BEE 2202: Electrical Measurements

Semester II: Year 2020/2021

Faculty of Technology, Kabale University
Bachelor of Electrical Engineering

Measuring of resistance
1. Introduction
Resistors are used in many places in electrical circuits to perform a variety of useful tasks.
Properties of resistances play an important role in determining performance specifications for
various circuit elements including coils, windings, insulations, etc. It is important in many cases
to have reasonably accurate information of the magnitude of resistance present in the circuit for
analysing its behaviour. Measurement of resistance is thus one of the very basic requirements
in many working circuits, machines, transformers, and meters. Apart from these applications,
resistors are used as standards for the measurement of other unknown resistances and for the
determination of unknown inductance and capacitance. From the point of view of measurement,
resistances can be classified as follows:

Low Resistances

All resistances of the order less than 1 Ω may be classified as low resistances. In
practice, such resistances can be found in the copper winding in armatures,
ammeter shunts, contacts, switches, etc.

Medium Resistances

Resistances in the range 1 Ω to 100 kΩ may be classified as medium resistances. Most

of the electrical apparatus used in practice, electronic circuits, carbon resistance and
metal-film resistors are found to have resistance values lying in this range.

High Resistances

Resistances higher than 100 kΩ are classified as high resistances. Insulation resistances
in electrical equipment are expected to have resistances above this range.
The above classifications are, however, not rigid, but only form a guideline for the
method of measurement to be adopted, which may be different for different cases.

Measurement of medium resistance

The different methods for measurement of medium range resistances are (i)
ohmmeter method, (ii) voltmeter–ammeter method, (iii) substitution method, and
(iv) Wheatstone-bridge method
 Ohmmeter Method for Measuring Resistance
Ohmmeters are convenient direct reading devices for measurement of approximate
resistance of circuit components without concerning too much about accuracy. This
instrument is, however, very popular in the sense that it can give quick and direct readings
for resistance values without any precise adjustments requirements from the operator.
Series-type Ohmmeter
Figure 1 shows the elements of a simple single-range series-type ohmmeter.

Figure 1. Single-range series ohmmeter

The series-type ohmmeter consists basically of a sensitive dc measuring
permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) ammeter connected in parallel with a
variable shunt R2. This parallel circuit is connected in series with a current limiting
resistance R1 and a battery of emf E. The entire arrangement is connected to a
pair of terminals (A–B) to which the unknown resistance Rx to be measured is
connected.
Before actual readings are taken, the terminals A–B must be shorted together. At this
position with Rx = 0, maximum current flows through the meter. The shunt resistance R 2 is
adjusted so that the meter deflects corresponding to its right most full scale deflection
(FSD) position. The FSD position of the pointer is marked ‘zero-resistance’, i.e., 0 Ω on the
scale. On the other hand, when the terminals A–B are kept open (Rx→∞), no current flows
through the meter and the pointer corresponds to the left most zero current position on the
scale. This position of the pointer is marked as ‘∞Ω’ on the scale. Thus, the meter will read
infinite resistance at zero current position and zero resistance at full-scale current position.
Series ohmmeters thus have ‘0’ mark at the extreme right and ‘∞’ mark at the extreme left
of scale (opposite to those for ammeters and voltmeters).
The main difficulty is the fact that ohmmeters are usually powered by batteries, and the
battery voltage gradually changes with use and age. The shunt resistance R2 is used in
such cases to counteract this effect and ensure proper zero setting at all times.

For zero setting, Rx = 0, where Rm = internal resistance of the basic PMMC meter coil

The current I2 can be adjusted by varying R2 so that the meter current Im can be held at
its calibrated value when the main current I1 changes due to drop in the battery emf E.
If R2 were not present, then it would also have been possible to bring the
pointer to full scale by adjustment of the series resistance R1, but this would
have changed the calibration all along the scale and cause large error.

Electrical equivalent circuit of a series-type ohmmeter is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Electrical equivalent circuit of a series-type ohmmeter

Internal resistance of the ohmmeter

2. Shunt-type Ohmmeter

Figure 3 shows the schematic diagram of a simple shunt-type ohmmeter. The shunt-
type ohmmeter consists of a battery in series with an adjustable resistance R1 and a
sensitive dc measuring PMMC ammeter. The unknown resistance Rx to be measured
is connected across terminals A–B and parallel with the meter.
 Figure 3. Shunt-type ohmmeter

When the terminals A–B are shorted (Rx = 0), the meter current is zero, since all the
current in the circuit passes through the short circuited path A–B, rather than the meter.
This position of the pointer is marked ‘zero-resistance’, i.e., ‘0 Ω’ on the scale. On the
other hand, when Rx is removed, i.e., the terminals A–B open circuited (Rx→∞), entire
current flows through the meter. Selecting proper value of R1, this maximum current
position of the pointer can be made to read full scale of the meter. This position of the
pointer is marked as ‘∞Ω’ on the scale. Shunt type ohmmeters, accordingly, has ‘0
Ω’ at the left most position corresponding to zero current, and ‘∞Ω’ at the rightmost
end of the scale corresponding to FSD current.
When not under measurement, i.e., nothing is connected across the
terminals A–B (Rx →∞) the battery always drives FSD current through the
meter. It is thus essential to disconnect the battery from rest of the circuit
when the meter is idle. A switch S, as shown in Figure 3, is thus needed to
prevent the battery from draining out when the instrument is not in use.
Internal resistance of the ohmmeter

With terminals A–B open, the full-scale current through the meter is

With Rx connected between terminals A-B, the current out of the battery is

Thus, meter current

Example 1
A shunt-type ohmmeter uses a 2mA basic d’Arsonval movement with an internal
resistance of 25 Ω. The battery emf is 1.5 V.

Calculate (a) value of the resistor in series with the battery to adjust the FSD, and (b) at
what point (percentage) of full-scale will 100 Ω be marked on the scale?

Solution Schematic diagram of a shunt type-ohmmeter under the condition as stated in

Example 1 is shown below;

FSD when terminals A–B is opened, meter FSD current is

When Rx = 100Ω, battery output current will be

meter current is
Thus, percentage of full scale at which the meter would read 100 Ω is
Voltmeter–Ammeter Method for Measuring Resistance
The voltmeter–ammeter method is a direct application of ohm’s law in which the
unknown resistance is estimated by measurement of current (I) flowing through it
and the voltage drop (V) across it. Then measured value of the resistance is

This method is very simple and popular since the instruments required for
measurement are usually easily available in the laboratory. Two types of
connections are employed for voltmeter–ammeter method as shown in Figure 4

Figure 4. Measurement of resistance by voltmeter–ammeter method

Rx = true value of unknown resistance

Rm = measured value of unknown resistance
Ra = internal resistance of ammeter
RV = internal resistance of voltmeter

It is desired that in both the cases shown in Figure 4, the measured resistance Rm would
be equal to the true value Rx of the unknown resistance. This is only possible, as we will
see, if the ammeter resistance is zero and the voltmeter resistance is infinite.

Case A

In this circuit, the ammeter is connected directly with the unknown resistance, but the
voltmeter is connected across the series combination of ammeter and the resistance Rx.
The ammeter measures the true value of current through the resistance but the voltmeter
does not measure the true value of voltage across the resistance. The voltmeter measures
the sum of voltage drops across the ammeter and the unknown resistance Rx.
 Let, voltmeter reading = V
And, ammeter reading = I

measured value of resistance

However, V = Va + Vr
or, V = I × Ra + I × Rx = I × (Ra + Rx)
Thus,
The measured value Rm of the unknown resistance is thus higher than the true value R,
by the quantity Ra, internal resistance of the ammeter. It is also clear from the above that
true value is equal to the measured value only if the ammeter resistance is zero.

Error in measurement is
Equation above denotes the fact that error in measurement using connection method

shown in Case A will be negligible only if the ratio . In other words, if the resistance
under measurement is much higher as compared to the ammeter resistance (Ra.), then
the connection method shown in Case A can be employed without involving much error.
Therefore, circuit shown in Case A should be used for measurement of high
resistance values.

Case B

In this circuit, the voltmeter is connected directly across the unknown resistance,
but the ammeter is connected in series with the parallel combination of voltmeter
and the resistance Rx. The voltmeter thus measures the true value of voltage drop
across the resistance but the ammeter does not measure the true value of current
through the resistance. The ammeter measures the summation of current flowing
through the voltmeter and the unknown resistance Rx.
Let, voltmeter reading = V
And, ammeter reading = I
Thus, V=IR×RX=IV×RV
However, I=IV+IR
measured value of resistance
 The measured value Rm of the unknown resistance is thus lower than the true value
Rx by a quantity related to internal resistance of the voltmeter. It is also clear from Eq.

above that true value is equal to the measured value only if the quantity , i.e., if
voltmeter resistance is infinite. In other words, if the voltmeter resistance is much
higher as compared to the resistance under measurement (RV >> RA) then the
connection method shown in Case B can be employed without involving much error.
Therefore, circuit shown in Case B should be used for measurement of low
resistance values.

A voltmeter of 600 Ω resistance and a milliammeter of 0.8 resistance are used to

measure two unknown resistances by voltmeter–ammeter method. If the voltmeter
reads 40 V and milliammeter reads 120 mA in both the cases, calculate the percentage
error in the values of measured resistances if (a) in the first case, the voltmeter is put
across the resistance and the milliammeter connected in series with the supply, and (b) in
the second case, the voltmeter is connected in the supply side and milliammeter
connected directly in series with the resistance.

Solution The connections are shown in the following figure.

Voltmeter reading V = 40 V
Ammeter reading I = 120 mA
measured resistance from voltmeter
and I ammeter readings is given by

The ammeter reads the current flowing IR through the resistance Rx and also
the current IV through the voltmeter resistance RV.
Thus, I=IV+IR
Now, the voltmeter and the resistance Rx being in parallel, the voltmeter
reading is given by
V=IR×RX=IV×RV
 Current through voltmeter

true current through resistance IR = I - IV = 120-66.67 = 55.33 mA

true value of resistance

Thus, percentage error

The connections are shown in the following figure.
Voltmeter reading V = 40V
Ammeter reading, I = 120 mA
measured resistance from voltmeter and ammeter readings is given by

Voltmeter reads the voltage drop Vr across the resistance Rx and also the
voltage drop Va across the ammeter resistance Ra.
Thus, V = Va + Vr
Voltage drop across ammeter
-3
Va = I × Ra = 120 × 10 × 0.8 = 0.096 V
true voltage drop across the resistance
Vr = V - Va = 40 – 0.096 × 39.904 V

true value of resistance

Percentage error in measurement is

Substitution Method for Measuring Resistance
The connection diagram for the substitution method is shown in Figure 5.
In this method the unknown resistance Rx is measured with respect to the standard
variable resistance S. The circuit also contains a steady voltage source V, a
regulating resistance r and an ammeter. A switch is there to connect Rx and S in
the circuit alternately.
To start with, the switch is connected in position 1, so that the unknown resistance Rx gets
included in the circuit. At this condition, the regulating resistance r is adjusted so that the
ammeter pointer comes to a specified location on the scale. Next, the switch is thrown to
position 2, so that the standard resistance S comes into circuit in place of Rx. Settings in the
regulating resistance are not changed. The standard variable resistance S is varied till
ammeter pointer reaches the same location on scale as was with Rx. The value of the
standard resistance S at this position is noted from its dial. Assuming that the battery emf
has not changed and also since the value of r is kept same in both the cases, the current
has been kept at the same value while substituting one resistance with another one. The
two resistances thus, must be equal. Hence, value of the unknown resistance Rx can be
estimated from dial settings of the standard resistance S.

Figure 5 Substitution method

Accuracy of this method depends on whether the battery emf remains constant
between the two measurements. Also, other resistances in the circuit excepting R
and S should also not change during the course of measurement. Readings must
be taken fairly quickly so that temperature effects do not change circuit resistances
appreciably. Measurement accuracy also depends on sensitivity of the ammeter
and also on the accuracy of the standard resistance S.
Wheatstone Bridge for Measuring Resistance
The Wheatstone bridge is the most commonly used circuit for measurement of
medium-range resistances. The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistance
arms, together with a battery (voltage source) and a galvanometer (null detector).
The circuit is shown in Figure 6

Figure 6 Wheatstone bridge for measurement of resistance

In the bridge circuit, R3 and R4 are two fixed known resistances, R2 is a known variable
resistance and RX is the unknown resistance to be measured. Under operating conditions,
current ID through the galvanometer will depend on the difference in potential between
nodes B and C. A bridge balance condition is achieved by varying the resistance R2 and
checking whether the galvanometer pointer is resting at its zero position. At balance, no
current flows through the galvanometer. This means that at balance, potentials at nodes B
and C are equal. In other words, at balance the following conditions are satisfied:
The detector current is zero, i.e., 1D = 0 and thus I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
Potentials at node B and C are same, i.e., VB = VC, or in other words, voltage drop in the arm
AB equals the voltage drop across the arm AC, i.e., VAB = VAC and voltage drop in the arm BD
equals the voltage drop across the arm CD, i.e., VBD = VCD

From the relation VAB = VAC we have I1 × Rx = I2 × R2

At balanced ‘null’ position, since the galvanometer carries no current, it as if acts
as if open circuited, thus

Thus, measurement of the unknown resistance is made in terms of three known

resistances. The arms BD and CD containing the fixed resistances R3 and R4 are
called the ratio arms. The arm AC containing the known variable resistance R2 is
called the standard arm. The range of the resistance value that can be measured by
the bridge can be increased simply by increasing the ratio R3/R4.

Four arms of a Wheatstone bridge are as follows: AB = 100 Ω, BC = 10 Ω, CD =

4 Ω, DA = 50 Ω. A galvanometer with internal resistance of 20 Ω is connected
between BD, while a battery of 10-V dc is connected between AC. Find the current
through the galvanometer. Find the value of the resistance to be put on the arm
DA so that the bridge is balanced
Solution Configuration of the bridge with the values given in the example is as
shown below:
To find out current through the galvanometer, it is required to find out Thevenin
equivalent voltage across nodes BD and also the Thevenin equivalent resistance
between terminals BD.
To find out Thevenin’s equivalent voltage across BD, the galvanometer is open
circuited, and the circuit then looks like the figure given below.
At this condition, voltage drop across the arm BC is given by
 Voltage drop across the arm DC is given by:

Hence, voltage difference between the nodes B and D, or the Thevenin

equivalent voltage between nodes B and D is
VTH = VBD = VB – VD = VBC – VDC = 0.91 - 0.74 = 0.17 V
To obtain the Thevenin equivalent resistance between nodes B and D, the 10V
source need to be shorted, and the circuit looks like the figure given below.

The Thevenin equivalent resistance between the nodes B and D is thus

Hence, current through galvanometer is

In order to balance the bridge, there should be no current through the

galvanometer, or in other words, nodes B and D must be at the same potential.
Balance equation is thus
Example 2; The four arms of a Wheatstone bridge are as follows: AB = 100 Ω, BC
= 1000 Ω, CD = 4000 Ω, DA = 400 Ω. A galvanometer with internal resistance of
100 Ω and sensitivity of 10 mm/μA is connected between AC, while a battery of 4
V dc is connected between BD. Calculate the current through the galvanometer
and its deflection if the resistance of arm DA is changed from 400 Ω to 401 Ω.
Solution Configuration of the bridge with the values given in the example is as
shown below:
To find out current through the galvanometer, it is required to find out the Thevenin
equivalent voltage across nodes AC and also the Thevenin equivalent resistance
between terminals AC.
To find out Thevenin equivalent voltage across AC, the galvanometer is open
circuited. At this condition, voltage drop across the arm AB is given by

Voltage drop across the arm CB is given by

Hence, voltage difference between the nodes A and C, or the Thevenin equivalent
voltage between nodes A and C is
VTH = VAC = VA – VC = VAB – VCB = 0.798 – 0.8 = –0.002 V
To obtain the Thevenin equivalent resistance between nodes A and C, the 10 V
source need to be shorted. Under this condition, the Thevenin equivalent
resistance between the nodes A and C is thus
Hence, current through the galvanometer is

Deflection of the galvanometer

= Sensitivity × Current = 10 mm/µA = 2.04 µA = 20.4 mm

Measurement of low resistances.

The methods used for measurement of medium resistances are not suitable for
measurement of low resistances. This is due to the fact that resistances of leads and
contacts, though small, are appreciable in comparison to the low resistances under
measurement. For example, a contact resistance of 0.001 Ω causes a negligible error
when a medium resistance of value say, 100 Ω is being measured, but the same contact
resistance would cause an error of 10% while measuring a low resistance of value 0. 01
Ω. Hence special type of construction and techniques need to be used for measurement
of low resistances to avoid errors due to leads and contacts. The different methods used
for measurement of low range resistances are (i) voltmeter–ammeter method, (iii)
Kelvin’s double-bridge method, and (iv) potentiometer method.
Assignment – write about the Kelvin’s double bridge methods

Voltmeter–Ammeter Method for Measuring Low Resistance

In principle, the voltmeter–ammeter method for measurement of low resistance is very
similar to the one used for measurement of medium resistances. This method, due to its
simplicity, is very commonly used for measurement of low resistances when accuracy of the
order of 1% is sufficient. The resistance elements, to be used for such measurements,
however, need to be of special construction. Low resistances are constructed with four
terminals as shown in figure below
 One pair of terminals CC’, called the current terminals, is used to lead current to
and from the resistor. The voltage drop across the resistance is measured between
the other pair of terminals PP’, called the potential terminals. The voltage indicated
by the voltmeter is thus simply the voltage drop of the resistor across the potential
terminals PP’ and does not include any contact resistance drop that may be
present at the current terminals CC’.
Contact drop at the potential terminals PP’ are, however, less itself, since the
currents passing through these contacts are extremely small (even zero under ‘null’
balance condition) owing to high resistance involved in the potential circuit. In
addition to that, since the potential circuit has a high resistance voltmeter in it, any
contact resistance drop in the potential terminals PP’ will be negligible with respect
to the high resistances involved in the potential circuit.
Value of the unknown resistance RX in this case is given by

Precise measurement in this method requires that the voltmeter resistance to be

appreciably high, otherwise the voltmeter current will be an appreciable fraction of
the current actually flowing through the ammeter, and a serious error may be
introduced in this account.

Potentiometer Method for Measuring Low Resistance

The circuit for measurement of low value resistance with a potentiometer is shown
in Figure 7 below

Figure 7 Measurement of low resistance using potentiometer

The unknown resistance X is connected in series with a standard known resistance S.
Current through the ammeter in the circuit is controlled by a rheostat. A two-pole double
throw switch is used. When the switch is in the position 1-1’, the unknown resistance X gets
connected to the potentiometer, whereas when the switch is at position 2-2’, the standard
resistance S gets connected to the potentiometer.
Potentiometers are believed to give reasonably accurate values of potentials. Thus, with
the switch in position 1-1’, the potentiometer reading is the voltage drop across the
unknown resistance, given by
𝑽𝑿 = 𝑰 × 𝑿
 Without changing any of the circuit parameters, now if the switch is thrown to position 2-
2’, potentiometer now reads the voltage drop across the standard resistance, given by

𝑽𝑺 = 𝑰 × 𝑺

From the above 2 equations we get

𝑽𝑿
𝑿= ×𝑺
𝑽𝑺

Knowledge of accurate value of the standard resistance S can thus give

reasonably accurate values of the unknown resistance X.
Accuracy of this method however, depends on the assumption that the value of current
remains absolutely constant during the two sets of measurements. Therefore, an
extremely stabilised dc power supply is required in this method.

Value of the standard resistor S should be of the same order as the unknown resistance X.
The ammeter inserted in the circuit has no other function rather than simply indicating
whether there is any current is flowing in the circuit is not. Exact value of the current is not
required for final calculations. It is however, desired that the current flowing through the
circuit be so adjusted that the voltage drop across each resistor is of the order of 1 V to be
suitable for accurate measurement by commercially available potentiometers.

Measurement of high resistance

High resistances of the order of several hundreds and thousands of meghoms
(MΩ) are often encountered in electrical equipment in the form of insulation
resistance of machines and cables, leakage resistance of capacitors, volume and
surface resistivity of different insulation materials and structures.

Difficulties in Measurement of High Resistance

Since the resistance under measurement has very high value, very small currents
are encountered in the measurement circuit. Adequate precautions and care need
to be taken to measure such low value currents.
Surface leakage is the main difficulty encountered while measurement of high resistances. The
resistivity of the resistance under measurement may be high enough to impede flow of current
through it, but due to moisture, dust, etc., the surface of the resistor may provide a lower
resistance path for the current to pass between the two measuring electrodes. In other words,
there may thus be a leakage through the surface. Leakage paths not only pollute the test results,
but also are generally variable from day to day, depending on temperature and humidity
conditions.
The effect of leakage paths on measurements can be eliminated by the use of
guard circuits as described by Figure 8.
Figure 8 (a) shows a high resistance RX being mounted on a piece of insulation
block. A battery along with a voltmeter and a micro-ammeter are used to measure the
resistance by voltmeter–ammeter method. The resistance RX under measurement is fitted
on the insulating block at the two binding posts A and B. IX is the actual current flowing
through the high resistance and IL is the surface leakage current flowing over the body of
the insulating block. The micro-ammeter, in this case, thus reads the actual current through
the resistor, and also the leakage current (I = IX + IL.). Measured value of the resistance,
thus computed from the ratio E/I, will not be the true value of RX, but will involve some error.
To avoid this error, a guard arrangement has been added in Figure 8 (b). The guard
arrangement, at one end is connected to the battery side of the micro-ammeter, and the
other end is wrapped over the insulating body and surrounds the resistance terminal A. The
surface leakage current now, flows through this guard and bypasses the micro-ammeter.
The micro-ammeter thus reads the true of current IX through the resistance RX.
This arrangement thus allows correct determination of the resistance value from
the readings of voltmeter and micro-ammeter.

Figure 8 Guard circuit for measurement of high resistance: (a) Circuit without guard (b) Circuit with guard

Due to electrostatic effects, stray charges may be induced in the measuring circuit.
Flow of these stray charges can constitute a current that can be comparable in
magnitude with the low value current under measurement in high resistance
circuits. This may thus, cause errors in measurement. External alternating
electromagnetic fields can also affect the measurement considerably. Therefore,
the measuring circuit needs to be carefully screened to protect it against such
external electrostatic or electromagnetic effects.
While measuring insulation resistance, the test object often has considerable amount of
capacitance as well. On switching on the dc power supply, a large charging current
may flow initially through the circuit, which gradually decays down. This initial transient
current may introduce errors in measurement unless considerable time is provided
between application of the voltage supply and reading the measurement, so that the
charging current gets sufficient time to die down.
High resistance measurement results are also affected by changes in
temperature, humidity and applied voltage inaccuracies.
 Reasonably high voltages are used for measurement of high resistances in order
to raise the current to substantial values in order to be measured, which are
otherwise extremely low. So, the associated sensitive galvanometers and micro-
ammeters need to be adequately protected against such high voltages.
Taking these factors into account, the most well-known methods of high
resistance measurement is megohmmeter or meggar.

Megohmmeter, or Meggar, for High Resistance Measurement

One of the most popular portable type insulation resistance measuring instruments
is the megohmmeter or in short, meggar. The meggar is used very commonly for
measurement of insulation resistance of electrical machines, insulators, bushings,
etc. Internal diagram of a meggar is shown in Figure 9.
The traditional analog deflecting-type meggar is essentially a permanent magnet
crossed-coil shunt type ohmmeter. The instrument has a small permanent magnet
dc generator developing 500 V dc (some other models also have 100 V, 250 V, 1000
or 2500 V generators). The generator is hand driven, through gear arrangements, and
through a centrifugally controlled clutch switch which slips at a predefined speed so
that a constant voltage can be developed. Some meggars also have rectified ac as
power supply.

Figure 9 Meggar for high resistance measurement

The moving system in such instruments consists of two coils, the control coil CC and the
deflecting coil CD. Both the coils are mounted rigidly on a shaft that carries the pointer as
well. The two coils move in the air gap of a permanent magnet. The two coils are arranged
with such numbers of turns, radii of action, and connected across the generator with such
polarities that, for external magnetic fields of uniform intensity, the torque produced by the
individual coils are in opposition thus giving an astatic combination. The deflecting coil is
connected in series with the unknown resistance RX under measurement, a fixed resistor
RD and then the generator. The current coil or the compensating coil, along with the fixed
resistance RC is connected directly across the generator. For any value of the unknown, the
coils and the pointer take up a final steady position such that the torques of the two coils are
equal and balanced against each other.
 For example, when the resistance RX under measurement is removed, i.e., the test
terminals are open-circuited, no current flows through the deflecting coil CD, but maximum
current will flow through the control coil CC. The control coil CC thus sets itself perpendicular
to the magnetic axis with the pointer indicating ‘∞ Ω’ as marked in the scale shown in Figure
9. As the value of RX is brought down from open circuit condition, more and more current
flows through the deflecting coil CD, and the pointer moves away from the ‘∞ Ω’ mark
clockwise (according to Figure 9) on the scale, and ultimately reaches the ‘0 Ω’
mark when the two test terminals are short circuited.
The surface leakage problem is taken care of by the guard-wire arrangement. The
guard ring (GR in Figure 9) and the guard wire diverts the surface leakage current
from reaching the main moving system and interfering with its performance.
Photographs of some commercially available meggars are shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10 Commercial meggars: (a) Analog type (Courtesy, WACO) (b) Digital type (Courtesy, Yokogawa)