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Big Picture

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to
a. to analyze the basic operation, construction and characteristics of
semiconductor diodes.
b. to analyze the basic concepts of the application of diode.
c. to analyze the operation of power supply.

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. to analyze the basic operation, construction,

and characteristics of semiconductor diodes.

Metalanguage

In this section, the most essential terms relevant to semiconductor devices

and to demonstrate ULOa will be defined to establish a common frame of reference.
You will encounter these terms as we go through the topics. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the understanding semiconductor
devices concepts.

Atomic Theory. It states that all matter is composed of atoms.

Semiconductor. Materials in which the properties and characteristics lies

somewhere in between a conductor and insulator.

Covalent Bond. A bond when atoms of materials share electrons with other
atoms.

Energy gap. It is the energy required to move or transfer a valence electron

at the valence band to the conduction band.

Intrinsic Semiconductor. It refers to pure semiconductors that are free from

impurities that exist naturally like pure silicon and pure germanium.

Doping. It is the process of adding impurities.

Extrinsic Semiconductor. Semiconductors doped with some impurities so

as to alter their original electrical properties normally to increase their
electrical conductivities.

P-type Material. This is formed by adding acceptor impurities like trivalent

(with three valence electrons) elements Boron (B), Gallium (Ga) and Indium
(In).

N-type Material. This is the result of adding donor impurities like pentavalent
(with five valence electrons) materials. Antinomy (Sb), Arsenic (As) and
Phosphorus (P) are common pentavalent materials.
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Depletion Region. This is a region of no electrons or holes.

PN Junction Diode (Diode). It is an electronic device that allows the

passage of current in only one direction.

Biasing. It refers to the application of DC voltage on the circuit.

Rectification. This the process of converting an alternating current (AC) to a

pulsating direct current (DC).

Clipper Circuit. Otherwise known as limiter, this is a circuit that limits the
amplitude of its output signal to some predetermined threshold level.

Clamper Circuit. Clamping refers to the introduction of a reference level that

has some desired relation to a pulsed waveform. A clamping circuit is a circuit
that reestablishes the DC level of a waveform.

Voltage Multiplier. A voltage multiplier is an electrical circuit that converts

AC electrical power from a lower voltage to a higher DC voltage.

Essential Knowledge

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three
(3) weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you are
not limited to exclusively refer to these resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize
other books, research articles and other resources that are available in the
university’s library e.g. ebrary, search.proquest.com etc.

Atomic Theory of Materials

Atomic theory is a theory of the nature of

matter. The philosophical background of the
atomic theory is called atomism. The theory
applies to the common phases of matter, namely
solids, liquids and gasses, as directly
experienced on Earth. Arguably, the atomic
theory is one of the most important theories in the
history of science, with wide-ranging implications
for both pure and applied science. The theory is
largely credited to John Dalton, an 18th and 19th
century British chemist.
All matter is composed of atom: an atom is the smallest particle of an element
that retains the characteristics of that element. Figure shows the Bohr model of an
atom. The atom is composed of three subatomic particles which are the proton,
neutron, and electron. The center of an atom is called the nucleus composed of the
protons and neutrons, while the particles moving in an orbit outside it are the
electrons. Each type of atom has a certain number of electrons and protons that
distinguishes it from the atoms of all other elements. This gives each element a
unique atomic structure
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Subatomic Charges
The three subatomic particles are charged particles. Protons are positively
charged, electrons are negatively charged, and neutrons are neutral or uncharged
particles. Electric charge denoted as 𝒒 is defined as the physical property of matter
that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. The
magnitude of the charge of a proton is the same as the electron that is equal to
1.602𝑥10−19 𝐶.
𝑞𝑝 = 𝑝+ = +1.602𝑥10−19 𝐶
𝑞𝑒 = 𝑒 − = −1.602𝑥10−19 𝐶

Atomic Number
Elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of their atomic numbers.
The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus. An electrically balanced
atom has an equal number of protons and electrons; the positive charges cancel the
negative charges, and the atom has a net charge of zero. For example, a silicon
element of an atomic number 14. This corresponds to 14 number of protons as well
as 14 number of electrons. Therefore the net charge is the summation of the product
of the number of particles and its corresponding charge,
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑛𝑝+ + 𝑛𝑒 −
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (14 𝑝)(+1.602𝑥10−19 𝐶 ) + (14𝑒)(−1.602𝑥10−19 𝐶)
𝑞𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0 𝐶
∴ 𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒
Electrically balanced atom is an atom at its normal (or neutral) state, in other
words, there is no external energy such as thermal or electric energy that disturbs the
structure. An unexcited atom only happens at absolute 0 Kelvin.

Electrons And Shells

Electrons near the nucleus have less energy than those in more distant orbits.
In other words, the farther the electron to the nucleus the higher its energy and vice
versa.

↑distance ↓force towards the nucleus ↑energy level (v.v.)

In an atom, the orbits are grouped into energy levels known as shells. Each
shell has a fixed maximum number of electrons. The shells are numbered from the
innermost and each shell has an equivalent energy level. The electrical properties of
an atom are best understood with shells.

Figure shows a silicon atom where the

orbits are divided into three energy levels. The 14
electrons of the silicon atom are distributed to the
shells according to the formula
𝑁𝑒 = 2𝑛2
Where: 𝑁𝑒 − maximum number of electrons in
each shell
n – number of the shell
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Example
• Verify the number of shells and the distribution of electrons for a silicon atom in
given Figure.

Solution: Start the solution by the innermost shell in which n = 1 then continue
outwards until you have reached the atomic number (number of electrons).
Take note that the formula is used to identify the maximum number of
electrons in a particular shell.

This means that the maximum number of

electrons that can be placed at shell 1 is only
2e. Out of the 14 electrons, you have placed
2e and you have 12e more.
Maximum of 8e at the second shell and you
have 4e left.
Maximum of 18e at the third shell and you
have more slots than what is left! Therefore
there is no need to continue since you
already placed all the 14e.
Therefore, the distribution of electrons for a silicon atom as described in Figure
2 is correct – 2e at 1st shell, 8e at 2nd shell, and 4e at 3rd shell.

Because electrons that are farther have higher energy, they are considered less
tightly bound to the atom. We can say that the nucleus exerts a stronger attraction
force on electrons near the it. This outermost shell is known as the valence shell and
electrons in this shell are called valence electrons. These valence electrons are first
hand to any external energy applied. When a valence electron gains sufficient energy
from an external source, it can break free from its atom. A higher energy level means
a smaller amount of additional energy to escape is required. This is the basis for
conduction in materials. Valence electrons escaping its orbit is the conduction state.
Discussions from hereon will be focused on the behavior of the valence electrons.

Ionization
If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, called ionization
energy, it can actually escape from the outer shell and the atom’s influence. The most
common sources of energy are thermal and electric energy. When an atom absorbs
energy from a heat source or from light, for example, the energies of the electrons are
raised. The valence electrons possess more energy and are more loosely bound to
the atom than inner electrons.

The process of losing and gaining a valence electron is known as ionization,

and the resulting positively charged atom is called a positive ion. When an atom is
ionized, it is no longer at the neutral state. The departure of a valence electron leaves
a previously neutral atom with an excess of positive charge (more protons than
electrons).

The escaped valence electron is called a free electron. These free electrons
tend to travel and collide with other atoms. The atom that has accepted the free-
electron acquired an extra negative charge and is called a negative ion.
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Electrical Classification of Materials

The electrical properties of an atom such as its ability to conduct current are
defined by the number of its valence electrons. Materials can be classified into three
groups: conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. Conductors and insulators are
common knowledge while semiconductors are less known. Semiconductors are the
key and base principle of electronics.

• Conductor – a material that has a very low electrical resistance thus, it easily
conducts electrical current. Most metals are good conductors. The best
conductors are single-element materials. Conductors are classified as atoms
having less than four valence electrons.
Ex. Metals

• Insulator – a material that does not conduct electrical current under normal
conditions. Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms; therefore, there
are very few free electrons in an insulator. Most good insulators are
compounds rather than single-element materials and have very high electrical
resistance. Insulators are classified as atoms having more than four
valence electrons. Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, mica,
and quartz.

• Semiconductor – a material that is between conductors and insulators in its

ability to conduct electrical current. A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic) state
is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator.
Semiconductors are classified as having exactly four valence
electrons. Single-element semiconductors are antimony (Sb), arsenic (As),
boron (B), silicon (Si), and germanium (Ge). Compound semiconductors such
as gallium arsenide, (GaAs), indium phosphide (InP3-), etc. The single-
element semiconductors are characterized by atoms with four valence
electrons. Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor. From here on,
discussions will emphasize the semiconductors.
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Semiconductor Materials

Review of Basic Atomic Model

• Atoms are comprised of electrons, neutrons and protons.
• Electrons are found orbiting the nucleus of an atom at specific intervals, based
upon their energy levels.
• The outermost orbit is the valence orbit.

Energy levels
• Valence band electrons are the furthest
from the nucleus and have higher
energy levels than electrons in lower
orbits.
• The region beyond the valence band is
called the conduction band.
• Electrons in the conduction band are
easily made to be free electrons.
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Energy- Gap (Eg) Comparison

Energy gap is the energy difference between the conduction band and valence
band. It is the energy required to move or transfer a valence electron at the valence
band to the conduction band. The gap between conduction and valence band is also
called the forbidden band. This is because valence electrons are either in the
valence band or the conduction band but never allowed in between. If the energy is
not enough to overcome the required gap, it returns to the valence band and never
stays in the gap.
In general, the greater the energy gap, the more difficult for a material to
produce free electrons and the greater is the voltage required to cause conduction in
the material. Insulators like glass and rubber have even greater than 5 eV of energy
gap while silicon semiconductor has 1.1 eV and germanium has 0.67 eV only and
explains why germanium has a lower threshold voltage than silicon. On the other
hand, conductors have overlapping valence and conduction bands and therefore
readily allow conduction.

The Figure shows a comparison of the three electrical properties in terms of

the energy levels on two different bands – conduction and valence. An unenergized
valence electron remains in its valence band with such an energy level. But when it
acquires enough additional energy (say thru changes in temperature or the
application of voltage), it can leave the valence shell, become a free electron, and
exist in what is known as the conduction band. Once in the conduction band, the
electron is free to move throughout the material and is not tied to any given atom.
Free electrons are also called conduction electrons

The Figure shows the comparison between the atoms of a semiconductor and
a conductor such as Silicon and Copper, respectively. The following are the
interpretations:
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1. The valence electron in the copper atom “feels” an attractive force of 1

compared to a valence electron in the silicon atom which “feels” an attractive
force of 4. Therefore, there is more force trying to hold a valence electron
in silicon than in copper.
2. The copper’s valence electron is in the fourth shell, which is a greater distance
from its nucleus than the silicon’s valence electron in the third shell. Recall that
electrons farthest from the nucleus have the most energy. This means that
it is easier for valence electrons in copper to acquire additional energy to
escape from their atoms and become free electrons than it is in silicon.

Figure 5
Now let’s try to compare two semiconductors, Si and Ge respectively. Figure 5
shows the respective Bohr models and since both are semiconductors, it is expected
that both have the same valence electrons which are exactly four. The question is,
does this mean that they are electrically the same? Here are the interpretations:
1. The valence electrons in Ge are closer to the nucleus than in Si. This means
that the Ge valence electrons are at higher energy levels than those in Si
and, therefore, require a smaller amount of additional energy to escape from
the atom.
2. This property is the reason why the conduction time of Ge is faster than Si which
makes Ge more useful in applications such as switching circuits. However, the
downside is that Ge is very sensitive in temperature changes thus Si is more
widely used.

Covalent Bonds

When atoms combine to form a solid,

crystalline material, they arrange themselves in a
symmetrical pattern called crystal. The atoms
within the crystal structure are held together by
covalent bonds, which are created by the
interaction of the valence electrons of the atoms.
In other words, a covalent bond is defined as the
sharing of valence electrons. Figure shows an
illustration of how a Si atom with four valence
electrons share electrons with other Si atoms.
Take a look at the atom at the center that instead of having only four valence
electrons, it has now eight because of the bond! This effectively creates eight shared
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valence electrons for each atom and produces a state of chemical stability.
It was said before that semiconductors are neither a good conductor nor a good
insulator. But with covalent bonding, a semiconductor can be made as a conductor or
insulator which will be discussed in the middle part of this section.

Recombination

Figure 7
When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy called hole is left
in the valence band within the crystal. This phenomenon creates an electron-hole
pair. Figure 7 shows this in the views of energy and bonding. A hole is considered as
the absence of electron (negative charge) thus making it electrically positive. For easy
understanding, imagine holes as positively charged particles! Therefore, we can say
that the free electrons which are negatively charged, tend to travel and “seek” for any
holes (because opposite charges attract). This continuous drifting of electrons in one
direction is considered as the flow of current. Recombination occurs when a free
electron loses energy and falls back into a hole in another else’s valence band. Figure
8 shows the recombination of Si crystal.

Figure 8
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Electron and Hole Current

Semiconductors conduct current in either of the two directions unlike in

conductors which only have one. These two types of current flow are called: electron
flow and hole flow.

Electron Current
It was said that the unexcited atom only happens at absolute 0 Kelvin.
Therefore, a small change in temperature produces free electrons that are randomly
moving in the crystal structure. When a voltage is applied across the crystal, the
stream of thermally generated free electrons are now easily attracted toward the
positive end of the voltage and somehow moves in a uniform direction. This movement
of free electrons is called electron current.

Figure 7
Figure 7 shows the electron current in intrinsic silicon. Intrinsic means a
covalent bonding with no impurities (no impurity means “pure”). In other words, the
sharing of electrons happens between two same elements.

Hole Current
One unique property of semiconductors is to conduct in hole flow. Hole flow is
the flow of current in the opposite direction to the electron flow. This means that the
hole and electron flows of current have the same magnitude (in pure semiconductors)
and only differ in direction. Figure 8 illustrates the flow of current through holes. In this
illustration, the current flow is from right to left (the blue arrows). As the valence
electron moves from left to right to fill the next hole while leaving another hole behind,
the hole has effectively moved from right to left. In other words, if the direction of the
electron flow is from left to right, and holes are defined as the absence of electrons,
then we can say that the hole effectively flows from right to left!

Figure 8
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When there is electron flow, there is also hole flow. But remember, only the
electrons are physically moving, holes are just the absence of electrons and
they are not even subatomic particles!

Semiconductor Theory Intrinsic Semiconductor

• Silicon(Si), germanium(Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs) are the primary
materials used in semiconductor devices.
• Si and Ge are elements and are intrinsic semiconductor.
• In pure form, Si and Ge do not exhibit the characteristics needed for practical
solid-state devices.

Semiconductor Doping
• Impurities are added to intrinsic semiconductor materials to improve the
electrical properties of the material.
• This process is referred to as doping and the resulting material is called an
extrinsic semiconductor.
• There are two major classifications of doping material.
Trivalent – gallium, aluminum, boron, indium
Materials with three valence electron
Pentavalent – phosphorus, antimony, arsenic
Materials with five valence electrons

a b
Figure 9
N-type Semiconductor

Figure 9a shows the covalent bonding of an N-type semiconductor (Silicon and

Antimony). Pentavalent impurity atoms are added (arsenic, phosphorus, bismuth, and
antimony) to a semiconductor to form an N-type. These impurity atoms have five
valence electrons which increase the number of conduction-band electrons when
doped in intrinsic silicon. Here is what happens:
• A pentavalent atom doped in a semiconductor will result in nine valence
electrons in covalent bonding. Remember that a chemically stable atom should
have only eight valence electrons, therefore we can say that there is an excess
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electron! This extra electron automatically becomes a free electron

because it is not involved in bonding; makes not-so-good-conductor silicon
very good!
• In an N-type semiconductor, the majority carriers of current are the
electrons while the minority carriers are the holes. Majority carriers are
described as the current carriers and dominates the magnitude of the current
flow. For easy analysis, you can consider n-type materials as negatively
charged material since the abundance of electrons.

P-type Semiconductor

P-type semiconductor covalent bonding is shown in Figure 9b (Silicon and

Boron). This time, to make a P-type semiconductor trivalent, impurity atoms are
added (boron, indium, and gallium). These impurity atoms have three valence
electrons which decrease the number of valence electrons when doped in intrinsic
silicon. Here is what happens:
• A trivalent atom doped in a semiconductor will result in seven valence electrons
in covalent bonding. We can say that there is a deficiency in electron! This lack
of electron automatically becomes a hole in the valence band ready to
accept any incoming free electron.
• In a P-type semiconductor, the majority carriers of current are the holes
while the minority carriers are the electrons. For easy analysis, you can
consider p-type materials as positively charged material since the lack of
electrons.

Semiconductor Junctions
When p-type material meets n-type material within a single silicon crystal, a pn
junction is formed. At the pn junction, the electrons from the n-type and holes from the
p-type attract each other and combine thereby canceling their net charge. As a result,
a depletion region exists in between. The charge carriers are depleted in that region.

a b
Figure 10
To understand what happens, remember that the p-region is abundant of holes
while the n-region is abundant of electrons and opposite charges attract! This is what
happens:
• At the instant of the pn junction formation (Figure 10b), the free electrons near
the junction in the n region begin to move across the junction into the p region
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where they recombine with the holes that are near the junction. (Remember,
only the electrons are the moving particles!) This is due to the law of attraction
between two opposite charges. However, the only affected particles are those
near the junction because they are the charges least distant to each other.
Those other charges at the far end cannot come to meet the junction.
• The electron-hole pairs form a depletion region. The term depletion refers to
the fact that the region near the pn junction is depleted of charge carriers
(electrons and holes) due to diffusion. Meaning to say, at this region the
electron-hole pairs are considered uncharged or neutral as their charges cancel
each other. (The width of the depletion region in Figure 10b is exaggerated for
illustration purposes.)
• This results in the formulation of an electric field called barrier potential.

Barrier Potential
The barrier is the potential difference of the electric field across the depletion
region. It acts as a required potential (voltage) to push the electrons through the
barrier, which in other words allows an applied current to flow from end to end. It is the
voltage that will excite the neutral electron-hole pairs and eventually cause the width
of the region to decrease. In which we can say that, decreasing the width of the region,
lets the continuous flow of current through the pn-material.
This potential difference across the barrier denoted as 𝑉𝐷 , when viewed in a
circuit perspective, acts as a voltage drop across the pn-material. This amount of
voltage differs depending on the type of semiconductor, and the most common are
𝑉𝐷 = 0.7 𝑉 (𝑆𝑖)
𝑉𝐷 = 0.3 𝑉 (𝐺𝑒)
For example, a voltage drop of 0.7V is required for a silicon pn-junction to
conduct current. 𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 is also known as the threshold voltage of the diode denoted
as 𝑉𝑡ℎ .

Semiconductor Diode
A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material (usually silicon),
in which half is doped as a p region and half is doped as an n region as shown in
Figure 10a. A diode is an electronic component that works based on the concept of
the pn-junction just discussed above. The p-region is the anode while the n-region is
the cathode. Figure 10b shows the schematic symbol of a diode and it’s equivalent
actual component.

a b
Figure 10
It is very important to note the polarity of a diode to understand its operation as
will be discussed. To bias a diode means you apply a dc voltage across it. Biasing
causes the diode to conduct current in one direction and block it in the other
direction. There are two types of diode bias: forward and reverse bias.
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Majority and Minority Carriers

Two currents through a diode:
• Majority Carriers
The majority carriers in n-type materials are electrons.
The majority carriers in p-type materials are holes
• Minority Carriers
The minority carriers in n-type materials are holes.
The minority carriers in p-type materials are electrons

Diode Operating Conditions

No Bias

No external voltage is applied: VD = 0 V

There is no diode current: ID = 0 A
Only a modest depletion region exists

Forward Bias
Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the pn junction. Figure
11 shows the diode at forward bias.

a b
Figure 11
The following conditions require the forward bias connection:
1. Because a diode is a pn-junction, it requires an amount of barrier potential; thus
the bias voltage denoted as 𝑉𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 must be greater than the barrier potential.
2. An example of a proper forward bias connection in Figure 11a. The positive
terminal of the 𝑉𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 should be connected to the anode (p-region) of the diode, while
the negative terminal of the 𝑉𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 should be connected to the cathode (n-region).
Figure 11b shows what happens inside the diode when operated in a forward bias
direction. Because like charges repel, the negative side of the bias-voltage “pushes”
the free electrons, which are the majority carriers in the n region, toward the pn
junction. This eliminates the barrier at the junction. While the holes in the p region
“accepts” the incoming free electrons and provide a “pathway” for these electrons to
move through the p region.
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External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in the same polarity as the
p- and n-type materials. The forward voltage causes the depletion region to narrow.
The electrons and holes are pushed toward the p-n junction.

The electrons and holes have

sufficient energy to cross the p-n
junction

Reverse Bias

Reverse bias is the condition that blocks current through the pn junction. Figure
12 shows the diode at reversed bias.

a b
Figure 12
The following conditions require the reverse bias connection:
1. For the same reason in forward bias, the |𝑉𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 | > 𝑉𝑡ℎ .
2. An example of a proper forward bias connection in Figure 12a. The negative
terminal of the 𝑉𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 is connected to the anode (p-region) of the diode, while the
positive terminal of the 𝑉𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 is connected to the cathode (n-region). Observe that
the connection is reversed compared to the forward bias earlier.

As the reverse connection is applied, the effect inside the diode is shown in
Figure 12b. By the law of attraction, the +𝑉𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 attracts the majority carriers of the n-
region and the −𝑉𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 attracts the majority carriers of the p-region. These cause the
electrons and holes to flow in opposite directions. Because of the direction caused by
the external reverse bias, the minority carriers of the pn diode meet and widen the
depletion region. This increase in the width of the depletion region serves as the
“blockage” in the flow of current.

Ideally, if the diode is at reverse bias direction, the output current is zero.

External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in the opposite polarity of
the p- and n-type materials. The reverse voltage causes the depletion region to widen.
The electrons in the n-type material are attracted toward the positive terminal of the
voltage source.
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The holes in the p-type material are

attracted toward the negative
terminal of the voltage source

Diode Current
It can be demonstrated through the use of solid-state physics that the general
characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be defined by and referred to as
Shockley’s equation.

Thermal Voltage
Thermal voltage is determined by

The diode current denoted as 𝐼𝐷 is the current that passes through the diode.
It is referred to as the forward current when the diode is connected in forward bias.
The reverse saturation current 𝐼𝑠 , also known as the leakage current, is the current
through the diode caused by the minority carriers. This is often too small that is almost
negligible in the forward bias direction. But for the reverse bias connection with
negative values of 𝑉𝐷 the exponential term drops very quickly below the level of I,
which results to 𝐼𝐷 ≅ −𝐼𝑠 . Which means that the diode current is in the reverse direction
as the forward current.
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Example 1. At a temperature of 27°𝐶 determine the thermal voltage.

Solution: 27 °𝐶 is the common temperature for components in an enclosed operating

system. Substitute the given temperature to the formula of the thermal voltage.

Example 2. Find the diode current if 𝐼𝑠 = 40𝑛𝐴, n=2, and the applied bias voltage is
0.5V.

Solution: To solve the diode current, solve first the temperature in Kelvin and the
value of constant k. (Tip: If the problem does not give the temperature, assume
ambient temperature 27°𝐶).

Observe that the diode current is small (in mA), why do you think is that? That
is because the applied bias voltage across the diode is less than the threshold voltage
of a silicon diode. Try 𝑉𝐷 = 0.72𝑉 and you will see a significant increase in the diode
current 𝐼𝐷 .

Temperature Effects
As temperature increases it adds energy to the diode. It reduces the required
forward bias voltage for forward-bias conduction. It increases the amount of reverse
current in the reverse-bias condition. It increases maximum reverse bias avalanche
voltage
Fact: Germanium diodes are more sensitive to temperature variations than silicon or
gallium arsenide diodes.

Temperature Effect on Threshold Voltage

Diode threshold voltage changes as the temperature changes.
𝑽𝐓𝐇𝟏 = 𝑽𝐓𝐇 + 𝒌(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟎 )
Where:
VTH1 = threshold voltage at new temperature
VTH = threshold voltage at room temperature
= 0.3 for Ge and 0.7 for Si
k = - 2.5 mV/°C for Ge
= - 2.0 mV/°C for Si
T1 = new temperature
T0 = room temperature
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Sample Problem
• Calculate the new threshold voltage of a germanium diode when it operates at
100 °C
Solution:
𝑽𝐓𝐇𝟏 = 𝑽𝐓𝐇 + 𝒌(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟎 )
Knowing that 𝑉TH of Germanium diode is equal to 0.3
If the problem does not give the temperature, assume ambient temperature 27°C
𝑉𝑇𝐻 = 0.3 + [(−2.5 × 10−3 )(100 − 27)]

𝑽𝑻𝑯 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝑽

Temperature effects on Reverse Saturation Current

As the temperature changes, the reverse saturation current of the diode would
also change. To determine the saturation current at new temperature, we use the
formula:
𝑰𝑺𝟏 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒆𝒌(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟎 )
Where:
𝐼𝑆1 = saturation current at new temperature
𝐼𝑠 = saturation current at room temperature
𝑘 = 0.07/oC
T1 = new temperature
T0 = room temperature

Sample Problem
• A silicon diode has a reverse saturation current of 50 nA at room temperature.
If the operating temperature is raised by 50 °C, what is now the reverse
saturation current?
Solution
𝑰𝑺𝟏 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒆𝒌(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟎 )

The problem states that “the operating temperature is raised by 50 °C”, from this
statement we can conclude that:
𝑇1 − 𝑇0 = 50℃

Substituting the values to the equation:

𝑰𝑺𝟏 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒆𝒌(𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟎 )
𝐼𝑆1 = (50 × 10−9 )[𝑒 0.07(50) ]

𝑰𝑺𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟓𝟔 𝝁𝑨
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Diode Characteristic Curve

a b
Figure 13
Figure 13a shows the characteristic curve of a Si diode. Diode characteristic
curve is a graph that shows the diode current given the diode voltage in forward and
reverse connections. The first quadrant is the curve at forward bias and the third
quadrant is the diode at reverse bias. Here are the interpretations:

At forward bias,
a. The forward current 𝐼𝐹 is small when the applied voltage is 𝑉𝐹 < 0.7𝑉. This is
because 𝑉𝐹 is less than the threshold, thus, is not enough to drive the diode into
conduction.
b. However, 𝑉𝐹 > 0.7𝑉, there is an exponential increase in 𝐼𝐹 which indicates the
conduction of the diode. At 𝑉𝐹 = 𝑉𝑡ℎ , the curve looks like a knee cap, thus, 𝑉𝑡ℎ
is also called knee voltage.
c. Notice that 𝑉𝐹 does not go further from 0.7V (even if the external 𝑉𝑏𝑖𝑎𝑠 is
increased), that is because it is just the amount of voltage drop that the diode
requires.

At reverse bias,
a. The reverse current 𝐼𝑅 is ideally equal to 0A until it reaches the breakdown
voltage 𝑉𝐵𝑅 .
b. At 𝑉𝐵𝑅 , the reverse current suddenly drops and conducts a negative current
−𝐼𝑅 . This means that the applied reverse bias is too negative for the diode that
it allowed the flow of current in an opposite direction. Consequently, this sudden
conduction of the diode is unwanted (unless at Zener condition, which will be
discussed later.)
c. The region at 𝑉𝐵𝑅 is called the breakdown region.

Figure 13b shows a comparison between the three common semiconductor

diodes – Ge, Si, and GaAs. Among the three, Ge has the smallest 𝑉𝑡ℎ and therefore
the first one to conduct given the forward voltage. In this context, we will use Si diode
(𝑉𝑡ℎ = 0.7𝑉) as the default in solving diode circuits, unless stated otherwise.
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Breakdown Region

Figure 14
As described earlier, there is a point where the application of a too negative
voltage (𝑉𝐵𝑅 ) will result in a sharp change in the characteristics as shown in Figure 14
– this region is also called the Zener region. The maximum reverse-bias potential that
can be applied before entering the breakdown region is called the peak inverse
voltage (PIV) or the peak reverse voltage (PRV).

Diode Equivalent Circuits

The analysis of diode circuits is categorized into three – ideal, practical,
piecewise. These analyses depend on diode considerations.

Ideal Equivalent Circuit

The analysis of an ideal equivalent circuit includes the following:

• The type of diode is assumed to be ideal. An ideal diode acts as a switch; that
when forward-biased, it is an ON switch that easily conducts current, whereas
when reverse-biased, it is an OFF switch that completely blocks the current. An
important thing to note in an ideal diode is that 𝑽𝒕𝒉 = 𝟎𝑽 which means that there
is no required voltage drop across the diode for it to conduct. At the same
time, an ideal diode is assumed to have no internal resistance.
• This assumption, unless otherwise stated, may be applied when the circuit’s
over-all resistance 𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 is too much greater than the internal resistance of the
diode. And, when the over-all voltage 𝑉𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 of the circuit is too much greater
than the threshold voltage of the diode.
• Its characteristic curve does not have 𝑉𝑡ℎ and the slope of the forward current is
infinity (vertical line).
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Practical Equivalent Circuit

The analysis of a practical equivalent circuit includes the following:

• The type of diode is assumed to be simplified. A simplified diode requires the

threshold voltage before the conduction (that’s why there is a battery
equivalent to 𝑉𝑡ℎ in the diode model). At the same time, a simplified diode is
assumed to have no internal resistance.
• Most books use this assumption as the default equivalent circuit when solving
problems. Applied when the circuit’s over-all resistance 𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 is too much
greater than the internal resistance of the diode.
• Its characteristic curve does show that the forward current starts at the 𝑉𝑡ℎ mark
and its slope is infinity (vertical line).

In this context, let us the practical equivalent circuit unless stated otherwise.

Piece-wise Equivalent Circuit

Also called Complex model. The analysis of a practical equivalent circuit

includes the following:

• The type of diode is analyzed per piece. The Piece-wise diode considers the
diode’s internal resistance and threshold voltage (that’s why there is a
battery equivalent to 𝑉𝑡ℎ and a resistor in the diode model).

Its characteristic curve does show that the forward current starts at the 𝑉𝑡ℎ mark
∆𝑉
with slope 𝑟𝑎𝑣 . The slope of 𝐼𝐹 indicates the forward resistance of the diode 𝑟𝑎𝑣 = ∆𝐼 𝐷 .
𝐷
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Sample Problem
• Determine the forward voltage and
forward current for the diode in the
figure for each diode models.
Also, find the voltage across the
limiting resistor in each case.
Assume r’d = 10 Ω at the
determined value of the forward
current.

Solutions:
The problem is asking for the voltage and current of the diode as well as the
voltage across the resistor in three different equivalent circuits.
(a) For ideal Model:
𝑉𝐹 = 0𝑉
𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 10 𝑉
𝐼𝐹 = = = 𝟏𝟎 𝒎𝑨
𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 1.0 𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 = (10 𝑚𝐴)(1.0 𝑘Ω) = 𝟏𝟎𝑽

(b) For practical Model:

𝑉𝐹 = 0.7 𝑉
𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 − 𝑉𝐹 10𝑉 − 0.7𝑉
𝐼𝐹 = = = 𝟗. 𝟑 𝒎𝑨
𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 1.0 𝑘Ω
𝑉𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 = (9.3 𝑚𝐴)(1.0 𝑘Ω) = 𝟗. 𝟑𝑽

(c) For complex Model:

𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 − 0.7𝑉 10𝑉 − 0.7𝑉 9.3 𝑉
𝑖𝐹 = ′ = = = 𝟗. 𝟐𝟏𝒎𝑨
𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 + 𝑟𝑑 1.0𝑘Ω + 10Ω 1010 Ω

𝑉𝐹 = 0.7𝑉 + 𝐼𝐹 𝑟𝑑′ = 0.7 + (9.21 𝑚𝐴 × 10Ω)

𝑽𝑭 = 𝟕𝟗𝟐𝒎𝑽

𝑉𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝐹 𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇 = (9.21 𝑚𝐴)(1.0 𝑘Ω) = 𝟗. 𝟐𝟏𝑽

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Self-Help!
To deepen your knowledge on the topics, you can refer to the following books
or ebooks.

R. Boylestad, Electronic devices and circuit theory, Upper Saddle River, NJ.:
Pearson Prentice Hall, 2013.

I. P.V., Fundamentals of electronics circuit design., Banglore: University

Science Press, 2011.

S. Singh, Electronics Engineering, Alpha Science International, 2014.

A. Saxena, An introduction to electronics, Alpha Science International, 2014.

Let’s Check
This section will measure your comprehensive understanding of the principles
and theories discussed by answering the following questions.

Instruction: Choose the letter of your choice corresponds to the correct answer.

1. When a neutral atom loses a valence electron it becomes:

A. Intrinsic material C. Negatively charged
B. Positively charged D. Extrinsic material

2. Atoms that contain an equal number of protons and electrons are called:
A. Positive ions C. Neutral atoms
B. Negative ions D. nuclei atom

3. The process of adding impurities to pure semiconductor materials is called:

A. Ionizing C. Doping
B. Bonding D. Covalent bond

4. Matter containing atoms with 3 or less valence electrons in their orbital paths are
classified as:
A. Conductors C. Semiconductors
B. Insulators D. None of the above

5. The most basic particle of negative charge is the

A. coulomb C. proton
B. electron D. neutron
6. Diffused impurities with ______ valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.
A. single C. complete
B. five D. three

7. In a p-type material the hole is the _____ and the electron is the ______.
A. majority carrier; minority carrier
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B. majority carrier; majority carrier

C. minority carrier; majority carrier
D. minority carrier; minority carrier

8. The nucleus of a copper atom contains how many protons?

A. 1 C. 18
B. 4 D. 29

9. A pure semiconductor is often referred to as a (n)

A. extrinsic semiconductor
B. intrinsic semiconductor
C. doped semiconductor
D. none of the above

10. An increase in temperature will cause a diode to:

A. Increase current flow
B. Decrease current flow
C. Turn on
D. stay the same

11. When testing a diode, if the positive meter lead is connected to the cathode, and
the negative meter lead is connected to the anode, the meter will read:
A. A forward bias condition
B. Low resistance
C. Open circuit
D. none of the above

12. The depletion region in a diode is void of:

A. Majority charge carriers
B. Minority charge carriers
C. All electrons
D. none of the above

13. When a diode is forward biased, the majority charge carriers are pushed:
A. Toward each other
B. Away from each other
C. Either direction
D. to the bottom of the diode

14. The area where the P and N materials are joined together is called the:
A. Depletion region
B. P-N junction
C. Enhancement region
D. joined region
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15. A reversed-biased diode acts like a (n)

A. closed switch C. small resistance
B. open switch D. none of the above

16. The characteristics of an ideal diode are those of a ____that can conduct current
in only one direction.
A. current source C. voltage source
B. switch D. fuse

17. The knee voltage of a diode is approximately equal to the

A. applied voltage C. breakdown voltage
B. barrier potential D. forward voltage

18. A wave shaping circuit which controls the shape of the output waveform by
removing a portion of the applied wave is called _______.
A. clipper C. multiplier
B. clamper D. none

Let’s Analyze
This activity is designed to measure your critical thinking skills. This will
measure your comprehension of the concepts and principles discussed, as well as
apply these concepts to the real-world problems.

Solve the following problems

1. For a silicon diode, calculate the current at room temperature if the forward
voltage is 0.5 V and leakage current is 90 nA.

2. Determine the threshold voltage of a silicon diode when it operates at 90 °F.

3. In the reverse-bias region the saturation current of a silicon diode is about

0.1µA (T = 20°C). Determine its approximate value if the temperature is
increased at 313°K.

4. Determine the forward voltage and

forward current for the diode in the
figure for each diode models. Also,
find the voltage on each resistor in
each case. Assume r’d = 8 Ω at the
determined value of the forward
current.
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In a Nutshell
Semiconductor in its purest form cannot be used in electronics industry
because at room temperature they are considered as an insulator. However, through
the discovery of genius persons in the past, these materials created a big impact in
technology. The most basic device in electronics is the diode. Can you describe the
process of forming the diode?
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Q&A LIST

You can list down all questions or issues from the topics. These questions or issues
can be raised in the Blackboard LMS or during our face-to-face or virtual session. And
you have to write the answer in the blanks provided after your concerns had been
clarified.

Questions/Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Keywords Index.

Atomic Theory Intrinsic N-type material Rectification

Semiconductor
Semiconductor Doping Depletion Region Clipper circuit
Covalent Bond Extrinsic Diode Clamper Circuit
Semiconductor
Energy Gap P-type material Biasing Voltage multiplier