Page 283 Activity: Determining the number of Page 294 Experiment: Reactions between halogens

valence electrons and electron configuration and halides

1. Molecular chlorine cannot displace the chloride ion
Element Group Period Electron Valence
number number con- electrons
from solution as they are the same element.
figuration 2. In the reaction between chlorine and potassium
Lithium 1 2 [2,1] 1 bromide, the colour change observed is from
Magnesium 2 3 [2,8,2] 2 yellow/green to a red/brown, indicating a reaction
Aluminium 13 3 [2,8,3] 3 has occurred and bromine has been formed.
Carbon 14 2 [2,4] 4 In the reaction between chlorine and potassium
Nitrogen 15 2 [2,5] 5 iodide, the colour change observed is from
Sulphur 16 3 [2,8,6] 6 yellow/green to a dark brown, indicating that a
Fluorine 17 2 [2,7] 7 reaction has occurred and iodine has been formed.
Argon 18 3 [2,8,8] 8 In the reaction between bromine and potassium
iodide, the colour change observed is from
Page 287 Electron configuration red/brown to dark brown, indicating that a reaction
1. a) 1s22s22p63s1 has occurred and iodine has been formed.
b) 1s22s22p63s23p1 All the remaining combinations do not result in a
c) 1s22s22p63s23p5 reaction.
d) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d3 3. Cl2(aq) + 2KBr(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2KCl(aq)
Cl2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → I2(aq) + 2KCl(aq)
e) 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10 Br2(aq) + 2KI(aq) → I2(aq) + 2KBr(aq)
f) 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5 4. Cl > Br > I
g) 1s22s22p6 5. Cl2(aq) + 2Br–(aq) → Br2(aq) + 2Cl–(aq)
h) 1s22s22p6 Cl2(aq) + 2I–(aq) → I2(aq) + 2Cl–(aq)
i) 1s22s22p63s23p6 Br2(aq) + 2I–(aq) → I2(aq) + 2Br–(aq)
j) 1s22s22p63s23p6
Page 295 Do the elements of a period exhibit a
Page 288 What does the ionization energy of an pattern of acid-base properties?
element represent? 1. Sodium oxide is acting as a basic oxide; aluminium
1. The lower the ionization energy of an element, the oxide is amphoteric and can act as both a basic and
more able it is to share electrons, which indicates acidic oxide; sulfur dioxide is acting as an acidic
higher reactivity. oxide; the general trend across period 3 of the
2. The size of the effective nuclear charge (which periodic table is a change from basic to acidic
depends on the group number) and the level of oxides.
shielding provided by the electron shells (which
depends on the period number).
Page 296 The reaction of metal and non-metal
Page 288 Activity: What is shielding? oxides and water
1. The charge on the nucleus increases. 1,2,3.
Name Symbol Flame Initial Final Acidic pH Metal or
colour colour colour or basic non-metal
Charcoal C Little of Black Black Acidic 4–5 Non-metal
no flame
Sodium Na Red Gray Gray Basic 14 Metal
Magnesium Mg White Shiny Gray Basic 8–10 Metal
silver
Steel wool Fe Yellow Gray Gray Basic 5–6 Metal
Sulfur S Blue Yellow Red Acidic 3–4 Non-metal

4. The acidity of oxides increases across a period, with

non-metallic oxides more acidic than metallic oxides.

© Oxford University Press 2018 1

Summative assessment
Patterns in physical and chemical properties
1. Hydrogen, lithium, sodium and potassium have the lowest first ionization
energies; they are all members of group 1, the alkali metals.

2. Alkali metal elements have one valence electron in the outermost electron shell;
the shielding effect of the core electrons means that the valence electron is
weakly attracted to the positively charged nucleus; Group 1 metals like to lose
the one valence electron to obtain a stable noble gas configuration which is
equivalent to a full outer electron shell.

3. a) Helium, neon, argon and fluorine have the highest first ionization energies.
Helium, neon and argon are all in group 18, with eight valence electrons,
and fluorine is in group 17, with seven valence electrons.
b) As you move across a period the effective nuclear charge increases as the
number of protons in the nucleus increases while electrons are filling
orbitals of the same energy level; the valence electrons of the noble gases
are strongly attracted to the nucleus and these elements are very stable
and tend not to lose or gain electrons.

4. a) As you move down a group, the first ionization energy of an element

decreases.
b) The atomic radii of an atom increases as you move down a group; the level
of shielding of the valence electrons by core electrons increases as you
move down a group; the combination of these two factors means that the
attraction between the positive nucleus and the valence electrons
decreases down the group, and therefore the ionization energy decreases.

5. There is an increase in melting point of the first three metals (Na, Mg, Al) as the
strength of metallic bonding increases; the sudden increase in melting point for
silicon is due to the fact that this is a giant covalent structure with very high
melting points and boiling points due to the strong covalent bonding; the large
decrease in melting points of the final elements of period 3 is due to the fact that
these elements (P, S, Cl, Ar) are simple molecular substances which are held
together by weak intermolecular forces between the molecules.

6. Metals tend to have high melting points and boiling points as a result of strong
metallic bonding; and are solids at room temperature (except for mercury);
non-metals are mainly gases and liquids at room temperature as a change in
state for a molecular compound involves the breaking of weak intermolecular
forces between the molecules.

7. Group 14 has the maximum values for melting points; the elements carbon
(diamond and graphite) and silicon exist as giant covalent lattice structures; the
very high melting points are a consequence of the large number of strong
covalent bonds within the structure.

Patterns in the thermal conductivity of a metal

8. Answers to this question will vary. Any plausible hypothesis that can be
supported by the accepted scientific context is acceptable.

9. Independent variable: type of metal; dependent variable: thermal

conductivity/time taken for the thumbtack to drop; control variables: length of
metal rod, position of the Bunsen burner flame on the metal rod, cross-
sectional area of the rod.

10. The methodology suggests that only one trial is undertaken for each of the four
different metals; insufficient experimental data will be collected.

2 © Oxford University Press 2018

11. Additional trials be conducted so that raw data can be averaged and anomalies
identified; a more precise method for determining the rate of thermal
conductivity such as temperature sensors attached to the furthest end of the
metal rod; additional types of metals can be used in the experiment.

Analyzing the periodic properties of the halogens

12. There is a trend in the state of matter down the group; the colour of the
halogens darkens progressively down the group; boiling points are low, typical
of non-metals; all three elements in the reaction with sodium metal produce a
white crystalline solid that is soluble in water; all three elements react with
iron to form an iron halide compound and the level of reactivity progressively
decreases down the group; the colour of silver halide precipitates darkens
down the group.

13. Additional experiments to support the observation of gradual trends in data

down the group; examination of trends in other physical properties such as
melting point; perform displacement reactions to determine the trend in the
reactivity of the halogens.

Patterns in nature
14. For large dendrite plate-shaped crystals to form, a temperature range of
–10°C to –22°C; and high humidity are required.

15. –3°C to –10°C or 28°F to 13°F

16. Hollow columns; requires higher humidity and a lower temperature.

17. The work of Japanese physicist Ukichiro Nakaya was very important as he
described and classified snow crystals; he provided fellow scientists with a
methodology; to discover describe and classify new examples.

18. Visual representations should include the following features: temperature

conditions at which the snowflake forms; level of relative humidity; height of
the clouds; air currents; path the crystals take through the clouds; diagram
presented and labelled clearly.