name is derived from two words, Saman, in Sanskrit, meaning Song and Veda,
meaning Knowledge. Sama
Veda, has served as the principal roots of the classical Indian music and dance
tradition,

The fourth and final of the revered text of the Vedas, the Atharva Veda, in short, is
depicted as “knowledge storehouse of Atharvāṇas” Atharvāṇas meaning,
formulas, and spells intended to counteract diseases and calamities, or “the procedures
for everyday life”. A late addition to the Vedic scriptures.

Vedas, before the initial codification which took place, were generationally handed
over by the rich oral literary tradition, which was then a precise and elaborate
technique.
 IN SEARCH OF THE LOST SARASWATI

Missing of a prominent river from the map is not something new (refer to the rivers
Oxus and Jordan), it is attributable to the environmental changes. Changing its course,
drying up, disappearing, joining other rivers are the consequences of tectonic plate
movement, earthquakes, and climatic changes. Let us see what affected our Saraswati.
Let us explore and reconcile what the geologists, climatologists, hydrologists,
archaeologists and a plethora of scientific communities have to say about this river,
compare it with what the ancient literature, legends, myths, had said about it and from
there derive our conclusions.

In the early 19 century, a lot of British army officials posted in the region of Rajputana,
Delhi territory and Sind explored this land extensively. Their urge to know the land they
governed and document all the findings very meticulously, formed sort of a basis for
future studies. The first among these was one Lt. Colonel James Todd. He observed that
in Rajputana,certain sand belts were elevated and had lesser layers of sand. This surface
had thinly populated towns and villages. He also noted that there were songs sung by
the bards which described the drying up of the Caggar River and the people deserting
the settlements.

Then Major Colvin, documented all the important water courses and channels natural or
man-made in the region between Punjab and northern Rajasthan. He followed the bed
of the ‘Chitang’ or ‘Chauthang’ a tributary of ‘Ghaggar’ and noted that there were
numerous sites of towns and villages scattered over this tract, now not visible.

This was followed by one Major Mackeson, who found that a path between Delhi and
Sind or Bahawalpur, followed the bed of a forsaken river from Hanumangarh onwards.
This bed had a continuous line of villages on its sides, with sweet water wells. His
proposal of this new path was not something new, this had been followed earlier, by the
various invaders with an eye on Delhi.
Half a century later the Europeans scholars were able to master the sacred Sanskrit
language. It opened up a treasure chest of Hindu and Buddhist literature. A French
scholar Louis Vivien de Saint-Martin, who had studied the previous reports of the three
gentlemen mentioned earlier, as well as the Rigveda, took up a program to study and
reconstruct the ancient geography of India from the most primitive times to the Muslim
invasion.

The task was immense and he had planned 12 volumes, of which he could complete
three, in a span of 10 years. His first volume is dedicated to Sanskrit geography and he
spent a lot of time diligently exploring the area and matching it with the Vedic locales.
The streams which flowed down from the Shivalik mountains met together to form the
Saraswati, and then it flowed westward. The Ghaggar, Markanda, Sarsuti, Chauthang
and its tributaries are other relics of the Vedic Saraswati. He pointed out the topography
of the scarred and now dry river system of the Yamuna – Sutlej interfluve and confirmed
the description in the Vedas, of Saraswati as a river flowing to the sea. (Though now an
arid and waterless plains between the Sutlej and the Gulf of Kutch).
C.F.Oldham’s 1893 map showing courses of Hakra. Existing rivers in continuous lines
and former rivers in fitted lines.

Later, R.D.Oldham a geologist and a seismologist, who headed the Geological Survey of
India in 1879, studied the regions from Bahawalpur to Hisar district and came to the
conclusion that the drying up of Saraswati was not due to the reduced rainfall, but due to
the desertion of Sutlej and Yamuna. His studies of the region gave many important
insights for future studies.

The British officials’ fascination with geography of India, continued and later Major
Henry George Raverty, Robert Sivewright, concluded that the Rann of Kutch was a delta
of the Hakra, the lost river of Sindh. In fact these scholars also found the etymology of
the word Ghaggar and Hakra. Incidentally, both names are for the same river, as they
were known in Punjab and Sindh respectively.

Having elaborated the various geographical evidences collected by the above-mentioned

scholars, let us again revert to the traditions and folklore associated with the river
Saraswati.

As we saw earlier, the drying up of Saraswati left a deep imprint on subsequent

literature right up to 6th century CE. Now let us see, its footprints on folklore and
traditions. James Todd (mentioned earlier), and CS Oldham were struck by songs and
legends related to the ruin of the region due to the drying up of the Ghaggar – Hakra.
Alexander Cunningham, the first director of Archaeological Survey of India had some
very pertinent observations about Saraswati. He recorded that the local tradition said
that, the source of the sacred Saraswati was at Adi Badri Kunda, in Himachal Pradesh
and at Kathghar the sacred river came out of the hills. This exactly matched the source
of the Vedic Saraswati

As we travel southwards along the banks of Saraswati till it reaches the Arabian Sea, we
come across many holy sites. Let us enumerate a few of these sites.
‘Kurukshetra –Thanesar’ has a Kunda called Brahmasar, where pilgrims from all over
India come to take a dip during solar eclipse.

Pehowa, where the Sarsuti is joined by Markanda, has many temples built by the
Marathas dedicated to Saraswati. It is the place where rituals for the departed ancestors
are performed.

‘Pushkar’ in Rajasthan is considered to be a place where the Saraswati is said to have re-
emerged and halted. There is a very famous temple of Brahma there, probably the only
one in India. From nearby hills a river emerges which is also known as Saraswati and
later as Luni. Pushkar Lake is considered a place where Rama, Lakshmana and Sita,
bathed during their ‘Vanavasa’.

In the Rann of Kutch, the Luni's flow is joined by another Saraswati with its source in
the southwestern tip of the Aravalli. On this Sarasvati’s bank are two important
pilgrimage centers namely ‘Sidhhapur’ with its sacred pond ‘Bindusar’ and ‘Patan’
famous for its magnificent step well ‘Rani Ki Vav’. On the dried bed of this river are three
temples dedicated to Ganga, Yamuna and Saraswati.

The southernmost tip of Saurashtra has a small river called Saraswati whose source is
near ‘Somnath’ and on its bank is the ‘Tirtha’ called ‘Prabhas Patan’, the place from
where Balaram started his pilgrimage).

These four Saraswatis may have been named in the memory of the Vedic Saraswati and
its tributaries and estuaries in that part of Saraswati basin. They are clearly a part of the
same tradition originating from the Vedic Saraswati. Of course, we must not forget the
invisible or “Gupta” Saraswati at Prayag Allahabad. Another example of ‘transfer which
we saw above.

‘Gouda‘or the northern region lying between the Saraswati and Sutlej had five Brahmin
clans, of these,one are the Saraswat Brahmins. They migrated to Kashmir, Punjab in the
north, to Karnataka and Kerala in the South. They have a long preserved memory of
having lived in the Saraswati Valley,
till they were forced to migrate due to the drying up of the river. Hence we see tradition
lives on.

Western Orientalist and Indologist starting from H.H. Wilson in 1840, later Max
Mueller and many others who followed, till as late as 1975, agreed that the Vedic region
of Sapta Sindhu and the foundation of Hindu Philosophy originated in the vicinity of
river Saraswati. Such views are also shared by many eminent Indians scholars like
M.L.Bhargava, B.C.Law, H.C. Ray Chowdhury, A.D. Pusalkar, and D.C.Sorcar.to name a
few. The past four or five decades have unearthed a huge amount of information on this
specific topic.

But the game changer was the Remote Sensing technology, through satellite
photography and imagery. For the first time the dry bed of Gaggar-Hakra was revealed
and the most significant finding was that, it brought out the contrast created by the
richer soil and vegetation found all along the river course.

It also brought to light the various Palaeo Beds crisscrossing the Sutlej – Yamuna water
shed – most are invisible at ground level. Four scientists namely Yash Pal, Baldev Sahay,
R.K.Sood and D.P.Agarwal, published a paper based on the analysis of the many
photographs of the LANDSAT satellite.

Their study showed the multitude of small channels into which the Sutlej braided before
it settled in its present course – that is why it was called Shatadri in Vedic literature. In
the east, they traced three ancient beds of the Yamuna. It confirmed its eastward
migration and found that one of the beds coincides with that of Drishadvati.
Various Paleochannels and present drainage of Yamuna, Ghaggar, Sutlej.
Three ISRO scientist, J.R.Sharma, A.K. Gupta, and BK. Bhadra presented their findings
from a new generation of IRS satellites covering the entire drainage of Saraswati. Their
findings are illustrated in the figure given below.
The latest entrant in this field is Nuclear Physics, which has a wide array of dating
techniques, which are utilised by geologist, archaeologist, oceanography etc. For us it is
the dating of the water available in the Palaeolithic channels that is of interest. Scientists
from BARC namely S.M. Rao and K.M. Kulkarni drew samples from various wells in
Rajasthan, along the defunct river. Radiocarbon dates suggest that the groundwater is
a few thousand years old, about 3000 to 2400 BCE. It also indicated an absence of
recharge and detected its movement as very slow about 20 m a year. Groundwater levels
in the Palaeochannels channels before monsoon are given below.
Let us hope, however, the exploitation of these ancient reserves is done very prudently
and is accompanied by effective replenishment or it would be a case of killing the
proverbial goose booze.

From piecing , deductions of geomorphologists, sedimentologists, geo hydrologists,

geochemists, archaeologists and remote sensing specialists, emerges this portrait of a
large river originating in the Himalaya and emptying itself into the Sea, and on the way
supporting vibrant progressive people in the prehistoric time. This river was known as
the Saraswati [From Valdiya, 2016].

Let us now see the details of this picture by putting all the pieces of the jigsaw puzzle in
place. The two glacial rivers from the Himalayas namely the Yamuna and the Tonk,
originated at Yamunotri and Bandar Poonch respectively and they meet at Kalsi. They
then flowed westward towards the Markanda-Bata Valley with a major portion flowing
southward through a smaller and higher opening than today’s ‘Yamuna Tear’. The
westward branch was Saraswati while the southward was Yamuna. On reaching the
plains the Yamuna got divided once again and the south-west portion was called
(Drishadwati - Vedic name) Chauthang. This explained the root meaning of the word
‘Yamuna’ meaning ‘twin’.

At the western end of the divide the Sutlej which originated near Mount Kailash or
Mansarovar,joined the Ghaggar. Many streams flowed down from the Shivalik
mountains close to each other before they united in a single bed; this combined stream
is then joined by Chauthang and Sutlej and has a riverbed 6 to 8 km wide, South of
Patiala. This large river then had no difficulty in reaching the sea via the plains of Punjab
and Haryana, then going to Rajasthan and then to Fort Abbas, Hakra – Bahawalpur
area, then via Sindh to the Rann of Kutch.
What destroyed this beautiful picture? Where did this river disappear? And what
happened to the beautiful population which lived along this mighty river? Cities,
towns, villages must have prospered along its course. Agriculture, trade,and the various
arts must have flourished. Great thinkers and philosophers must have made their
‘ashrams’ here. Where did the river go and then where did all these people go? Many
such questions clamour to be answered. So let us delve into this and find the logical
answers in the next part which would follow soon.
Notes:

1. Definition of Palaeochannels: A channel that is no longer a part of an active

river system and has ceased to be a conduit of water is commonly referred to as a
palaeochannel. Some ancient palaeochannels may be the products of different flow
regimes of the past. They may thus provide evidence for river transformation,
following significant changes in flow regimes, implying river adjustments to
development outside their catchment. Palaeochannels, are commonly occurring
landforms in alluvial landscapes, and have an economic significance, because of their
use in the exploration for freshwater resources, artificial recharge and storage of
ground water; additionally, they are of importance in the location and assessment of
mineral deposits such as uraniferous ores, gold, silver and other placer deposits
hosted in them. Therefore, the study and mapping of palaeochannels has to be pursued
using inter-disciplinary approaches that draw upon landscape analysis and remote
sensing, sedimentology, geohydrology, tectonics and geophysical exploration.
2. Kunda – a small waterbody considered to have holy waters. Normally, it is
smaller than a pond, but has natural springs. It has built boundaries, rectangular in
shape.
3. Tirtha – a place of pilgrimage or a holy place.

4. Ghaggar –initially Caggar or Gaggar

 THE CRADLE OF INDIAN CIVILIZATION - THE
SARASWATI

The information about the Indian civilization which I found, was so immense that I got
lost in it. It was extremely difficult to sort out details and put them in the form which
was interesting and easy to understand. Therefore, I have set up a certain framework
which I am going to follow.

Firstly, I’m going to call the civilisation as Saraswati civilisation and not Indus Valley or
Harappan civilisation, as it was taught and is still being taught in schools and colleges.
There are many reasons, which I am not going to elaborate, but I’m sure you would
realise it at the end of the story.

Secondly, I am neither going to mention dates or names of the scholars as the list is
unending and increasing every day, who literally dug out the information which has
been put here.

And thirdly, I’m going to use a lot of illustrations for you to visualise the extent of
progress of the people of Saraswati.

To start with let us first estimate the extent of the spread of civilization. The
westernmost boundary was along the Makran coast. There was a site in northern
Afghanistan and another near Jammu as far as the northern boundary goes.

The eastern boundaries were up to Western Uttar Pradesh and in the South till the
valleys of Narmada and Tapti in Gujarat. Altogether the area covered by the civilisation
was about 8000 km Square. Which amounts to areas of Ancient Egyptian and
Mesopotamian civilisation put together and about 25% of today’s India.

This vast expanse must have offered a lot of challenges and opportunities. Opportunities
with respect to a wider choice of natural resources and a richer store of human skills
and experience. And the challenges were
similar to what we face today – diversity of regional cultures which needed to be
integrated and effective communication channels to keep all concerned on the same
wavelength or platform.

There were many cultures, tribal groups in the northern hills or people beyond the
demarcated territory who did not adopt the Saraswati way of life. For the civilization to
spread across this whole area it must have taken a few thousand years.

If we date back to the early phase of civilization, it started some time before 8000
BP/6000 BCE. Though we are enamoured by the urbanisation displayed by the
civilisation, we have to remember that the urban phase was not born out of the blue. It
was preceded by a long early phase wherein agricultural practices evolved and advanced,
villages were formed and there was an exchange of technology amongst various smaller
regions. Bronze metallurgy was perfected, pottery skills developed, construction norms
finalized right from the size of bricks and a rudimentary script developed.

Each of the smaller cultures had their own styles but as interaction increased the
regional cultures converged and fused together to reach the urban phase. The earliest of
the early phase was excavated at Mehrgarh, strategically located at the foot of the Bolan
Pass in Balochistan. It was essentially an agricultural economy and around 6000 BCE
had warehouses built for storage and distribution of grain.

This was the time when staple cereals like wheat and barley were domesticated along
with animals like sheep, goat, cattle and dogs. It also had a long-distance trade network
as evidenced by exotic materials found there. In the Saraswati basin in Haryana another
site Bhirrana had similar advancement with respect to agriculture as it has been carbon
dated before the fifth millennium BCE. So we see that people developed in all parts
of the region more or less in the same period, albeit independently initially, but later
together.
Chronology of this civilization is given below: All dates
in the BCE

Phase (Harappan) Saraswati Bce

1. Early 6000-2600 Convergence Era

2. Mature 2600-1900 Urbanization Era

3. Late 2000-1300 Localization Era

In the early urban phase there were striking innovations in the field of architecture,
technologies and crafts. The most prominent of course is the town planning.
Surprisingly, the mature phase people established new sites on virgin locations, and in
some places like Dholavira or Kalibangan old structures were either altered to new plans
or in places like Kot-Diji, Naushrao or Amri old settlements were set on fire and new
construction done.

The most striking feature of this phase was the sophistication of its urbanisation. Most
towns big or small were fortified and distinctly divided into zones. The upper city or
Acropolis had larger houses and streets aligned to the cardinal directions; the lower
town houses were closer to each other and smaller. Mohenjo daro boasts of the great
bath in its upper city. The fortified walls had impressive gateways controlling access to
the city. All the streets had specific standardised widths depending on its usage. There
were huge granaries, pillared assembly halls and common fire worship places. The word
granary, Acropolis, assembly hall et cetera are arbitrary, as most of the early excavators
tried to transfer the terminology from the previous experience they had had, in other
civilisations.
But surprisingly, there were no palaces, or monuments, or tombs or temples. Even the
larger residences were low-key, unlike those of the palaces of the pharaohs or kings
elsewhere. A concern for ordinary citizens was predominantly displayed.
Even the most modest house had a bathroom, which consisted of sloped platform made
of close fitting fire bricks or sometimes designed clay tiles. The outer wall had a drain,
which took waste waters to a collective sewer; this was connected to a network of drains
made of carefully aligned baked bricks, with cesspits of soak jars provided at regular
intervals, to collect sullage.

Even the upper stories of a house had vertical drain pipes embedded in walls for the
bathrooms there. Such a sanitary system was unrivalled in the ancient world. The
Romans developed it nearly 2000 years later. Imagine the careful planning & execution
which went into designing the slopes and levels of drains and the houses built to align
with the slopes. Today, most of modern India’s cities and towns are eons away from
such perfect planning.

In addition there is evidence of toilets in many houses – something like a brick

commode. There were garbage bins in streets for the citizens to throw their household
refuse. With such an elaborate sanitary system it is apparent that there must have been
municipal workers to inspect regularly and remove obstructions or sullage from the
soak pits. And of course, such a system required an abundance of water supply.

The water was drawn from wells, reservoirs fed by rivers, underground reservoirs for
rainwater harvesting and check dams on rivers. The mode was as per the availability
and accessibility of water. All these facilities prove that there was a very robust and
efficient civic authority.
The houses were built with bricks which had standardised proportion (1:2:4; or
7×14×28 cm.) The walls were thick indicating that there were a couple of stories above.
All in all we see that the finest structures were those constructed for the convenience of
the citizens rather than monuments for gods and palaces for kings. This was town
planning at its best.

Such sophisticated construction entailed a deep understanding of mathematics. They

had developed scales based on the decimal system. 10 divisions on the scale added up to
2.64 inches. Specimens of the scales were found at Mohenjo Daro, Lothal, and
Kalibangan.

Dholavira’s dimensions expressed in terms of a unit equal to 1.9m

The people knew how to use a compass and could produce angles. The verticality of the
structures and walls was perfectly maintained. The wells had trapezoidal bricks to
ensure that the soil pressure did not cave the walls in. Terracotta pulleys were used to
draw water.
Around 2500 BCE, the people built the largest hydraulic structure measuring some 15 m
in length 37 m in breath and 3 m deep, at Lothal. This dockyard was connected via a
canal to the river Bhogawo. At high tide the boats could enter this area. There was a
spillover channel to remove excess water via a sluice gate. This was the most important
port for trade outside the region.

With such a solid infrastructure in place it is obvious that industry and trade flourished.
The civilisation had very developed pyro and non- pyrotechnics for the production of
finished goods like pottery, bronze or copper alloyed tools, seeds, terracotta objects,
stone objects and carvings, cloth both cotton and silk, wooden tool and objects, beads
and jewelry and agricultural produce. The beauty of this civilisation is the homogeneity
of material culture over such a large civilisational area.
This civilisation was a trading state that prospered and had long-distance trade relations
with Mesopotamia and Egypt. They had a flourishing maritime tradition as indicated on
theseals engraved with ores and boats. Trade was both overland and overseas.
Numerous artefacts and ornaments produced here were popular in the Middle East and
the Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilisations, as a lot many are found during
excavations there. Much of the raw material came from hinterland through trading links
with outlying cultures. Bulk of the external trade was via river and sea craft. The boats
were made from wooden planks and reads. Remarkably, the designs on the various
seals and the present-day local boats in Gujarat are similar in design.
Agriculture, which was the basis of this civilization, was fine-tuned during this period.
This area consisted of two distinct agricultural zones. The black cotton soil of Gujarat
and Rajasthan and the alluvial soil in the Indus Saraswati region. The two different
agricultural zones gave a great deal of resilience to this civilisation. As the civilisation
flourished its population increased and so also its need for food and feed. This was taken
care of by the introduction of a double cropping system, sophisticated agricultural
implements and advanced agronomic practices. The double cropping system and many
of the agronomic practices are still followed and widely practiced in many parts of India.
When people have their basic needs met, then arts and crafts flourish in their cultures.
The trademark Harappan long and slender beads of carnelian, which was so prized in
Mesopotamia, were a work of art and skill, as drilling a lengthwise hole for the thread
entailed several days of hard work.

The drill bits were specially designed to make these holes. Other beads were made of
agate, amethyst, and turquoise and interwoven with discs and fillets of gold and silver,
which gave a great variety of ornaments. Bangles were another category of highly prized
ornaments. Some smaller sites were wholly dedicated to the bangle industry especially
in coastal areas of Gujarat where shell is very easily available. Even today in that part of
India, that’s Rajasthan and Gujarat, beads from where various semi-precious stones and
bangles of different materials are manufactured with great designs and colours.
Saraswatians had produced pottery in large quantities. These are the only objects which
have survived the vagaries of climate and time.
The pottery was generally red with black intricate designs painted on it and kiln fired.

Other crafts include wheel spun thread, woven into cloth both cotton and silk, stone and
ivory carvings, inlaid woodwork and decorative architecture. The smithies which were
located in the towns, purified the ingots of copper, mined in Rajasthan and Balochistan
and varied alloys created from it by the addition of tin (bronze), lead, nickel, zinc or
arsenic as required for the various final products. Bronze statues were cast with the ‘lost
wax’ technique – dancing girl shown below.
Terracota and Bronze female figurines Notice the ornaments adorned by the figurines.
Naturally enough the people of this civilisation had room for dancing, painting,
sculpture and music, as some evidence of stringed instruments and several statues in
frozen dance positions have been excavated. Drama is suggested by a number of
expensive masks and puppets. The people indulged in a possible predecessor of the
game of chess. Other kinds of gaming boards have come up at Harappa and Lothal; at
several sites they have found cubicle dies similar to the ones used today.
For the children there were toys like ox carts, spinning tops, marbles, rattles whistles
and they also had pets like dogs, birds and squirrels. Women too enjoyed a status of
some importance, as most of the terracotta figurines excavated are female forms in daily
occupation.

A terracotta toy cart

Terracotta figure depicting different yogic asanas
This civilization had developed a script too. But one of the persisting riddles is its
writing system. The script was fully developed at the start of the mature phase. Indus
signs, as they are called have been found carefully engraved on not only some 3500
steatite seals but also on hundreds of terracotta tablets, a few copper and silver pottery
and ornaments and other media. Unfortunately, none of the many attempts to decipher
the script has been acceptable to all concerned. That’s a very important aspect of this
civilization that remains close to us. The exact use and purpose of the seals is still an
enigma.
A typical seal, note the various animals surrounding the central figure seated in a
yogic pose - could be addressed as Pashupatinath.
In the daily life of ordinary citizens, that is the artisans, the civic workers, craftsmen, the
industrial workers, what stands out is the sense of care and organisation. This is not a
spectacular civilization, but there was certainly a sense of all pervading order in every
aspect of life.

The next question is who imposed this order and controlled access to raw material,
industrial trade and agriculture. Many scholars have expressed varied views but the
bottom line is that, whether it was an empire or a confederacy of chieftains or city states,
this civilisation displays an individuality of its own. It is based on decentralisation and
community- based distribution of powers. These two traits, any rural Indian of today,
can relate to easily. It also permitted regional variations, while integrating them to form
a very cohesive cultural framework. This unity in diversity, a third typical Indian trait
has had, had a very profound imprint on the history of this subcontinent.

“One of the most surprising aspects of the Indus civilization is that it seems to have been
a land without conflict. There are no signs of violence and no depictions of soldiers or
warfare in the Indus Art” as quoted by a British archaeologist Jane McIntosh in her book
on Indus civilization titled “A peaceful realm”.

Does this reflect in our present day psyche, of generally remaining passive and non-
aggressive?

This, an egalitarian, peaceful, orderly and diverse yet closely integrated civilisation that
was the Saraswati civilisation, disappeared without a trace? That’s just not possible.
Then, how did this civilization disintegrate? - What are the things we have inherited? So
we have to study the late phase. Another question that plagues us is, who are we? - The
descendants of this civilization or are we immigrants from Central Asia? We need to
find out the answers to these questions and that means one more part. So bear with me
and let’s find the answers together.
Notes:

1. The construction methodology used was what is today known as English

Bond System. One line of bricks placed horizontally and the next line
vertically.

2. OVERALL DISTRIBUTION OF SITES EXCAVATED TILL DATE

EARLY MATURE LATE

REGIONS OF THE SUBCONTINENT TOTAL
PHASE PHASE PHASE
SARASWATI BASIN 640 360 1378 2378
UTTAR PRADESH 2 32 10 44
HIMACHAL,JAMMU AND DELHI 1 4 5
GUJERAT 11 310 198 519
PAKISTAN'S INDUS 385 438 12 835

3. From Indus to Saraswati- Textbooks often state that Mohenjodaro and

Harappa were the first sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. That is not quite
correct - they can be said to be the cities where the epoch and nature of this
civilization was identified. Much before them another site had been
substantially explored - Kalibangan in northern Rajasthan on the left bank
of the Ghaggar river. - adapted from the book “The Lost River: On the trails
of Saraswati by Michel Danino.

4. Rakhi Garhi site with 550 hectares (1,400 acres; 5.5 km2;
2.1 sq mi) area is the largest IVC site in the world, which is about
double the size than that of next largest site Mohenjo Daro,
asserts Professor Dr. Vasant Shinde, Vice Chancellor of Deccan College and
in-charge of Rakhi Garhi excavation. He further informed about the 6,000
years old pre- Harappan IVC site and 5,000 years old human skeletons
found during the excavation, "the scientific data collected on the basis
excavations here have strongly pointed that Rakhi Garhi, a metropolis, was
perhaps the capital of its times about 5,000 years
ago. The scientists have, for the first time ever, succeeded in extracting DNA
from the skeletons of the Indus Valley Civilisation. We have collected
evidences of massive manufacturing and trade activities in this town, which
revealed the economic organisation and the foreign links of people here.
They had trade links with people in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Baluchistan and
even Afghanistan. The city flourished during the early Harappan era dating
back to around 3,300 BC and existed till 2000 BC. NASA and Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO) undertook the joint study of artifacts
found at Rakhi Garhi during 2011-16 excavations, estimated to be 6,000
years old, older than 3,500 years old Harappan civilization. NASA and
ISRO will also carry out a joint in-stu site inspection to verify the claims of
6,000 years old Pre-harappan phase of Rakhi Gahri IVC being the oldest
and largest civilization in the world, though the joint two month long
excavations by Haryana State Archaeology Department, Indian
Archaeological Society and National Museum in May 2017 at much smaller
nearby 7,570-6,200 BCE IVC site of Kunal were initially estimated to be
1,000 years older than Rakhi Garhi.
- Wikipedia.
5. The word Gauda or Goud may have been taken from
Ghaggar, with Goud and Saraswat having the same meaning that it is an
individual residing on the banks of river Saraswati. While these
Brahmins are only known as Saraswats in the vast region of
Kashmir, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Bengal, the term Gaud Saraswat
was applied to them by the natives after the former migrated to the
South. According to the Sahyadrikhanda of the Skanda Purana, ninety-
six Saraswat Brahmin families belonging to ten gotras
migrated to Goa from the Saraswati river basin, along with
Parashurama.
Recall

1. The excavated sites in the Saraswati Basin

2. ‘Gouda ‘or the northern region lying between the Saraswati and Sutlej had five
Brahmin clans, of these, one are the Saraswat Brahmins. They migrated to
Kashmir, Punjab in the north, to Karnataka and Kerala in the South. They have
a long preserved memory of having lived in the Saraswati Valley, till they were
forced to migrate due to the drying up of the river. Hence we see tradition lives
on. (From the part II -In Search of Saraswati.)
 THE HERITAGE OF THE SARASWATI
CIVILISATION

Evidence which has been collected during the last few decades has very clearly indicated
that the Saraswati – Indus civilisation did not come to an abrupt end. But, rather during
the period 1900 –1300 BCE, it split up into fragmented areas which were termed as the
“Localisation Era’ or the late Harappan phase...

Let us now examine and elaborate the continuity between the Saraswati culture and the
historical Gangetic region classical culture.

Excavations of historical urban centers in the Gangetic region have been very few and
limited, as many of them are buried under modern cities and are largely inaccessible.
Yet, the continuum between the urban planning and architecture like fortifications,
street layouts, worship places, individual houses, construction techniques, construction
materials and construction ratios show a lot of similarity. So also, the weights and
measures, art and craft, technology, agricultural practices, objects of daily use, toiletries,
ornaments, toys, games and navigation have shown similarities. The details are shown
in the table enclosed in Annexure II. Now let us look at things which are not covered in
the table namely the script, the religious practices and the religion.

The Indus script is the most exasperating riddle which is still unsolved; it is made up of
400 signs of which only 200 have been used more than five times. As I had said earlier
there are more than 4200 inscriptions, most of them on seals, tablets or pottery which
have been excavated. With the present state of information and knowledge it appears
that the script was born with the cities and faded away with them. The gap between the
disappearance, that is 1800 BCE, and the first historical script – Brahmi is about 1700
years. So what are the pointers for the possible transmission of the Indus writing to the
historical times?
The first step is the evolution of the script into simplified shapes – this is noticed in the
potsherds excavated at ‘Bet Dwarka’ which is in Saurashtra. The ‘Vikramhole’
inscriptions, in Orissa give us the link in the passage of letter forms from the Saraswati
script to the Brahmi script. Another big find is ‘Daemabad’ in the Godavari Valley in
Maharashtra. A large hoard of sculptures was found along with a horde of buttons seals
with inscriptions on it. This was again in the Localisation Era. An interesting find is at
‘Vaishali’ in Bihar which has grey round terracotta seal with three Indus signs slightly
simplified. It dates back to 600 BCE.
Many epigraphists have expressed the opinion, stating that the ancient script may have
ultimately developed into the Brahmi alphabet several centuries before the rise of the
Mauryas in the latter half of fourth century BCE. But as of today, the script is
undecipherable and a riddle.

To find more about the religious practices let us imagine ourselves boarding a time
machine and visiting the cities of this civilisation. What would strike us prominently is
the emphasis on personal hygiene specifically for the rituals. The public baths which we
would find there, would be similar to the water ‘Kunda’ of today, present at most of our
religious places. If we happen to join a procession there, the lights accompanying it on
its sides would be very similar to what we see today. The conch shells used for libations
and also for blowing when heralding something auspicious would be very familiar. We
would feel at home with symbols like the swastika, trident or Trishula, peepal leaf,
drawn on walls, seals, pottery et cetera. We would also find a Lingaa or a goddess
figurine similar to the ones we have seen in our lives in the present. These similarities
indicate the continuity in the religious practices.

If this culture was termed as pre-Aryan, then what are its similarities with the Vedic
culture? The ‘Bull’ which was present on many seals of the ancient culture finds a place
with various descriptions of the strength of gods in the Rig Veda. The mother goddess
continues in various forms as Saraswati, Prithvi, Ushas, Ila, Aditi, and Bharathi in the
Vedas. Shiva existed in the Rigveda as Rudra or sometimes fused with Soma. ‘Mahesho
mriganam’ the ‘Buffalo of wild beasts’ means the god wearing buffalo horns and
surrounded by wild beasts was depicted on some Indus seals. The Lord of Yoga or
‘Yogeshwar’ and also ‘Mahakaleshwar’ the Lord of time get represented on the seals of
this era. The above series of concepts and attributes are in consonance with those
classically associated with Shiva. Along with the presence of Lingaa shaped objects of
worship, the evidence of the cult of Shiva like deity in the Saraswati-Indus plains does
take a firm base.
Another important motif is the Unicorn seal from this civilisation. It can be related to
the Vishnu‘s first avatar the ‘Matsya’ or fish which saved Manu from the great floods
using its single horn on its head. Another avatar of Vishnu the ‘Varaha’ or boar is
sometimes called ‘Ekashringa’ or one horned, who raised the submerged earth from the
bottom of the ocean. The motif of a one horned, two horned or even more horns is not
foreign to Hindu mythology. So also many deities in the Vedas are described as one or
two or three horned. In the Vedas the horn is more than a mere glorifying device.

Two more elements of the Saraswati culture throw important bridges across the Vedic
night. The first was the fire worship and the second was the yogic practice. Fire temples
were found across all the settlements of the Saraswati plains. In fact, the Banavali’s fire
altar was identified by the Vedic scholars of today as ‘Dakshinagni’ the semicircular ones
and the other two square ones as ‘Ahavaniya’ and the circular one as ‘Grahapatya’.
In fact in Yajurveda these orders and specific usage is clearly mentioned, so also in the
‘Shatapatya Brahmanas.The fire altars were found in individual homes too. Many of
these altars had the terracotta ladles and jars alongside them. However, at Mohenjo
Daro or Harappa these altars are absent but mother goddess figurines are quite
common. We can safely assume that there was a certain regionalisation of this ancient
religion and it allowed diversity of practice. As far as yogic practices are concerned the
details have been already mentioned in the table. Rigveda does not use the term Yoga; it
does ask our thoughts to be harnessed or yoked to a higher consciousness; this is very
similar to what we know today as yogic practice.

The funeral practices were of several types. The dead were buried with feet facing south,
the Yama‘s direction. Sometimes they were cremated too. They did respect the dead,
but did not believe in glorifying them, hence the graves are devoid of any finery except a
few pots, and very seldom beaded necklaces and amulets. This culture did believe in the
afterlife, but they favoured life over death. This is a typical characteristic of Indian
attitude.

Looking at the above mentioned similarities between the ancient Saraswati Indus
culture, Vedic culture and the Gangetic culture and present-day India the old concept of
Vedic night stands rejected. Still, one must not forget that the Gangetic civilisation or
the historical age had its own innovations, from iron technology, to new architectural
concepts and an efflorescence of various art forms. But the overarching concept of
‘change in continuity’ still prevails and in spite of spectacular changes in course of time
till today, there has never been a definite gap or break in history of the subcontinent.

This puts forth a very pertinent question in our minds – where does the Aryan invasion
or migration fit into this whole narrative. Archaeological and literary evidence strongly
deny such an event, yet arguments have been raging in our country for the past seven
decades. Recent genetic studies give more clarity to the question as to who we are and
what is the origin; the detailed analysis is given in the appendix below. It is left to the
reader to draw his or her own conclusions.
The mosaic is now completed. We started with the Vedic literature which eulogises the
river Saraswati. We have collected pieces from the traditions, geology, archaeology,
climatology, satellite imagery, nuclear physics, and genetic studies to name a few. It has
brought forth a few points like the testimony of ancient texts cannot be brushed aside
nor can local traditions be scorned or ignored. The evidence of the existence of a mighty
river has been confirmed.

The growth of a civilisation from pastoral roots to a highly advanced organised structure
has been reaffirmed. The decimation of the once mighty river due to the abandonment
of its main tributaries was also proved. The collapse of the urban structure and the
migration of its people eastwards towards the Ganges, southwards towards the Aravalli
mountains and still further south to the Godavari and Narmada valleys and West ward
beyond Indus, was also emphasized in the ‘Localisation era’. The people who travelled
eastwards towards the Gangetic plains met with the population which was mainly
agrarian but they had techniques and skills of iron smelting. The people from the
Saraswati brought with them sophisticated urbanisation techniques, the bronze smelting
techniques, the pottery, the fire worship and its religious practices. And when these
people encountered the confluence of the rivers Yamuna and Ganga, old memories of
Saraswati were revived and they could not but name the confluence as ‘Triveni’- long ago
Yamuna was a part of Saraswati. Not only the Saraswati thus made to connect with the
Ganga, but in the course of the time many attributes of Saraswati were passed on to her.
Thus we complete a full circle.
 EPILOGUE

We started with the search for the lost river and now ended by reasoning out its
existence through its memories. It has been a long journey through several ups and
downs, with several controversies which are still raging – like the invasions or
migrations of Aryan from Central Asia, the origin of the Indian population et cetera.

I am not going to dwell on them as my quest for the ‘Saraswati’ ends here. . The reader is
free to draw his or her own conclusions from the various materials provided along with
this article.

I sincerely hope that I was able to express myself coherently so as to kindle a small
spark of interest in you.

Let me end with a ‘Sukta’ from Rigveda praising the river Saraswati.

May purifying Saraswati

With all the plentitude of its forms of plenty, Rich
in substance by the thought,
Desire our sacrifice.
She, inspires the true intuitions,
The awakener in consciousness to right thoughts, Saraswati,
upholds our sacrifice.
Saraswati by the perception Awakens in
consciousness the great flood And illumines
entirely all the thoughts.
– Rigveda
Notes:

Vedic Night: period between the decline of the Saraswati-Indus Urban Phase and the
rise of the Gangetic civilisation.

References: Michel Danino, Sanjeev Sanyal, Maj. Gen G.D. Bakshi

 APPENDIX - I
Similarities between the ancient Saraswati - Indus Civilization and the classical
historical civilization of the Gangetic plains and the continuity found all over India in
present times.
TANGIBLE SIMILARITIES

Description Places in Places in the Comments

Saraswati-Indus Gangetic Basin/
Basin other parts of India

I Town planning and public Architecture

a. Fortification and moats surrounding them.

Kalibangan, Mathura, Kautilya’s famous treatise on

Dholavira, Kaushambi, governance – ‘Arthashashtra’
Mohenjo-daro, Rajghat near written in 4th century BCE gives
Harrapa, Varanasi, Rajgir details of the same.
Banavali and and Vaishali in Ujjain’s fortification is 75m
other prominent Bihar, wide, 14m tall and ran a
cities. Shisgupalgarh in length of 5km.
Orisa, Ujjain near
Indore

b. Internal city planning based on grid plans

i. Layout of Kalibangan, Kaushambi, Thimi Direction and width

streets Dholavira near Kathmandu standardized. Specifics
mentioned in ‘Arthashastra’

ii. Garbage bins Many cities Taxila’s (

along the Takshashila) Bhir
streets mound

Iii Drainage Many cities Taxila, Hastinapur, Due to limited excavations

system Kaushambi, Mathura only drains of bake bricks and
and other cities parts of the sewage system has
been unearthed.

iv. Pillared halls Mohenjo-daro Pataliputra or

Patna.

v. Apsidal Banawali Atranjikhera about The ratios , shape and

Temple 90km east of Agra. layouts have been
maintained.

vi. House plan Al the towns Bhita near Central yard with rooms on
Allahabad. Still three sides and a wide
 and cities found in almost all entrance on the fourth
parts of rural India

vii. Construction
techniques

vii Flooring mixes Kalibangan Still found in A mixture of terracotta

a to keep the neighbouring pellets and charcoal.
moisture and villages, 4500 years
insects away later.

vii Pattern of four Mehrgarh, Pirak Abandoned houses in The niches were
b levels of niches Pakistan occupied by symmetrically arranged on
Hindus before the wall
partition.

vii Well All places Many sites even in Trapezoidal bricks

c south India

vii Construction Dholavira and Kaampilya ( Ratios pertaining to various

d Ratios of all other major DrupadKilla), structures including the
major sites. capital of Panchala. Mahavedi were specified in
structures Dholavira’s ( Drupad was the the ancient texts on geometry-
were fixed master ratio father of Draupadi Shulbhasutra a few centuries
was 5:4 for all from Mahabharata) later and also in Vastushastra
major and Brihat Samhita written by
structures. Varahmihira a couple
millennium later than
Dholavira,
A continuity between the
ancient civilsation, Vedic
concepts and classical town
planning becomes evident.
II Weights and Measures

Description Places in Places in the Gangetic Comments

Saraswati-Indus Basin/ other parts of
Basin India

a. Weights Shaped as cubes or Silver coins punch The ancient weights start from
truncated spheres marked with motifs below a gram and stop over
made of chert ( found in the Indo- 10kgs.with 14 stages in
sedimentary rock) Gangetic plains and between growing initially in a
or semi precious particularly in Taxila geometric progression till the
stones dated about 500 BCE, seventh part and then
weighed in much the multiples of lower weights.
same balances and much
the same sort of weights. Such a double series is also
described in Arthashastra ,
Even till the mid 20th with the smallest weight
century, they were used in ‘gunj’
traditional markets of
India and Pakistan.

b. Linear Scales found at Iron Pillar of Delhi is based Arthashastra

scales Lothal, Mohenjo- on angulas and dhanus.
daro, Harappa and And the cardinal ratio of 8 grains of barley =1 angula
most importantly 5:4 is evidenced between its
108 angulas = 1 dhanus or 1
at Kalibangan entire length and the
danda
portion above ground level.
This was made in 4th 1 dhanus = height of a tall
century CE. man as stated in Brihat
Samhita.
Sircap near Taxila Thimi
1 angula=1.76cm
near Kathmandu
10 division of Lothal scale =
1.78cms.

1 rajju= 10 dandas

1 paridesha=2 dandas.
III Technology and Craft

Description Places in Places in the Comments

Saraswati- Gangetic
Indus Basin Basin/ other
parts of India

a.. Bronze Practiced all Still used in

casting over the present
method of Saraswati – Tamilnadu
‘lost wax Indus plains
casting’

b. Blue glazed All over the Traditional Use the same copper oxide
ceramic ware ancient potters in pigments.
civilisation Western India

Bead making Near Lothal and Khambat in Techniques of drilling, bleaching and
Dholavira Kutch colouring long beads made from semi
precious stones.

c.. Bangle Sites in Gujerat Rajasthan and

making Gujarat

d. Working Various sites in All over India

with shells Kutch and other
and ivory parts of the
Saraswati basin

e. Articles of Many sites in Present India. Toiletry articles, frying pans,

daily use the ancient kamadalu, writing tablet - the
civilsation wooden takhti, game, children’s toys,
Ornaments like nose rings, earrings,
bangles, anklets, kamarbands,
Sindur in the hair parting. Amulets
worn by men on their right arm
IV Others

Description Places in Places in the Gangetic Comments

Saraswati-Indus Basin/ other parts of
Basin India

a Agriculture Various sites like Gangetic plains, Ox cart design remains the
Banawali or Punjab – Haryana- same. Agricultural practices
Kalibangan Rajastan remain same.

Plough share design is the

same except material has
changed

b Navigation Remains found at Today’s Sindhi boat on No remains of seafaring

Lothal and other the Indus has the same boats found.
internal ports shape

c Script Detailed analysis is given

below.
 INTANGIBLE SIMILARITIES

Description Places in Places in the Gangetic Basin/ Comments

Saraswati- other parts of India
Indus Basin

I Symbols and Motives - They bridge the gap between tangible and intangible

a. Swastika Hundreds of Depicted on pottery at several It symbolizes

Harrapan historical sites, punch marked coins, auspiciousness,
tablets Ashoka’sedicts and early harmony and
inscriptions and even today is growth.
considered auspicious.

b. Endless knot Typical In Gujarat, in several

common inscriptions of 9th century CE.
symbol
Today in rangoli’s( kolams) in
south India

c. Intersecting Pottery, floor Bodhi throne in Bodh Gaya

circles tiles dated 3rd century BCE.

d. Mythical Indus seals Historical coins with an

Unicorn facing a addition of elephant.
ritual stand

e. Pipal leaf and On seals Bodhi tree Pipal tree is regarded

tree as sacred even in Vedas
as ‘ashvattha’.
II Iconography

Description Places in Places in the Gangetic Comments

Saraswati-Indus Basin/ other parts of
Basin India

a. Pashupati Mohenjo-daro Common motif in Jain Yogic posture on a low

seal and many other and Buddhist platform, has three faces-
places. iconography similar to later Hindu gods,-
Yogeshwar and
Mahakaleshwar.

Tricorn head dress is reflected as

nandipada or triratna in many
Buddhistart and coins

b. Majestic Indus seals Precursor of Nandi , Shiva’s

humped moint.
bull

Mother Harrapan Mauran period Similar ornaments, flowers

Goddess Statuary statuettes garlands
figurines

c. Female Harappan deity Kinnari or Gandharvi

centaur

d. Standing Standing In classical art – a seated

god between Buddha or a standing
branches of Shiva between pipal
branches of branches of pipal tree.
pipal tree.

e. Art on Lothal Remain as folk tales Story of two crows and a fox.
pottery even today
sherds
III Yoga

Description Places in Saraswati- Places in the Comments

Indus Basin Gangetic
Basin/ other
parts of India

a Proto Mulbandhasana which helps to

Shiva awaken theKundalini

b Various Harappa, Mohenjo- Terracota figurines depicting

Asanas daro and Lothal asanas

c Namaskar Harrapan figure of a

man sitting cross
legged with hands
joined in Namaskar

d Priest Mohenjo-daro Half shut eyes looking fixedly at the

King tip of his nose in deep meditation.
Also called Shramana
– ascetic person rather than Priest
King.
 Appendix - II

The Genetic Analysis

Almost all genetic information that humans need is parked into 23 pairs of
chromosomes that lie within the nuclei of our cells. The only exception is the
microcondial DNA or Mt. DNA which stays outside the cell nucleus. This Mt. DNA
performs a critical function, as it contains a code which converts the chemical energy
from food into a force that the cell can use.

Mt.DNA is a powerhouse of a cell. No person can do without the Mt.DNA, however,

every woman can function without the Y chromosome. Mt.DNA is inherited from our
mothers. Fathers too have Mt.DNA inherited from their mother, but it is not passed
onto their offspring. They transmit the Y chromosome that comes exclusively from their
fathers. The sex pair of chromosomes can be XX female or XY mail. The migration
history of individuals and populations is tracked by the mutations that accumulate over
time and thus carry a track record of all that happened to the patrilineal/matrilineal
lineage of that person.

Whole genome analysis and sequence of the sequencing of the population gives a more
comprehensive observation.

A study of the ancient DNA of the people of a region throws light on its ancient ancestry.
In 2009 very eminent scientists from the US and India together concluded that the
initial settlement of humans took place in South Asia some 65,000 years ago. These
humans initially settled in the South and the Andaman Islands and became a group
called ancestral South Indians or ASI. Later, some 40,000 years ago the ancestral North
Indian population (ANI) emerged via the land route migrations. The origins of both
these populations was the same except that some came first and others later. Both these
groups mixed and formed the total Indian population. Therefore, there was nothing to
mark out the people of North and South India as genetically distinct and separate.
Now let us understand the significance of a haplogroup.

 In genetic terminology a haplogroup is a group of individuals that share a

common ancestor with a particular genetic mutation.
 Haplogroup pertains to a single line of descent which typically dates back
several thousands of years.
 A haplogroup therefore is a large extended family or clan, all of whom or whose
members have a shared ancestor.
 There are two types of haplogroups
i) Y- chromosomal patrilineal haplogroup
ii) Mt..DNA matrilinealhaplogroup
 These haplogroups are identified by letters of alphabets A, B, C et cetera. And the
subgroups are denoted by letters and numbers A1, A1a et cetera.
 The Y chromosomal or the patrilineal haplogroup R1a1a is also known as R– M17.
It is the world's most successful extended family with more than 1 billion
members. It is widespread across Eurasia, with high concentration in Russia,
Poland and Ukraine as well as the Indian subcontinent and the Tuva region in
Siberia.
  This haplogroup is identified to represent Indo-Aryan people. This means all
people have descended from one common male ancestor.
 In 2009 a research paper concluded that Indian population are genetically
unique & harbour second highest diversity after Africa.
 Next in 2010 a paper was published that ruled out any significant patrilineal gene
inflow from East Europe to Asia including India at least till mid Holocene period
that is 7000 to 5000 years ago. This suggests that the R1a movement, if any, had
taken place around 7000 to 5000 years ago and not thereafter.
 A research paper published in 2013 states that there was no major gene inflow
into India from outside in the last 12,500 years as the Mt.DNA reveals.
 There have also been migrations of Austro Asiatic speakers as the Munda but the
time horizon of the migration is indeterminate.
 Finally, there is the migration of Tibeto- Burmese speakers like the Garos who
migrated from East Asia but again the age of their arrival is indeterminate. But it
is said they brought the knowledge of rice cultivation to India.
 A study published in 2015 substantiates the findings of previous scientists and
scholars and claims that the oldest samples of the haplogroup R1a are found in
the Indian subcontinent and are approximately 15,450 years old.

To understand details of genetic studies of Indian population please listen

 Dr. GyaneshwarChaubey’s lecture The link
to the lecture is given below.
भारतीयमूलकीएकयात्रा - आनु वाांशिक (DNA) आधार | The
Narrative
https://youtu.be/WXoR6JRch68

 Prof. Dr. Vasant Shinde from Deccan College Pune, explains about his find at
Rakhigarhi
Man who cracked India's oldest DNA speaks to NewsX.
https://youtu.be/3rF_HMoZ3mQ