NERVOUS SYSTEM

Nervous system: is a system that contain or made up of the brain and spinal cord.
The membrane that cover the brain and spinal cord is call meninges.
Three layers of meninges
1. Outer-Dura matter --- subdural space
2. Middle – arachnoid matter --- subarachnoid space
3. Inner pea matter
*Part of meninges dividing the brain into two called cerebellar:
Part of meninges entering the brain
- Flax cerebellar
- Tentorium cerebellar
- Diaphragm cerebellar
*the part of the meninges dividing the brain into two part is called flax cerebellar
*the part of meninges dividing into fix cerebra and flax cerebellar is called
tentorium cerebellar
The formulation of the brain is come from the neutral tube.
Three division of the brain
1. Pros encephalon ------ fore brain
2. Mesencephalon ----- mid brain
3. Rhomb encephalon ---- hind brain
Structure constituting the pros encephalon
a. Telencephalon
- Right and left lateral cerebral hemisphere
- Right and left lateral ventricle
b. Diencephalon
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus(pituitary gland)
- Epithalamiums (pineal gland)
- Third vernicle is very narrow

1
Process found in the mesencephalon (mid brain)
a. Cerebral peduncle
- Basic peduncle
- Substantial Myra
- Tomentum
- Cerebral aqueduct
b. Tatum
- Caulicle
Process found in the Rhomb encephalon (hind brain)
a. Mesencephalon
- Pons
- Medulla oblongata
b. Myclencephalon ( cerebellum)
Pros encephalon (fare brain)
- Gyro ( singular == gyros) – raised
- Sulci (singular == sulcus) – depressed
Surface of a cerebral hemisphere
- Super lateral surface
- Media surface
- Inferior surface
Poles: mean end of the Bain
Poles of the cerebral hemisphere
- Frontal pole
- Oedipal pole
- Temporal pole near the eye
Lope: are the area of the cerebral hemisphere
- Frontal lope
- Parietal lope
- Occipital lope
- Temporal lope

2
 Diagram

Media surface of a cerebral hemisphere

1. Media frontal sulcus – media frontal gurus
2. Callous sulcus – cingulate gyros
3. Cingulate sulcus—media para central lobules(surrounded the cerebral
sulcus)
Petunias – between parietoacipital sulcus and posterior of media frontal sulcus
calcimine sulcus and prietoecipital sulcus medially is a gyros called coleus

Diagram

Division of C.N.S
Central nervous system (CNS) peripheral new system (PNS)
(CNS):- brain and spinal cord
(PNS):- peripheral nerves
Function
Pros encephalon (fore brain):-
i- Mentality
ii- Memory

3
 iii- Learning
iv- Inelegancy
v- Responsibility
vi- Reasoning
Mid brain: - this is a small area and above the pons divided into:-
i. Central peduncle
ii. Basis peduncle
iii. Substantial hydra
iv. Tomentum
Function:-
1. Serve as relay Centre for ascending and descending tracts.
2. Reflex for vision and auditory
Rhomb encephalon (mind brain)
1. Balance and equilibrium.
2. Co-ordination movement.
3. Muscle tone.
Neurological cells (cells of nervous system)
1. Neurons
2. Neuroglia

Neurons
Neurons are the basis units of the nervous system specialized for rapid
communication,
Parts of the neuron
Each neuron has
1. Cell body
2. Projections

1. Cell body: - is the actual cell of the nervous system having nucleus
golgiaparatus and all other structure of the cell.
4
 2. Projection :- are the extension of the cell body and are divided into two:

a. Short extension
b. Single and long extension axon

Diagram

Neuroglia (supporting cells)

These are cell found in the nervous system ( brain and spinal cord) responsible for
holding neuron, the cell are:-
1. Astrocytes – support
2. Obligor dendrocytes –form myelin sheath for protection
3. Ependymal cell – lines the ventricle of the brain and central canal
4. Microglia:- identity disease and destroy by process of phagocytosis

In PNS.
I. Seattleite cells:- found in the peripheral nervous system supporting the
ganglia ( group of cell bodies outside the (CNS)
II. Neuroma (Schwan) cells: - this form the myelin sheath in the (PNS).

 Nerve :- this is a group of fibers which is found outside the (CNS)

responsible for carrying information (muter and sensor nerves)
 Nerve tract:- is a group of fibers joining different nucleus in the (CNS)
 Nucleus: - group of cells in the CNS.
Ganglia: - group of cell found in the (PNS) (expect basal ganglia)

Reflex arc: - this is a pathway undergone from sensory nerve to the (CNS) and
(CNS) to the area of injury (go and come).

5
  Brain stem: - consist of midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata.
 Basal ganglia:- these are group of cell bodies found in the cerebral
hemisphere which include:-
1. Caudate nucleus
2. Lent form nucleus
3. Colostrum
4. Amygdaloidal nucleus
Cranial nerves
1. Olfactory nerve (olfactory bulb) responsible for smell.
2. optic nerve ( optic tract) – vision
3. Coulometer (mid brain) – responsible for eye movement.
4. Troch eatery (hind brain) responsible for eye movement.
5. Trigeminal nerve: - responsible for facial sensation & jaw movement.
6. Ascent nerve: - at junction between pons and medulla) facial movement and
taste.
7. Facial nerve:- at junction between pons and medullar (facial movement and
task)
8. Vestibule ache:- at junction between pons and medullar (hearing and
balance)
9. Glossophargeal (medullar oblongata)tongue and pharynx
10. Valgus nerve (medullar oblongata respiration, digestion and circulation
11. Cranial accessory nerve: - medullar oblongata neck and side of face.
12. Hypoglossal nerve: - medullar oblongata tongue and structure of below the
tongue.

Plexus nerves
Plexus nerve are group of spinal nerve innervating different areas of the body, they
include
1. Cervical plexus:- supply the neck
2. Brachial plexus :- supply the upper limb
3. Lumber plexus:- supply the ataraxic abdomen
4. Sacral plexus:- pelvis and perineum
5. Coccygeal plexus:- bottom and lower limb

6
 1. Central nerve system
Is divided into brain and spinal cord.
2. (ANS) is divided into parasympathetic and sympathetic nerve
Referred pain: - this is a pain felt at a site distant or far away from its origin.

Diseases of the N.S

1. Meninges (cerebral or spinal or both) - inflammation of meninges.
2. Cerebral palsy (damage of the brain)
3. Encephalitis – inflame of the brain
4. Migraine – a side pain of headache
5. Multiple sclerosis – hardening of brain
6. Rabies –toxic affecting the brain and spinal cord
7. Neuralgia – inflammation of the spinal cord
8. Neuritis – inflammation of nerves
9. poliomyelitis

Endocrine system
Hypothalamus

Pituitary gland

Thyroid adrenal
Parathyroid gland
(Pan Crease)
Ovaries testis

7
Endocrine system
Endocrine system is a system consisting of group of organs and tissue responsible
for the production storage and secretion of chemical substance known as harmones
that send instructions and information from one set of cells to another.
How endocrine system works:-
When a hormone is produce by an endocrine gland it would be diffuse into the
blood stream where special proteins in the blood bind to them keeping intact as
they travel target area (or tissue) the hormones bind with another special protein
called receptor inducing a small quantity of the hormone to produce the desired
effect. Too much gland could be harmful to the body.
Endocrine gland
1. hypothalamus
2. pituitary gland
3. pineal gland
4. thyroid gland
5. parathyroid glands
6. adrenal (super renal) gland
7. testes
8. ovaries
9. pan crease

Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus is a small structure or area found below the thalamus and above the
pituitary gland.

Diagram

8
 Hormones secreted by the hypothalamus
1. thyrotrophing releasing factor (TRA)
2. Corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF)
3. Follicle stimulating hormone releasing factor (FRF)
4. Luteinizing hormone releasing factor (LRF)
5. Growth releasing factor (GRF)
6. Growth hormone releasing inhibiting factor (GRIF)
7. Prolactin releasing factor

Pituitary gland
This is an oral or small structure of grey matter found below the hypothalamus in
the fore brain
Hormones secreted by pituitary gland
a. Anterior lobe
- Thyrotrophic stimulating hormone (TSH)
- Adrenergic stimulating hormone (ASH)
- Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Luteinizing hormone (LH)
- Growth hormone (GH)
- Prolactin
b. Posterior lobe
Oxytocin: - smooth muscle of the uterus and breast vasopressin (antidiuretic
hormone, (ADH):- act on renal tubules for body to absorb water, it also
presses the arteries increasing blood flow.

Pineal gland
Pineal gland: - is a small gland found below the splenium of the carpus
callosum near the third ventricle of the fore brain

9
 Hormones secreted by the pineal gland
i. Melatonin:- responsible for biological clock (wake sleep cycle)
Thyroid gland
Thyroid gland: - is a brownish endocrine gland found in the neck at the lateral
sides of the huarache joined together by an isthmus.
The thyroid gland consist of the type of all follicular (cuboidal epillaciur)
Para follicular cell

Homes secreted by thyroid gland

The follicular cell secret
1. Thyroxin ( tetradothyroxine)
2. Triodothyroine (T3)

Function
1. Metabolism of nutrients (carbohydrates, protein, fats)
2. Regulate genes formation
3. Regulate growth and development
4. Regulate the development of brain during child hood.
Hormone secreted by the par follicular cells of thyroid gland.
1. Calcitonin ( thyrocalcitonin)
Function is to lower (decrease) the calcium and phosphorus levels in blood,
by acting on
 Bone:- storing much
 Renal tubules:- to excrete ca. during urinating
Ca. help in:-
1. Blood clothing
2. For the functioning of skeletal muscles
3. Transmission of impulses by neuron
Parathyroid gland

10
These are small endocrine glands morally four in no, found close to the posterior
surface of the thyroid gland sometimes one or more parathyroid gland maybe
embedded inside thyroid gland

Hormones secreted by parathyroid glands

Mostly one type of gland secreted by parathyroid gland name:-
Parathyroid hormones or para- homes
Function
The function of parathions is opposite to that of the calcitonin or thyroid calcitonin
meaning that is responsible for increasing the blood calcium level by acting on:-
 Small intestine
 Renal tubules
 Acting on bone: - stimulating the bone to release much ca.
Adrenal gland/ supra renal
This is found on either kidney of humans, this gland are made of two parts:-
1. Outer part: - cortex of adrenal gland.
2. Inner part: - medullar adrenal gland.

Hormones secreted by adrenal gland

The hormones are called Adriano corticoid hormones/adrenal cortex are group into
two:-
1. Glucose – coccyx:- this include cortisol (hydrocotisul)
2. Cortisone
3. Coticseterone
The most important of the glucose is the cortisol
Function:-
1. Regulate salt and water of the body
2. Influence sexual function
3. Its responsible for metabolism

11
 4. It relate (associate with immune system lowering the immune response

3. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
1. Regulate salt and water balance
2. Acrogens (male sex hormones)

Hormones secreted by adrenal medulla

This hormones are called catechol mines they include:-
1. Epinephrine (adrenalin) and
2. Norepinephrine (Nora dyeline)
Epinephrine is responsible
1. Increasing blood pressure
2. Increasing the heart rate
3. Prepares the body for stress
4. Norepharine acts blood
Pancreases
This is an endocrine and an exocrine gland (organ) found in the abdomen lying
horizontally with its head fused with duodenum and its tails with spleen. It consist
of pancreatic cells that secrete hormones called islets of longer hands. The
pancreatic islets

1. Alpha cells – secrets glucose

2. (B) biota cells – secrets insulin
3. Delta (&) cells –somatostatin (GRIF)
Function:-
1. Glycogen: responsible for the conversion of glycogen to glucose (gluco
gonolysis) in line and muscle cells to be released in the stream.

12
 2. Stops the secretion of insulin by the x cells insulin:- responsible for the
conversion of glucose to glycogen (glucoses be stored in liner and muscle
cell it stops the secretion of glycogen by x cells
 Soma station (GRIF):- inhibits growth
 Stops the secretion of both insulin and glycogen
Ovaries
Ovaries :- this are almond shaped glands found in the female pelvis one on either
side of its fallopian tube suspended by ligaments corium ligament, broad ligament,
suspended suspensory
Hormones secreted by the chary
1. Estrogen
2. Progesterone
Function:-
i. Estrogen – prepares the uterus for the reception of an egg.
 Responsible for female secondary sexual character which include:-
i. Production of hair in the axillar, armpits etc.
ii. Formation of the body contours
iii. Responsible for menarche (first menses)
iv. Growth and development of female internal organ
v. Responsible for the larches (early dev. Of breast)
Progesterone – maintenance of the uterus (prevent menses)

Testis: - this is an oral organ found between the thighs and behind the pelvis house
by a skin (sac) called scrotum.
The testis contain seminiferous tubules between the tubules are cells called
intestinal cell of legging lying cell that secrets.
Function:-
Testosterone is responsible for:-
i. Growth and development of male sexual organs.
ii. Prevention of hair on the face, chest abdomen

13
 Axillar.
iii. Breaking of larynx declaring of voice
iv. Responsible for thoraces first ejaculation
v. Growth and development of bones and muscles
Diseases/disorders of the endocrine system
Disorders of the endocrine system
These are the conditions that result leading to two much or two little secretion of
hormones by any endocrine gland these are classified into:-
1. Disturbance in the production a hormone.
2. Inability of the body to accept and utilize the hormone production.
Disturbance in the production of hormones (production disorder)
The production disorders are also divided into two:-
i. Hyper function (excess secretion of hormone)
ii. Hypo function (low secretion of a hormone)
Causes of production
1. Mal function of the gland
2. One of the hormones responsible for production of the hormone is missing
3. The hormone produce is abnormal
4. Maybe as a result of diseases e.g. T.B may appear in adrenal gland, anti-
immune (antibodies) may attack the thyroid gland.
5. Injuries such as:
i. Penetrating wounds
ii. Due to accident
iii. Gun fire
iv. Starvation
6. Treatments using:-
i. Radiation therapy
ii. Chemotherapy
Can lead to production disorder
In many cases the causes of production disorder is unkown.

Hypothalamus

14
Hypo function: - excess secretion of hypothalamus hormones can stimulate the
pituitary gland continuously leading to different condition in the body such as one
cruelly disturbance of the reproductive cycle.
 Hypo function:- result to:-
Problems of metabolism, muscle contraction, growth problems of circadian
rhythm, polyuria.

Pineal gland
Hypo function: - excess secretion of melatonin by pineal gland can disturb the
circulation rhythm (biological clock) also affects the sexual organs.
Hypo function: - (hypo secretion) of melatonin:
i. Disturbs this biological clock
ii. The sexual organ may not be well formed before puberty

Pituitary gland
Hyper function (excess secretion)
Gigantism: - is the condition in which the bones and muscles of the limbs are
stimulation leading to a growth in lend so that the person looks taller.
iii. Acromegaly: - this is the condition that result due to excess secretion of
the pituitary hormone whereby the mandible tongue and extremities
(hand and facts) will be larger.
Excess secretion of prolactin will lead to abnormal production of will, disturb
menses cause amenorrhea (cessation of menses), and cause infertility in female
importance in men.
Hypo-function: - (low secretion of anterior lobe) decreased secretion of
pituitary hormones (anterior lobe) in which an individual look shorter than
normal. The thorax (chest) and abdomen develop like a fully matured person
but the limbs (upper and lower) remains short.

Posterior lobe

15
 Hyper-secretion (ADH):- leads to
i. Edema (no or little urination)
ii. Increase in blood flow(BP)
iii. Excess secretion of oxygen
iv. Disturbs reproduction
v. Fluctuation of menses
vi. Over flow of milk
Hypo-secretion:-
Polyuria: - excess urination leading to dehydration decrease of blood flow
(hypotension)
iii. Oxytocin-slow delivery the period of menses (menstrual phase) may
be longer.
Thyroid gland
Hyper-secretion (thyrothoxis)
i. Disturbs metabolism
ii. Growth
iii. Graves diseases
iv. Exophthalmos
v. Psychic disturbance
vi. Goiter- inflammation of thyroid gland
vii. Anorexia (lack of appetite for food)
Hypo-secretion: - (para-thyroxisis)
 Disturbs metabolism
 Disturb growth
 Disturb brain development (hypo-thyroiditis)
Parathyroid gland
Hyper secretion: - (hyperparathyroidism)
(Hypocalcaemia):- leading problems of muscle contraction excess coagulation
Hypo-function :- (hypo-parathyroid)
- Insufficient coagulation
- Slow transmission of nerve impulse.

16
 Adrenal Gland
Hyper-function:-
1. Costing syndrome – excess secretion of adrenal cortex
Hypo-function:-
Low secretion of adrenal cortex

Pancreases
1. Diabetes mellitus
a. Type 1:-
Results due to decrease insulin excess glucose in blood could not be
converted to glycogen.
Sign:-
i. Too much glucose in blood
ii. Too much glucose in urine (protein)
iii. Little insulin in blood
iv. Thirsty
v. Frequent urination
vi. Hunger
b. Type 2:-
i. Excess blood glucose level
ii. Glucose in urine
iii. Thirsty
iv. Hungry
v. Frequent urination
vi. Enough insulin in blood
2. Diabetes insipid us:-
 Frequent urination
 Thirsty
 Hungry
 Normal glucose level
Treatment vasopressin drugs injection
3. Gestational diabetes
4. Inflammation of pancreases

Production disorders of ovaries

17
Hyper-secretion (female hyper gonalism)
 Caused by tumor glamolosa cells cause excess secretion of
estrogen(estradiol, nostril estrogen)
 Decrease the production of gonadotropins (FSH and LH)
As a result of disturbs ovarian cycle.
- Irregular menses
Excess estrogen also acts on uterus causing hypertrophy of the uterus
(increase in size of the uterus) the results for bleeding the ((first and only
sign of ovarian an tumor)
 Hypo secretion (female hypogonadis) of estrogen
 Caused by:-
- Mal formation of the ovary
- Genetic condition (one of the enzymes maybe missing)
- Removal of the ovaries
If the removal of the ovaries is before puberty eunuchs occurs this means:-
The female secondary sexual characteristics become undeveloped
 The breast will not develop
 No body contours
 No hair production
If the removal is after puberty (in fully developed woman)

- Atrophy of the uterus (decrease in size of uterus)

- The uterine living becomes thin and easily damaged
- The breast atrophy and becomes produloms
- Amenorrhea occur (fluctuation of menses, irregular menses it may seize
completely menopause or natural cassation of menses.
Production disorder of testes
Hyper secretion (male hypergonadism) of testosterone may be caused by tumor of
the intestinal cell of laying
 Excess growth of the bones and muscles

18
  Excess development of male sex organs (scrotum, testis prostate
gland, penis)
 Cynecunastia (assess development of breast in male) hypo secretion
(male hypogonadism) of testosterone may be caused by:-
Cryptorchidism (undescended testes)
- Damage of seminiferous tubules
- Temperature also affects the secretion of testosterone
Importance
Undeveloped sexual organ e.g. Scrotum, testis, prostate gland, penis etc.

Respiratory system
Respiratory system is a system consisting of organ and structure responsible for
taking in air (oxygen) and removal of carbon dioxide (co2)
Organs of respiratory system
1. Nose – outer part between eyes and mouth through which the air enters the
body.
2. Pharynx – space found behind the tongue moisten air.
3. Larynx- found close to the pharynx: warm and moisten air.
4. Trachea – cartilaginous tube (passage way of air)
5. Bronchi - bifurcation (division) of trachea
6. Bronchioles – small division of bronchi
7. Alveoli – sac-like structure in the lungs where exchange of gases co2 and
co2) take place.
8. Lungs – large organs of respiratory found the thoracic cavity.
Lungs
Lungs are organs of respiration found in the thoracic cavity one on each side of
mediastinum.
Features
Each lungs has
- An apex
- Base
19
Surfaces
1. Costal surface
2. Mediastina surface
3. Diaphragmatic surface
Borders
1. Anterior borders
2. Posterior borders
3. Inferior borders
Fissures
Left lung: - horizontal fissure
Right lung:-
a. horizontal fissure
b. oblique fissure

Lobes
Left lungs
- superior lobe
- inferior lobe
Right lung
- superior lobe
- middle lobe
- inferior lobe
In the left lung: - cardiac impression
Substances enter and leave the lungs at the hilum of the lungs.

Structure seen at the hilum of the lungs

1. bronchus – light green
2. pulmonary artery – blue

20
 3. lympunodes – green
4. fat – yellow

Muscles of respiration
1. external inter costal muscle
2. internal intercostal muscle
3. innermost intercostal muscle
4. diaphragm
Mechanism of respiration
- mechanism of inhalation (taking in air)
- the intercostal muscle contract moving the ribs outward
- the diaphragm contract and flattens
- the volume of the thoracic cavity increases
- the pressure of the lungs decreases
- The atmosphere pressure increase the air is then inhaled.
Mechanism of exhalation (taking out air)
- the intercostal muscle relax
- the ribs and sternum more back to their normal position
- the diaphragm relaxes and return to its done position
- the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases
- the pressure of the lungs increases while the atmospheric pressure decreases
- the air (co2) exhaled
Types of respiration
1. external respiration:- exchange of gases between the lungs and atmosphere
2. internal respiration:- is the exchange of gases between the capillaries and the
tissues (cells) of the body
Mechanism of smell
to able to perceive smelling, the odorants objects emits particles the particle are
then taken by the air hitting the olfactory cell at the roof of the nose the particle
will be arranged by the cells and send to the brain via the olfactory nerve for
interpretation and the smell perceive.

21
Mechanism for speech
During speech, the air from the lung is pushed out thereby modifying the vocal
tract between the larynx and lips and a sound pronounced.
Composition of air
- oxygen – 23
- carbon dioxide – 0.04
- nitrogen – 79
- water vapor – stick found in the air

Diseases of the respiratory system

1. cold
2. laryngitis – inflammation of lynx
3. bronchitis – inflammation of bronchi
4. Tuberculosis (T.B) – chronic infection of the lung caused by mycobacterium
tuberculosis
5. Pneumonia – acute infection of the lungs
6. Pneumonias – fibrosis of the lungs cause by lung inhalation of chest.
7. Pulmonary emphysema – gaseous distention of the lung
8. Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) severe mal function of the lungs.
9. Allergic reaction e.g. asthma, hay fever.

Digestive system
Is a system consisting of organs and structures responsible for the breakdown of
food (digestion) assimilation of nutrients (absorption) and elimination of un-
digestible and absorbable part of the food (solid waste of faces) through the anal
canal.
Organs of digestion
1. Primary (principal) organ.
2. Secondary (accessory) organs
Primary organs of digestion

22
1. Mouth (composed of teeth, tongue, lips, cheeks, plates)
Function: - chewing (breaking the food turning the food to bolus).
2. Pharynx:- this is a space found behind the tongue
Function: - stimulate swallowing of food.
3. Esophagus: - this is a tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach (it is
cartilaginous).
4. Stomach: - this is a muscular sac-like organ found in the abdomen below the
liner.
Function: - it serves as a temporary reservoir of food.
5. Small intestine: - these are narrow and coiled tube found in the abdomen.
Function: - final digestion of food takes place.it consist of two part *-
jejunum *ileum
6. Large intestine:- these are large tubes found in the abdomen consisting of
different parts (ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon and
sigmoid colon)
Function: - reabsorbs water from the digested food.
- From vitamin k
- Transport feces
7. Rectum: these is a straight part of the large intestine continued with anal
canal.
Function: - serve as a reservoir of feces.
8. Anal canal (anus):- this is the outlet of the large intestine.
Function: - elimination of feces out of the body.

Ascending (secondary) organs of digestion

1. Salivary glands (3 pairs):- include palatial glands, submandibular gland and
sublingual glands.
Function: - secrete watery fluid called saliva.
2. Pancreases: - this is an exon-endocrine gland organ found in the abdomen
lying horizontally below and behind the stomach.
Function: - secrete digestion juice called pancreatic juice.
3. Liver: - this is the second largest organ in the body found in the abdomen
most part is found by right while small part is found by left.
Function: - secrete bite
4. Gall bladder: - this is a small saclike organ found in the liver.
Function: - serves as a reservoir of bile.
5. Bile duct: - is a narrow tube extending from gall bladder to the abdomen.
23
 Function: - transport bile from the gall bladder to the duodenum.

Mechanism of swallowing
When food in ingested it undergo break down by teeth, the food will also be mixed
with sliver becoming a bolus, the tongue pushes the bolus backward into the
pharynx where swallowing occurs.

Digestion and absorption of food

After the breakdown of food in the mouth some enzymes all on the food start to
digest the food in the stomach the gastric juice also act on the food then passes to
the small intestines where pancreatic juice completes the digestion of food.
The important part of the food (nutrients, glucose, amino, acids fully acids and
glycerol) will be absorbed by the blood vessels attached to the small intestine to
the tissue (cells) of the body. The waste part will be transported through the large
intestine to be eliminated out of the body.

Digestion of carbohydrates

S/ SUBSTANC ORGAN DIGESTIV ENZYMES ACTION

N E E JUICE

1 carbohydrates mouth saliva Salivary Act on cooked

amylase starch converting
(ptyalin) to disaccharide
2 carbohydrates stomach Gastric juice HCL Stops the action
of salivary
amylase.

24
 3 carbohydrates Small Pancreatic Pancreatic Convert all starch
intestine(jejunum)) juice amylase to disaccharides.

4 carbohydrates Small Pancreatic 1.sucrose Coverts

intestine(ileum) juice 2. maltose disaccharides to
3. lactose monosaccharide’s
e.g. glucose.

Digestion of protein
S/N SUBSTRATE ORGAN DIGESTIVE ENZYMES ACTIONS
JUICE

1 protein Mouth Saliva amylase No action

2 Protein Stomach Gastric juice Pepsin Converts the

portion into
polypeptides.
3 Protein Small Pancreatic Trypsin Further converts
intestine juice protein to
(jejunum) polypeptides

4 protein Small Pancreatic Erepsin Converts

intestine juice polypeptides to
(ileum amino acids

25
Digestion of fats
S/N SUBSTRATE ORGAN DIGESTIVE ENZYMES ACTIONS
JUICE

1 Fats Mouth Saliva Salivary No action

amylase(ptyalin)

2 Fats Stomach Gastric juice Pepsin No action

3 Fats Small bile Bile salt Emulsify fat

intestine
(jejunum)

4 fats Small Pancreatic lipases Converts fats

intestine juice into fatty acids
(ileum and glycerol

Diagram

26
 Function of liver
1. Conversion of glucose to glycogen and glycogen to glucose.
2. Deamination of amino acids.
3. Desaturation of fat
4. Detoxification of toxic substance
5. Production of plasma proteins
6. Production of heat
7. Formation of anti-bodies
8. Production of red blood cells during early life
9. Storage of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, C)
10.Production of vitamin A
11.Formation and secretion of bile

Disease of the digestive system

1. Mump :- viral infection affecting salivary glands ( parotid gland)
Thrush- fungal infection of the mouth
Gingivitis – inflammation of gangue.
2. Esophagitis: - inflammation of esophagus.
3. Achalasia :- lower part of esophagus and the esophagus opening will be
damage
4. Ulcer :- peptic *duodenal *stomach
5. Colitis :- inflammation of intestines
6. Colorectal cancer
7. Hemorrhoid (pile)
8. Appendicitis – inflammation of appendix
9. Hernia: - protrusion of abdominal contents into weak areas contents into
weak areas. (umbilical, femoral, inguinal, hiatus)
10. Hepatitis:- inflammation of liver
11. Liver cirrhosis – damage to the cell of the liver
12. Jaundice: - excess breakdown of RBCS by the liver leading to yellowish
color of the skin and eyes.

Urinary system

27
Urinary system is a system consisting of organ responsible for the filtration of
blood.
ORGANS
1. Kidneys -2
2. Ureters – 2
3. Bladder -1
4. Urethra- 1

Kidneys
Kidneys are paired organs of urinary system found on the posterior abdominal wall
on each side of the vertebral column from the level of Tiz to lz vertebrae.
Each kidney is covered by a fibrous membrane called renal capsule which is tough
and prevent the kidney from infection.

Structure of the kidney

Each kidney has:-
1. Surfaces: - anterior and posterior surface.
2. Poles :- superior and inferior poles
3. Borders (margins) lateral borders (convex)
The medial borders is indented forming the roof of the kidney called the renal
hilum through which renal vessels and nerves enter and leave the kidney.
Normally the renal vein is found anteriorly than the renal artery is at the middle
while the pelvis is leaded posteriorly
Structures found at the renal hilum
1. Renal vein
2. Renal artery
3. Renal pelvis
4. Nerves

28
 5. Fat
6. Lymphriocle

The renal pelvis is continued within the kidney with the renal sinus (space found in
the kidney where urine is temporary gathered). And renal calyces. (Division of the
pelvis inside the kidney).
When the kidney is open the renal sinus can be seen clearly with it major division
(major calyces) and smaller division of the major calyces (minor calyces). The
major calyces are either two or three in each kidney. Each minor calyx terminates
at renal pyramid(s) room like small tubes) and each renal pyramid is held intact by
renal papilla the renal pyramid range between 8 and 18 in each in each kidney the
renal pyramids are separated from each other by a part of a cortex called columns.

Urine formation
About 180 liters (50 gallons) of blood reach the kidney every day for filtration buts
only about 1.5 liters of urine is formed. The urine is formed by small units of the
kidney called nephrons.

diagram

Which are million in number occupying the cortex and medulla of the kidney.
During formation the blood from the renal artery reaches the nephrons through the
afferent anterior for filtration, after filtration of the blood by the glomerulus of a
nephron process called glumethris filtration the filtrate containing dissolved
substance pass through the renal tubules important substance of the filtrate will be
reabsorbed by the capillaries surrounding the nephrons while the waste part will be
eliminated out of urine.

29
 Diagram of a neprone

Stages of urine formation

There are three (3) stages involved in urine formation.
1. Glomerular filtration: - in this stage blood from an afferent arteriole reach
the glomerulus of a nephron for filtration. After the filtration, and this
process is known as glomerular filtration, all substance sociable in water
such as glucose amino acids, salt, will be filtered down by the glomerulus
while larger solid substance such as red blood cell and plasma proteins are
larger enough that could not be able to be filtered so they pass away through
the efferent arteriole. The filtration known as glomerular filtrate will be
collected by the Bowman’s capsule and pass down the proximal convoluted
tubules or renal tubules.
2. Tubular reabsorption :- during this stage, the capillaries surrounding renal
tubules called (peritublar capillaries), absorb most of the contents of the
glomerular filtrate required by the body such as sugar (glucose), amino acids
salts, water.
3. Tubular secretion :- during this stage, all other substance not required by the
body such as excess Lon (Na+, k+, AL+, CL+, H+) and other waste product
will be added to the renal tubule typically in the distal convoluted.
After the addition of these substance the fluid becomes urine which is then
pass to the collecting ducts, then to the renal pyramids and to the renal sinus
where the urine temporary gather before moving out of the kidney through
the renal pelvis to the bladder.

Composition of normal

30
 1. Water – 90%
2. Urea – 2%
3. Uric acid
4. Creatinine
5. Phosphate
6. Sulphate
7. Oxalate
8. Sodium
9. Potassium
10.Chloride

Mechanism of micturition (urination)

This is the process undergo for one to urinate, it involves two stages
i. The bladder fills progressively until the threshold level of the bladder is
reached.
ii. Nerves reflex (micturition reflex) occur stimulating the bladder to empty
its urine context.
Then the decision of urination is up to the person to urinate or not

Function of the kidney

1. Filtered the blood and form urine
2. Regulate the amount of water in the body
3. Regulate acid base balance
4. Process vitamin D into usable for that produce bone formation
5. Produce hormone called erythropoietin that stimulates the production
of red blood cell in the bone marrow.
6. Regulation of blood pressure.

Diseases of the kidney urinary system

1. Pyelonephritis --- inflammation of the kidney
2. Glomerulonephritis – inflammation of some glomeruli
3. Kidney stone: - these are deposits of calcium salts formed in the kidney or
anywhere in the urinary system blocking the renal tubules.
Sound wares: - ultrasonic lithotripsy

31
 4. Kidney failure: - this is a damage to the kidney which could either be acute
or chronic.
5. Cystitis: - inflammation of the bladder.
6. Hypospadias;- abnormal outlet of the urethra
 Pervez hypospadias :- from above
 Pere heal – from below

Skin: - is an outer covering of the body (the largest organ) it is made up of two
layers:-
1. Epidermis (outer-layer of the skin)
2. Dermis (inner-layer of the skin)
Epidermis
This is the outer layer of the skin assisting of many cell, the layer is further divided
into three:-
1. Cornfield layer- outermost layer of the epidermis consisting of death cell
(keratinocytes) making the skin writer proof.
2. Granular layer: - the middle layer of the epidermis.
This layer consist of living cells of keratinocytes replacing the death cells of the
cornfield layer. This cells produce portentous fluid called keratin. The
keratinocytes are the most abundant cells of the skin about 90%
3. Gremial layer :- ( inner layer of the epidermis)
This layer consist of cells called melanocytes. These cells produce a dark-
brown to black fluid called melanin from the metabolism of amino acid,
tyrosine, vitamin D is also formed in this layer, other cell found in the
epidemics are Langerhans cells, Mikel cell

Dermis
This is the inner layer of the skin that is composed of proteins and fibers, the
protein are:-
i. Collagen :- responsible for the strength of the skin
ii. Elastin: - responsible for the elasticity of the skin.

32
 Both collagen and elastin are produce by cell called fibrocystic
scattered in the dermis the cell of the dermis are few as compared to
those of the epidemic the epidermis and dermis are joined together by
complex layer called basement membrane.
The upper part of the dermis is called the papillary layer
While it’s lower part is called reticular layer.

Skin appendages
These are structure found in the skin, they include:
1. Sweat gland: - this is a gland in the dermis or hypodermis of the skin
responsible for the secretion of watery fluid called sweat gland.
2. Sebaceous glands: these are also glands found in the dermis of the skin
usually around the hair follicle. They produce an oily fluid called sebum
(composed) of lactic and fatty acid making it acidic of PH around 3. The
sebum protects the skin from microorganism and also imbricates the skin.
3. Hair follicle: - this is part of the hair that is found inside the skin.
4. Arrestor pile muscle: - this is a smooth muscle that contracts and erects the
hair.
5. Nails: - these served as clouds in some birds and over animals.
6. Blood vessels (arteries and veins) these are blood vessels found in the
hypodermis and dermis of the skin but absent in the epidermis nutrients and
waste products exchange by diffusion between the epidermis and dermis
7. Nerves and their nerve endings: - these are special nerves taking the
sensation of different substance, the nerve ending of some nerves have
corpuscles example, paining corpuscle (pressure sensory cell which is small
and resemble.
8. Lymph-nodes and lymphatic vessels: - a white onion) messiness corpuscle (a
small egg-like corpuscle that is sensitive to touch.

Diagram of skin

33
Factors determining the color of the skin
1. Melanin: - a dark-brown to black fluid secreted by melanocytes that gives
the skin it dark (or black) color. The cells are activated by ultra violet light
or the sun.
2. The level of oxygenation of hemoglobin and the amount of blood in the skin
gives the skin it pinkish (or reddish color).
3. Amount of bile pigments and b carotene in the hypodermis (skin) gives the
skin it yellowish color.
Function of the skin
1. Protection from environment
Factor:-
 Microorganism (bacteria virus – fungi)
 Abrasions
 Dehydration
 Burns

2. Sensation
 Pain
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Touch

3. Heat regulation :-
 Sweat gland
 Blood vessels around the skin

Diseases of the skin

34
The disease of the skin range from mere annoyance to life – threatening from mere
annoyance to life threatening.
They are divided into,
- Non-specific diseases
- Specific disease
Non-specific disease
i. Cirrhosis (blue-tinge or color) to the skin, this signifies that the organ of
the body are defiant of oxygen (heart problem).
ii. Jaundice :- (yellow tinge or color) to the skin signifying that there
problem with the liver.
iii. Rashes: - this means the organs of the body are affected. Example of the
rashes include measles, chicken pox, and small pox.
Specific diseases of the skin
1. Acne:- this is a condition in which the hair follicle becomes blocked by
keratin containing death cell(e.g. bacteria) preventing the sebum from
reaching the surface of the skin (pimples result)
2. Eczema: - radish scaly signs appearing on the surface of the skin typically on
the chest, abdomen or around the neck.
3. Lives: - this is red raised part or signs that usually appear on face.
4. Cancer of the skin
a. Squamous cell carcinoma: - this is the cancer of the squamous cell found
the surface of the skin.
b. Basal cells carcinoma: - this is the cancer of the cell of the basal layer of
the skin the cancer may grow reaching the surface of the skin.
c. Melanoma: - this is the cancer of the melanocytes this is the most
dangerous cancer of the skin because, the cancer may metastasize
(spread) to the internal organs within the mouth of diagnosis.
d. Psonasis:- this skin diseases is related to genetics in this case, the skin
show scaly signs with fluid live sputum (saliva)
e. Kaposi’s sarcoma :- in this cancer, the wall of a lymphatic vessels
becomes affected and grow reaching the surface of the skin typically the
inner limb about diagnostic system may also become affected ( from the
mouth down to the intestine).

35
 Skeletal system
Skeletal system is a system consisting of bones of the body that are specialized
hard form of connective tissue forming the frame work of the body.
Types
1. Long bones – contain hallow having epiphysis and diaphysis originate from
cartilage e.g. homeruns, femur, tibia
2. Short bones – these bones are

3. Irregular bones: - these bones have different shapes.

- Originate from cartilages
- Example – some bones of the face
4. Flat bones :- these bone look flat in nature
- Originate from membranes
- Sternum ribs, some bones of the head.
5. Seamed bones:- these bones are nearly spherical in shape
- Originate from tendons
- Example the patella (knee cap)

Major bones of the skeleton system

For descriptive purposes the skeletal system is divided into
1. Axial skeleton
2. Appendicular skeleton

Axial skeleton
The bones of the axial skeleton are divided into regions:-
1. Head region :- skull (or cranium)
 Frontal bone -1
 Occipital bone -1
 Parietal bone – 2
 Temporal bone –

36
  Spheroid bone –
 Echinoid bone –
 Zymotic bone –
 Maxilla –
 Mandible –
2. Head region :- cervical vertebrae ( 7 in number )
3. Thoracic region :-
 Sternum
 Ribs
a. True ribs
b. False ribs
c. Floating ribs
 Vertebral column

Appendicular skeleton
Divided into:-
a. Upper limb
b. Lower limb

Upper limb
This is also divided into four parts
1. Pectoral ( shoulder) girdle:
Clavicle – intron
Scapular – posteriorly
2. Arm region – humorous
3. Forearm region:-
i. Radius – laterally
ii. Ulna – medially
4. Hard region:-
i. Carpus (carpal bone or carpals) from lateral to medial.
a. Superior ones :- scaphoid, lunate triquetrous
b. Inferior ones:-
ii. Metacarpus (metacarpals or metacarpal bones) 5 in number.
37
 iii. Phalanges 14 in number

Lower limb
Like the upper limb, is also divided into four parts:-
i. Pelvic girdle – hip (innominate)
a. Ilium – upper part
b. Ischium – posteriorly part
c. Pubis – anteriorly part
d. Sacrum

3. Thigh region – femur

4. Leg region – fibula – laterally
Tibia -- medially
5. Foot region :-
i. Tarsus ( tarsal bone or tarsals -7) the tarsus include:-
a. Metatarsus (metatarsals or metatarsal bone) 5 in number
b. Phalanges: - 14 in number.
Functions
1. Support the body
2. Mechanical basis for movement.
3. It provide site body for attachment of muscle and tendons
4. Protection
5. It produces new blood cell
6. It serve as storage capacity of calcium (salt)
Different between male and female pelvis
S/ PELVIS MALE FEMALE
N
1 General structure Thick and heavy Thin and light
2 Greater pelvis deep Shallow
3 Lesser pelvis Deep and narrow Shallow and wide
4 Pelvic inlet smaller Larger
5 Pubic arch and sub pubic angle Narrow Wide

38
 6 Obstructer foramen Round Oval
7 acetabulum Larger smaller

Types of pelvis
a. Android pelvis :-

b. Gynoecia pelvis:-

c. Anthropoid:-

d. Platypelloid pelvis:-

A and C --- males

B – Normal female pelvis
A and B – white females
B and C – black females
D – Uncommon

Bone formation
Bone formation and undergo through half-life. E.g. When the blood calcium level
is reduced osteoclasts (cells) breakdown bones and release calcium into the blood
of excess calcium is stored in bones or when exercise increase muscle mass the
calcium deposition in bones also occur to meet the muscle mass.

39
During childhood and adolescence, the calcium reposition exceed the bone break
some bone become stronger. As the man ages the bone breaking exceeds bones
formulation so the bone become soft and easily susceptible to break.

Factor that determine healthy bones

1. Exercise and proper diet.
2. Nutrients typically rich in calcium phosphorus and vitamin D.
3. Hormones: - growth hormones parathyroid hormones, cotinine, sex
hormone.
Injuries of the bone
The injuries of the bone are either fractures or breaks.
Types of bone breaks
i. Simple fracture:- when the broken bone did not protrude the skin
ii. Compound fracture :- this is when the broken bone protrude out the skin
iii. Pathological fracture: - this fracture is as a result of infection.
Treatment (process of bone healing)
1. Clot (hematoma ) is formed around the broken bones
2. Phagocytes will phagocytized the hematoma and the left over tissue
fragments.
3. Osteoblast then deposit calcium (network of fibrous tissue)around the
broken.(callus)
4. Osteoclasts then reconstructed the calcium(reshape)

Factors that delay bone healing

1. Health status:- the person is not healthy
2. Poor blood supply to the area
3. The left over tissue fragments are not removed in time.
4. Continues:- mobility in area of injuries
5. Age
6. Malnutrition
7. Usage of some drugs (corticosteroid) 8.
Diseases of skeleton system

40
 1. Osteoporosis: - thinning of bones easily break such as, lack of exercise, us of
drug (steroids) insufficient calcium phosphorus vitamin d in diet, smoking
excessive intake of alcohol.
2. Rickets: - this normally affects children where the bones becomes soft or
abnormal formation due to lack of calcium phosphorus and vitamin D.
3. In adult lack of nutrients is called osteomalacia
4. Osteomyelitis: - this is an infection of line bones caused typically by (staph
locus) through open wounds.
5. Osteoporosis :- thick but easily break
6. Osteosclerosis: - excessive deposition of bones becoming too hard.

Muscular system
Muscles of the head
Head--- occipital frontals
i. Occipital belly of occipital frontals
ii. Frontal belly of accipiter frontals
Muscles of the face
i. Frontals found in fore head
ii. Lavatory palpebral inferiors :- lift up eye lid
iii. Depressor palpebral inferiors :- depressed down eye lid
iv. Nasals found in nose
v. Orbicularis oculi
vi. Levator labil superioris
vii. Depressor labil inferior
viii. Lavatory labil superior aneque nasi
ix. Buccinators
x. Zygomaticus major
xi. Zygomaticus major
xii. Corrugator supercelli
xiii. Resorius
xiv. Depressor anguli oris
xv. Mentalis
xvi. Temporalis
xvii. Messetar
41
Muscles of the neck
1. Sternocleidomastoid
2. Platysma
3. Diagastric
4. Mylohyoid
5. Omohyoid
6. Stynohoid
7. Sternothyoid
8. Sternohyoid
Musles of the trunk
1. External intercostal
2. Internal intercostal
3. Innermost intercostal
4. Subcostal
5. Levetor costarus
6. Transversus thoracic
Muscles of the back
1. Trapezius
2. Latissimus dorsi
3. Levetorscopulge
4. Rhomboids
5. Seratus posterior superior
6. Serratus posterior inferior

Lutrimisis-
i. Ilocostalis
ii. Longissimus
iii. Semispinalis
iv. Splenius
Anterior thoraco appendicular muscles :-
1. Pecteralim major (p. major)
2. Pectoralis mino (p. minor)

42
 3. Serratus anterior
4. Subclavis
Scapulohumeral muscle:-
1. Supraspinatus
2. Infraspinatus
3. Teres mirror
4. Tsubsca pularis
5. Teres major
6. Deltoid
Muscle around the arm region
Brachial muscles
Anterior compartament:-
i. Brachialis
ii. Coracobrachialis
iii. Bicepsbrachic
Posteriory ---- tricepbrachic

Muscles of the fore arm

 Anterior compartment (flexo-pronator)
 Super ficial:-
1. Pronator teres
2. Flexo carpi radialis
3. Palmaris longus
4. Flexo cariulnaris
5. Flexodigitorm superficialis
Deep :-
6. Flexcopollicis longus
7. Pronator quadratus
8. Flexodigitorum profounds
9. Anconeus
Posterior compartment (extension supinator muscle)
43
Function are divided into three:-
1. Extensor of the carpal joint:-
i. Extensor carpi radius longus
ii. Extensor carpi radials breuis
iii. Extensor capillaries
2. Muscles of the pal lox :-
i. Extensor policies longus
ii. Extensor policies bravis
iii. Abductor policies
3. Extensor of the digits (fingers)
i. Extensor digit rum
ii. Extensor indices
iii. Extensor digitiminimi
Muscle of the hand (Manus): group into four
i. Thenar muscle
ii. Hyposthenia muscles
iii. Adductor policies
iv. Short muscles
a. Lumbricals
b. Interessi
Muscles of the abdomen
i. External oblique
ii. Internal oblique
iii. Tranversus abdomen
iv. Rectus abdomen
v. Pyramidalis
Muscles of the posterior:-
Abdominal wall
i. Iliacus
ii. Psoas major
iii. Quadratus lumborum
Muscles of the pelvic wall:-

44
 a. Laterally – obdurate internus
b. Posteriorly – piriformis
c. Anteriorly – bone
Muscles of the pelvic floor:-
i. Puboccygus
ii. Poborectalis
iii. Ilio coccygies
iv. Ishio coccygeus
Muscles of the buttock:-
i. Gluteus maximum(G.max)
ii. Gluteus minimum
iii. Gluteus medius
iv. Gemsili
v. Obturator internus
vi. Guadratus femaris
vii. Piriformis.
Muscles of the thigh:-
a. Anterior compartment:-
i. Pectin’s
ii. Ilioposas (lilacs and psoas major)
iii. Tensor of fascia lata
iv. Sartous
v. Quadriceps femora’s:-
a. Rectus femurs
b. Vast us laterals
c. Vastus intermidium
d. Vastus medals
Medial of compartment:-
i. Adductor Lingus
ii. Adductor magnums
iii. Adductor brevets
iv. Graceless
v. Obstructer extern us

45
Posterior compartment:-
i. Semitendinosus
ii. Semimembranosus
iii. Bicepfemores
Muscles of the leg:-
a. Anterior compartment:-
1. Timbales anterior
2. Extensor digit rum Lingus
3. Extensor halluces Lingus
4. Fibular tortes
b. Lateral compartment:-
i. Fablers Lingus
ii. Fibular is brevets
c. Posterior compartment :- superficial muscles:-
i. Gastrocnemius
ii. Soleus
iii. Plantaris
Deep muscles:-
i. Popliteal
ii. Flexodigitorum Lingus
iii. Flexohallucis Lingus
iv. Timbales posterior
Muscles of the foot
Functionally the muscles of the foot are divided into four layer:-
1. 1st layer :-
i. Flexodigitorum brevets
ii. Abductor halluces
iii. Abductor digitiminimi
2. 2nd layer :-
i. Quadrates Plantae
ii. Tendons of flexor digiterum Lingus and flexor halluces Lingus
iii. Humbrecials
3. 3rd layer :-

46
 i. Flexor halluces
ii. Flexor digitimeninimi brevets
th
4. 4 layer :-
i. Interossci:-
ii. Three planter interpose
iii. Four dossal interpose
Diseases of the muscles
The disease of the muscles are divided into two (2) major parts:-
1. Myasthenia gravis: - this the condition whereby the body develop antibodies
destroying the muscle of the body (auto immune antibodies_) eventually the
muscles involved atrophy (becomes weak) and loses it functions.
2. Muscular dystrophies: - this are the creping condition whereby a muscle
gradually loses its function. The sign of the muscular dystrophy include:-
I. Increase weakness (no stray)
II. Loss of muscles mass
III. Loss of muscles function
The person involved have to use a wheel chair in order to move around.
Example of muscular dystrophy are:-
i. Duchene muscular dystrophy :- this is a muscular dystrophy that
normally attacks boys since the diseases is an x-inked (inherited
chromosomes)
The disease normally appear around or before the age of five (5) and the
first muscles involved is the muscle of the pelvic then follow by the
muscles of test trunk causing spinal deformities.
The person may die as a result of involvement of respiratory and cardiac
muscles.
ii. Limb girdle muscular dystrophy :- here the muscles of the shoulder
(pectoral girdle) girdle or that of the pelvic girdle or both of them may be
involved
iii. Facial scapula – humeral muscular dystrophy: - in this muscular
dystrophy the muscles of the face and the scapula humeral muscle is
involve. The diseases appear around the age of 20 and 40 and it involved
both sexes.

47
 When the muscles of the eye are involved leads to dropping of the upper
eye lid (ptosis) or cause doubt vision (diplopia).
iv. Miltonic muscles dystrophy:- this type of muscular dystrophy occur
during old age in both sex, the first muscle involved is the muscle of the
tongue when the muscle of the eye is involved, it leads to cataract.
The children of the later generation suffer more of the diseases within the
family and the children of the affected mother inherit the more severe
form of the diseases than children of the affected fathers.

Stages and process of healing of injured (damage) muscle

1. Inflammatory stage: - this is the inflammation of a damage muscle within a
week of the injury.
2. Repair stage: - the muscle fibers from far away from the damage area
(injured) send their projections forming a network of fibers holding
themselves together.
3. Remodeling stage: - this left over tissue and debris will be removed by
phagocyte.
If the damage or (injure) is simple the area left no scar but if it is complex
(larger area of damage) a scar is seen after healing.

48