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BACK TO BASICS: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY FOR BEGINNERS
Authors: 1. Shylet Y Chivanga:schi [email protected]

2. Priscilla B Monyai: [email protected]

Address: University of Fort Hare Department of Development Studies Private bag X1314

Alice. 5700 South Africa

Abstract
This paper is devoted to a detailed discussion of the qualitative research methodology. The sections which
follow cover the research design, the target population, sampling techniques, the research instruments and some
of the procedures which are to be taken into consideration when collecting and analysing the qualitative data.
Some of the methods used to store the data are described and the ethical standards, which apply to all
professional research in the social sciences, are enumerated and explained in this paper. Researchers are
required to be acutely aware of the ethical implications of their studies and to safeguard the rights of those who
agree to participate in them at all times, even after their studies have been concluded. In the final section of the
paper, some of the procedures by means of which the data can be verified are described.

Key words Research Ethics. Research Method. Sample. Research Instrument. Target Population Data
Analysis

1.1 Introducti on

Research is both a systematic and creative process of gathering information and a means of answering questions
or creating knowledge, in order to advance and increase existing bodies of knowledge (Inglesi-Lotz, 2017).
From a similar standpoint, Masukume et al (2018) view research as the original contribution which follows the
pursuit of truth, through observation, experiments and studying. Research refers to a critical investigation or a
scientific study of a subject which can result in reaching new conclusions, the discovery of new knowledge, or a
new collation of old facts (Creswell, 2009). From the definitions which have been provided, it can be concluded
that research entails a process of discovery which allows the unknown to become known, through a systematic
method which consists of articulating a research problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the relevant facts,
analysing them, and arriving at conclusions in the form of a way forward to the research problem (Strydom,
2014). It needs to be emphasised that the value of a research study is entirely dependent upon how it has been
designed. Consequently, the formulation of an appropriate research desig n represents a crucial factor for
conducting meaningful research (Chivanga,2018).

A research design is a procedure for collecting and analysing data from relevant information which has been
obtained from the sources which individual researchers have ident ified as meeting the requirements of their
proposed studies (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2010). An example of a qualitative research design is the
phenomenological. Research which has a phenomenological basis prioritises the meanings which the
participants ascribe to the events, occurrences, or phenomena which are of interest to individual researchers.
Meanings are derived from the active participation of both researchers and the participants in research studie s
(Ward, 2007; Grant, 2017). According to De Vos (1998) and Creswell (2008), a research design should accord
with the nature of a study, the results which are intended to be obtained from it, and the nature of the human
interactions which occur while it is being conducted. Accordingly, the adoption of a phenomenological research
design permits an understanding of the variables under study to be gained through the meanings, which
individual participants give to the variables from their own subjective experiences.
Access to the socially constructed reality of the participants is provided through the medium of language and
shared meanings. Another essential feature of phenomenological research designs is that knowledge, meaning,
and access to reality are derived from interpretations, because the world is interpreted through reasoning and the
meanings, which are attributed to particular phenomena. Implicit in a phenomenological research design is the
premise that objective reality does not have an existence, which is independent of the sensory perceptions of
reasoning human beings (Paley,2016).Conducting the study from a phenomenological stand point enables the
researcher to elicit finely nuanced responses from the participants, which enable s their perceptions, beliefs, and
opinions concerning the variables under study.

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While a research methodology comprises all of the processes by means of which information is collected, a
research design defines the type of study, which is to be conducted in order to answer research questions and
achieve its objectives (Kumar, 2014).

1.2 Research methodology

A research methodology comprises the procedures, which are followed by individual researchers to find answers
to the research problems which they have identified (Creswell, 2009). A research methodology is defined as
representing the point at which methods, facts, and epistemology amalgamate and coalesce in an overt manner
(Rajasekar, et al. 2006; Chivanga and Monyai,2019). From the definitions which have been cited, it follows that
a research methodology for a study which is to be conducted in any of the social sciences entails a process of
investigating specific events, occurrences, or phenomena in the social worlds of people who are of particular
interest to individual researchers. As not all research methods are appropriate for particular research
methodologies, researchers need to pay particular attention to selecting research methods, which will yield the
types of results which they desire.

1.2.1 Research methods

Research methods refer to planned, scientific, and value-neutral procedures, schemes, or algorithms which are
used to collect and analyse data in the process of finding a solution to particular problems (Vaismoradi, et al.,
2013).Shah and Corley (2006) and Silverman (2015) define research methods which are used in the social
sciences as arrays of interpretative techniques which are used to find meanings behind particular phenomena in
the social world. The research methods should be selected in accordance with the research problem in order to
develop appropriate research instruments, in order to generate data, which is meaningful within the context of
the research topic. The difference between a research method and a research methodology is that research
method entails the technique employed by the researcher to conduct research whereas research methodology
refers to the way of understanding a phenomena.

1.2.2 Differences between quantitati ve and qualitative research methodologies

The essential differences between qualitative and quantitative research methodologies lie mainly in the ways in
which data is analysed. Quantitative methodologies are predicated upon replicability, in that it is assumed that
different researchers who use the same data under similar conditions will obtain similar results. By contrast,
replicability is not an essential criterion for qualitative research, as qualitative studies prioritise obtaining results
which are representative of the perceptions, beliefs, or opinions of the participants in relation to the phenomena
which are being investigated (Kumar, 2010).

In addition, quantitative research methodologies are based upon the ontological assumption of objectivity,
whereas, qualitative research methodologies acknowledge the existence of multiple interpretations of reality, in
the sense that every person who participates in a research study will have his or he r own interpretation of the
event, occurrence, or phenomenon which is being investigated (Kumar, 2010). Although individual people are
likely to interpret phenomena differently, quantitative methodologies are based upon the assumption that the
world exists independently of those who observe it, while the notion that the appearance of the world is
dependent upon the perceptions of individual observers is inherent in qualitative research methodologies.

In qualitative research, it is the responsibility of each researcher to gather data in a rigorous manner and to make
systematic interpretations of particular events, occurrences, or phenomena from the experiences of the
participants in their studies. The application of qualitative research methodologies entails researchers placing
themselves within the contexts of the events, occurrences, or phenomena which they are investigating, whereas
in quantitative research, in the interests of maintaining objectivity, researchers position themselves as outside
observers (Shah and Corley, 2006;Chivanga and Monyai,2020). While qualitative research methodologies are
based upon contextualisation, interpretation, and understanding the perceptions, beliefs, and opinions of
participants in research studies, quantitative research methodologies are developed in order to generalise, predict
and explain causal relationships (Creswell, 2009;Chivanga,2016). Another significant difference lies in the aim
of quantitative research methodologies to test and to prove or disprove the correct ness of theories by
commencing with clearly articulated hypotheses. By contrast, qualitative research methodologies are developed
in order to enable theories and insights to emerge after data has been analysed, without endeavouring to prove or
disprove any particular hypotheses (Schoeborn, 2012).

1.2.3 Reasons why researchers choose qualitative research methodology

Qualitative research methodology is a subjective and descriptive means of discerning in -depth meanings of
events, occurrences, or phenomena from the perceptions of participants (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). A qualitative
research methodology is used for conducting studies not because the researchers believe that qualitative
methodologies are necessarily always superior or more appropriate than quantitative ones, but because they are

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considered to represent an optimal means of providing in -depth information from the subjective perceptions,
beliefs, and opinions from the subjects under study.

A qualitative research methodology enables the researcher to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the
meanings, which the participants ascribe to the phenomena upon which the research topic is centred, in a natural
setting. As Vaismoradi et al. (2013) explain, conducting enquiries in a natural setting has the advantage of
enabling researchers to study particular phenomena within the context in which they occur, rather than under
laboratory conditions.

Unlike quantitative research methodologies, in which there is an inherent assumption that reality is stable,
objective, and measurable and that phenomena which cannot be measured empirically are beyond the scope of
research, the basis of qualitative research is subjective, in the sense that it acknowledges the multifaceted nature
of reality (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). Qualitative research methodologies enable researchers to make use of
inductive reasoning in order to interpret the responses and comments of participants . In addition, as qualitative
research methodologies enable researchers to conduct their studies in the settings in which the phenomena in
which they are interested occur and to interpret the phenomena on the basis of their own direct experiences and
those of the participants who are affected by them, researchers have access to insights which are often not
possible to gain through using other research methodologies.

1.3 Target population

A target population is the totality of people, sampling units, or elements with which a particular research
problem is concerned (Strydom, 2005).

1.4 Research samples and sample sizes

A research sample comprises a small but representative portion of a target population. One of the criteria which
determine the size of the sample is provided by the objective of obtaining in-depth information until saturation
is reached. As Shepherd (2002) explains, a very large sample can become unmanageable.

Many factors are taken into consideration during the selection of the sample, such as th e lengths of time in
which the participants had worked at an organization,the positions which they held in the organisations in which
they were employed, and the degrees of seniority which their positions conferred upon them. The intention
behind considering the times for which individual participants had worked at an organisation enables the
researcher to have access to a degree of institutional memory. The assumption is that people who have worked
at an organisation for long periods are likely to be able to provide relevant information, which would not be
easily accessible to newly employed members or not yet documented. Consequently, the assumption is that
senior members of organisations are likely to be less afraid of disclosing relevant information. The assumption
is that people in senior positions are more able to speak openly and are likely to have wider knowledge of the
realities than people who are more lowly ranked in their organisations.

1.4.1 Sampling procedure

Sampling refers to a process of selecting participants who are representative of entire target populations in
respects in which particular researchers are interested, in order to obtain relevant and detailed information
pertaining to particular research topics. Purposive non-probability sampling is an example of a qualitative
sampling technique. When researchers use purposive sampling, they select participants whom they judge to be
most able to provide the information, which they require (Alston & Bowles, 2003; Van Wyk, 2016). The
advantage of non-probability purposive sampling technique is that it enables the researcher to eliminate
potential participants who will not provide relevant data, reduce the costs of conducting the study, and
concentrate upon participants who will be judged to be particularly suitable for the purposes of the research.

1.5 Research instruments

Research instruments are devices which researchers develop to collect data in order to answer the research
questions upon which their studies are premised (Babbie, 2013). The interview guides are formulated to enable
the interviewer to maintain the lines of questioning, while at the same time permitting the participants to express
their own perceptions, beliefs, and opinions. They also enable the researcher to cover all of the ground, which
they had been formulated to cover and to manage time effectively. Patton (2002) explains that interview guides
function as checklists, which enable researchers to cover all of the topics, which they consider relevant to their
studies during interviews.
1.6 Collecting the data
Face-to-face interviews, focus group discussions, and reviewing relevant documents are examples of data
collection methods in qualitative research. Face-to-face interviews enable researchers to collect richly detailed
qualitative data from participants by asking relevant questions which yield valid and reliable information (Paley,

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2016). In addition, face-to-face interviews enable all of the questions put to participants to be answered to the
satisfaction of individual researchers, who are able to ask participants to clarify their responses. The interviews
permit the researcher to mine a rich seam of first-hand information which will be relevant to the research topic.
In-depth interviews permit qualitative data to be collected from intensive individual question and answer
sessions with relatively small numbers of participants through in-depth investigations of their subjective
perceptions, beliefs, opinions, and experiences in relation to events, occurrences, and phenomena which are
relevant to particular research topics (Denscombe, 2003). They also permit questions to be asked and answered
in private settings and enable information pertaining to potentially sensitive topics to be obtained . They can
yield crucial, and sometimes even unanticipated, insights and permit follow-up questions to be asked and enable
researchers to probe for additional information, without the distractions which can sometimes result in focus
group discussions deviating from their intended topics for discussion. As Babbie (2010) explains, owing to their
exploratory nature, in-depth interviews permit large volumes of additional qualitative information to be obtained
from observations of non-verbal behaviour, such as gestures.

Focus group discussions enable qualitative data to be collected from group interviews in which the members are
asked to express their opinions concerning particular topics, with the discussions being guided by a moderator
(Creswell, 2008; Silverman, 2015). Among the chief advantages of focus group discuss ions is their ability to
generate a great deal of data in a short space of time. They also permit responses to be clarified and elaborated
upon. By putting open-ended questions to the participants in the focus group discussions, the researcher will be
able to obtain a diverse range of responses to ‘why?’ and ‘how?’ questions in their own words. The discussions
also encourage participants who do not wish to be interviewed alone to provide invaluable information. Wilson
(2016) explains that focus group discussions are able to generate, at a relatively low cost, crucial and more
richly detailed data from groups of participants than interviews with individual participants are able to yield, in
some instances.

Document analysis is another way of collecting data. Document analysis entails the use of information which is
already available and which may have been used for other purposes (Shepherd, 2002). Books in the university
library, government records, newspapers, the websites of NGOs, journals, and reports can be consulted and
used to augment the data which the field research generates, in order to corroborate the findings and to provide
clarification when it was needed.

1.7 Analysis and recording of the data

Analysing data entails a process of bringing order, structure, and meaning to a large volume of collected data
(Silverman, 2015). In short, analysing the data entails organising it, breaking it down into manageable units,
coding it, and interpreting it, in order to obtain an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon. Thematic analysis
can be used to analyse the data obtained from the interviews , by identifying, recording, and analysing the
themes emerging from the data (Vaismoradi et al., 2016).

As Bloor and Wood (2006) explain, by enabling researchers to search for, discern, and identify common themes
in the data which interviews have generated, the procedure enables them to prob e for reasons behind the
phenomena in which they are interested, by analysing the remarks which individual participants make, to whom
they are made, and the effects which they produce.Th ematic data analysis enables the researcher to answer
‘how?’ and ‘why?’ questions. As Braun and Clarke ( 2006) explain, thematic analysis provides a flexible and
useful means of analysing richly detailed data. The thematic analysis has to be performed in accordance with
the steps which are enumerated by Vaismoradi et al. (2013), namely:

1.7.1 Familiarisation with the data

The researcher must commence with the familiarisition with all of the data, asking relevant questions, and
writing down initial ideas. Cresswell (2009) explains that the step is an essential one for determining the
underlying meanings which are to be discerned in sets of data.
1.7.2 Generating initial codes

The second step entais coding the data, by labelling the entire data set. The researcher should list the topics
which are relevant to answering the research questions, cluster them together into columns, and group them into
major topics, unique topics, and leftovers.
1.7.3 Searching for themes

The researcher should review the data once more, to identify significant broader patterns of meaning, and
assign a code to each relevant topic, collate the codes into potential themes, gathering all of the data which is

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relevant to each potential theme in the manner which is suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006).The data which is
relevant to each potential theme should then be collated in order to assess its viability as a theme. The data
should be reviewed once again in tandem with the lists which had been compiled for each potential theme and
appropriate segments of the texts should be written next to each. The preliminary scheme for organising the
data should be used to determine whether new categories and codes emerged.
1.7.4 Reviewing themes

The researcher must assess whether the developing themes accords with the coded data and whether they
provide answers to the research questions.
1.7.5 Defining and naming themes
The researcher must analyse, refine, and determine the implications of each theme and assign a name to each to
convey its import.
1.7.6 Reporting

The researcher should conclude the process by weaving together an analytic narrative with extracts of data. The
analysis has to be contextualised in relation to the research questions and relevant extracts from the literature
review, which had informed the study to produce a report.

1.8 Ethical considerations

Research ethics are guidelines which enable researchers to uphold the ethical standards of professional research
in the social sciences. They are applied to avoid harming participants or violating their rights and require the
researcher to be honest in their interactions with the participants in their studies and to treat any information
which they provide as strictly confidential (Strydom, 1998). Beecher was among the pioneers in introducing
professional ethical standards for research circa 1966 (Pimple, 2017). Confidentiality refers to the guarantee
which should be given to the participants that the data which they will provide will not be made available to
any unauthorised person. The researcher must provide the research participants with all necessary information,
to enable them to make informed decisions to participate in research studies of their own free will. The
researcher should give research participants assurance from the onset that their participation would not result in
any harm to them or anyone in accordance with both the protocols and the stipulation of Bless and Higson -
Smith (2000) that researchers should not harm the people who choose to participate in their studies. It is also
essential to maintain the anonymity of the participants and to treat the data, which they provide as being
confidential. In order to uphold the rights of the participants, the principle of informed consent must be
rigorously adhered to. Informed consent requires potential participants to be adequately informed of the nature
of research studies before they agree to participate in them (Thackray, 2018). In order to uphold the principle of
informed consent, the researcher has to provide a comprehensive explanation of the nature and purpose of the
study and the approximate likely duration of their participation. Participants need to be informed that they have
the right to withdraw their participation at any time during the conducting of the study, withou t incurring
penalties of any sort whatsoever.
1.9 Methods employed to verify the data
All forms of human inquiry are prone to error, data has to be appropriately verified to minimise the possibility
of error. The verification of qualitative data entails a process of checking the truthfulness of findings by
following procedures to apply criteria such as truth value, applicability, and neutrality. Truth values are tested
by assessing the truth of data against the understanding of the subjective perception, beliefs, and opinions of
participants which individual researchers have acquired during the course of conducting their studies. The
applicability of findings is evaluated by determining whether the findings which are obtained from research
samples are applicable to and representative of the target populations from which they have been drawn. The
criterion of neutrality requires researchers to set aside personal biases and concentrate so lely upon the data
which they have obtained from participants and to take all reasonable measures to avoid influencing it (Krefting,
1991; Johnson & Rasulova, 2017). The researchers must maintain a strictly neutral stance and avoid any
possible forms of personal bias at all times during the conducting of the study. The possibility of errors tainting
the findings can be precluded by comprehensively documenting the processes by means of which the data was
analysed to enable the logic of the analysis to be evaluated at any point.

1.10 Conclusion
In an endeavor to provide a precise and sufficiently comprehensive description of the qualitative research
methodology, the researcher provided a reasoned justification for conducting a qualitative study. The co ncepts
of target populations, research samples and the technique for selecting the qualitative research sample were
elucidated. The ethical standards which should be adhered to at all times during conducting of the qualitative
research were covered in detail, before the paper concluded with a discussion of the criteria which should be

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applied in order to minimise the possibility of the findings being rendered unreliable owing to unanticipated
sources of error.

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