Nipah Virus

Infection
 Nipah Virus Infection
Nipah Virus Infection (NiV) is an emerging infectious disease of public health
importance in the South-East Asia Region.

The virus
The virus is named after the Malaysian village where it was first discovered.1 This
virus along with Hendra virus comprises a new genus designated Henipavirus in the
subfamily Paramyxovirinae.2

Reservoir of virus
Fruit bats of the genus Pteropus have been identified as natural reservoirs of
NiV. A seroepidemiologic study in Malaysia implicated four fruit bat species, Pteropus
hypomelanus, P. vampyrus, Cynopterus brachyotis, Eonycteris spelaea, and an
insectivorous bat, Scotophilus kuhlii.3 Nipah virus has been isolated from the brain
and spinal fluid of victims in Malaysia.4 Infective virus has also been isolated from
environmental samples of bat urine and partially-eaten fruit in Malaysia.5

The species-wise distribution of fruit bats in Asia is presented in Table 1. Given the
distribution of the locally abundant fruit bats in South Asia, NiV outbreaks are likely
to continue to occur in affected countries. The bats are migratory.6 This has generated
intensive surveillance for evidence of Nipah virus infection in bats in these countries.
Evidence of NiV could be demonstrated in P. giganteus in Bangladesh.7 Nipah virus
has been isolated from Lyle’s flying fox (Pteropus lylei) in Cambodia8 and viral RNA
found in urine and saliva from P. lylei and Horsfield’s roundleaf bat (Hipposideros
larvatus) in Thailand.9 Antibodies to a Nipah-like virus have been found in sera from
fruit bats collected in India, Indonesia and Timor-Leste.10 The status of NiV infection
in other countries of the South-East Asia Region is not known.

Antibodies to henipaviruses have also been found in fruit bats in Madagascar

(Pteropus rufus, Eidolon dupreanum)11 and Ghana (Eidolon helvum)12 indicating a
wide geographic distribution of the viruses. No infection of humans or other species
has been observed in Cambodia, Thailand or Africa.

2 Nipah Virus Infection

Epidemiology
So far, NiV has infected 477 people and killed 252 since 1998. The distribution of NiV
outbreaks in Bangladesh and India during 2001 to 2008 is shown in Figure 1. Outbreaks
of Nipah in south Asia have a strong seasonal pattern and a limited geographical
range. The morbidity and mortality data of human NiV infection is presented in
Table 2. Case fatality rate of NiV ranges from 40-70% although it has been as high
as 100% in some outbreaks.

Figure 1: Chronological distribution of outbreak of Nipah virus infection

in South Asia, 2001-2008

The boundaries and name shown on this map do not imply any expression or any opinion what so ever on the part of
World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities or concerning
the delimitation of its frontiers or boundries

Nipah Virus Infection 3

 Table 1: Distribution of bat species previously shown to have Nipah virus
(adopted from 2007 International Union for Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources Red List of Threatened Species. www.iucnredlist.org.)
Species Geographic range
Pteropus Australia; Cambodia; Indonesia; Malaysia*; Maldives;
hypomelanus Myanmar; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Solomon Islands;
Thailand; Viet Nam
Pteropus Brunei Darussalam; Cambodia; Indonesia; Malaysia;
vampyrus Myanmar; Philippines; Thailand; Tonga; Vanuatu
Pteropus lylei Cambodia*; Thailand#; Viet Nam
Pteropus Bangladesh; China; India; Maldives; Nepal; Pakistan; Sri
giganteus Lanka
Eonycteris China; India (Andaman Is., Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
spelaea Karnataka, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Nicobar Is.,
Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Uttaranchal); Indonesia; Malaysia;
Myanmar; Philippines; Thailand
Cynopterus Cambodia; China; India (Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Goa,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, Nagaland, Tamil Nadu); Indonesia
(Sulawesi, Sumatra); Lao People’s Democratic Republic;
Malaysia; Myanmar; Nepal; Philippines; Singapore; Sri
Lanka; Thailand; Viet Nam
Scotophilus Bangladesh; India; Indonesia; Malaysia; Pakistan; Philippines;
kuhlii Sri Lanka
Hipposideros Bangladesh; Cambodia; China; India; Indonesia (Bali, Jawa,
larvatus Kalimantan, Sumatra); Lao People’s Democratic Republic;
Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, Sarawak); Myanmar;
Thailand#; Viet Nam
Bold, countries where Nipah virus infection in bats was demonstrated by antibody detection method.
*, countries where Nipah virus infection in bats was confirmed by isolation.
#, countries where Nipah virus infection in bats was confirmed by RNA detection.

The presence of Nipah virus antibodies have indicated that dogs, cats, goats and
horses were infected, but only if exposed to infected pigs in Malaysia.13 Their role in
transmitting infection to humans was not determined.

4 Nipah Virus Infection

 Table 2: Morbidity and mortality due to Nipah or Nipah-like virus,
Asia-Pacific Region, 1998-2008

Year/Month Location No. No. Case

cases deaths Fatality

Sep 1998 - Malaysia (Perak, Selangor 265 105 40%

Apr 99 and Negeri Sembilan 11 1 9%
states)
Mar 1999 Singapore

Feb 2001 Siliguri (India) 66 45 68%

Apr-May 2001 Meherpur, Bangladesh 13 9 69%

Jan 2003 Naogaon, Bangladesh 12 8 67%

Jan 2004 Goalando, Bangladesh 29 22 76%

Apr 2004 Faridpur, Bangladesh 36 27 75%

Jan-Mar 2005 Tangail, Bangladesh 12 11 92%

Jan-Feb 2007 Thakurgaon, Bangladesh 7 3 43%

Mar-Apr 2007 Kushtia, Bangladesh 8 5 63%
April 2007 Nadia, India 5 5 100%

Feb 2008 Manikgonj and Rajbari, 11 6 55%

Apr 2008 Shatkira and Jessore 2 1 50%

Total 477 248 52%

The mode of transmission

Infected bats shed virus in their excretion and secretion such as saliva, urine, semen
and excreta but they are symptomless carriers. The NiV is highly contagious among
pigs, spread by coughing. Direct contact with infected pigs was identified as the
predominant mode of transmission in humans when it was first recognized in a large
outbreak in Malaysia in 1999.14 Ninety percent of the infected people in the 1998-
1999 outbreaks were pig farmers or had contact with pigs.

Nipah Virus Infection 5

 There is strong evidence that emergence of bat-related viral infection communicable
to humans and animals has been attributed to the loss of natural habitats of bats. As
the flying fox habitat is destroyed by human activity the bats get stressed and hungry,
their immune system gets weaker, their virus load goes up and a lot of virus spills out
in their urine and saliva.15 Similar fluctuation of virus shedding may be associated with
the stressful physiological conditions or seasons. Evidence of seasonal preference of
transmission in P. lylei was recently demonstrated in a study in Thailand. The period
April-June was the time (highest in May) when viral RNA could be mainly detected
in urine which was associated with a fluctuation of population numbers that was
observed only in May and correlated with young bats leaving to fly.

There were focal outbreaks of NiV in Bangladesh and India in 2001 during winter.
Drinking of fresh date palm sap, possibly contaminated by fruit bats (P. giganteus)
during the winter season, may have been responsible for indirect transmission of
Nipah virus to humans.16

There is circumstantial evidence of human-to-human transmission in India in 2001.

During the outbreak in Siliguri, 33 health workers and hospital visitors became ill
after exposure to patients hospitalized with Nipah virus illness, suggesting nosocomial
infection.17

During the Bangladesh outbreak the virus is suggested to have been transmitted
either directly or indirectly from infected bats to humans. Strong evidence indicative
of human- to-human transmission of NiV was found in Bangladesh in 2004.18

Clinical presentation
In animals, typical clinical symptoms are observed in pigs where respiratory symptoms
dominate. Nipah virus disease in pigs is also known as porcine respiratory and neurologic
syndrome as well as barking pig syndrome based on clinical observation.

Symptoms of NiV infection in humans are similar to that of influenza such as

fever and muscle pain. In some cases, inflammation of the brain occurs leading to
disorientation or coma. Encephalitis may present as acute or late onset. The latter
may be difficult to diagnose since exposure may have taken place several months
earlier. Further, those who may have recovered from an acute episode may also have
a relapse. Nevertheless, magnetic resonance of the brain is helpful in differentiating

6 Nipah Virus Infection

Nipah encephalitis from other encephalitis as well as in defining between acute and
late onset or a relapsed form of the disease. The case fatality rate ranges from 9 to
75%.

Incubation period: 4 to 18 days.

Laboratory diagnosis
Procedures for the laboratory diagnosis of NiV include serology, histopathology, PCR
and virus isolation. Serum Neutralization Test, ELISA, RT-PCR are used for laboratory
confirmation.

Most countries in the South-East Asia Region do not have adequate facilities for
diagnosing the virus or on ways of controlling it. Bangladesh, India and Thailand have
developed laboratory capacity for diagnostic and research purposes.

Nipah virus is classified internationally as a biosecurity level (BSL) 4 agent. BSL 2

facilities are sufficient if the virus can be first inactivated during specimen collection.19
There are a few laboratories in which the virus can be studied safely without a risk
of it “escaping” and infecting more people.

Prevention and control

There is no effective treatment for Nipah virus disease, but ribavarin may alleviate
the symptoms of nausea, vomiting, and convulsions.20 Treatment is mostly focused
on managing fever and the neurological symptoms. Severely ill individuals need to
be hospitalized and may require the use of a ventilator.

Human-to-human transmission of NiV has been reported in recent outbreaks

demonstrating a risk of transmission of the virus from infected patients to healthcare
workers through contact with infected secretions, excretions, blood or tissues.
Healthcare workers caring for patients with suspected or confirmed NiV should
implement Standard Precautions when caring for patients and handling specimens
from them. A WHO Aide–memoire on Standard Precautions in health care is
available at: http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/standardprecautions/en/
index.html

Nipah Virus Infection 7

 A vaccine is being developed. A recombinant sub-unit vaccine formulation
protects against lethal Nipah virus challenge in cats.21 ALVAC Canarypox vectored
Nipah F and G vaccine appears to be a promising vaccine for swine and has potential
as a vaccine for humans.22

The main strategy is to prevent NiV in humans. Establishing appropriate surveillance

systems will be necessary so that NiV outbreaks can be detected quickly and
appropriate control measures initiated.

References
1. Anno. (1999). Outbreak of Hendra-like virus – Malaysia and Singapore, 1998-99. Morb.
Mort. Weekly Rep., 48 (13), 265-269.
2. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses [database on the Internet]. [cited 2004
Dec 1]. Available from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/Ictv/index.htm
3. Yob JM, Field H, Rashdi AM, Morrissy C, van der Heide B, Rota P, et al. Nipah virus infection
in bats (order Chiroptera) in peninsular Malaysia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2001;7:439–41.
4. Chua KB, Bellini WJ, Rota PA, Harcourt BH, et al. Nipah virus: a recently emergent deadly
paramyxovirus. Science 2000; 288:1432-1435.
5. Chua KB, Koh CL, Hooi PS, et al (2002). «Isolation of Nipah virus from Malaysian Island
flying-foxes». Microbes Infect. 4 (2): 145–51. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/
S1286457901015222.
6. Eaton BT, Broder CC, Middleton D, Wang LF, 2006. Hendra and Nipah viruses: different
and dangerous. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 4, 23–35.
7. Hsu, VP, Hossain, MJ, Parashar UD et al. Nipah virus encephalitis reemergence,
Bangladesh. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 10, 2004:2082-2087.
8. Reynes JM, Counor D, Ong S, Faure C, Seng V, Molia S, et al. Nipah virus in Lyle’s flying
foxes, Cambodia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;7. Available from http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/
EID/vol11no07/04-1350.htm
9. Wacharapluesadee S, Lumlertdacha B, Boongird K, Wanghongsa S, Chanhome L, Rollin
P, et al. Bat Nipah virus, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11:1949-51.
10. Heymann DL. Henipavirus: Hendra and Nipah viral diseases. Control of Communicable
Diseases Manual, 2008. 19th Edition. American Public Health Association:275-278.
11. Lehlé C, Razafitrimo G, Razainirina J, et al. "Henipavirus and Tioman virus antibodies
in pteropodid bats, Madagascar". Emerging Infect. Dis. 2007;13 (1): 159–61. PMID
17370536. http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/13/1/159.htm.
12. Hayman D, Suu-Ire R, Breed A, et al (2008). "Evidence of henipavirus infection in West
African fruit bats". PLoS ONE 3 (7): 2739. http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/
journal.pone.0002739

8 Nipah Virus Infection

13. Mohd Nor MN, Gan CH, Ong BL. Nipah virus infection of pigs in peninsular Malaysia.
Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz. 2000;19:160-65.
14. Goh KJ, Tan CT, Chew NK, Tan PSK, Kamarulzaman A, Sarji SA, Wong KT, Abdullah BJJ,
Chua KB, Lam SK. Clinical features of Nipah virus encephalitis among pig farmers in
Malaysia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000;342, 1229–1235.
15. Hendra virus, ecological change and a new threat in http://scienceinpublic.com.au/
factsheets.htm
16. Luby, SP, Rahman, M, Hossain, MJ, Blum, LS, et al. Foodborne transmission of Nipah
virus, Bangladesh. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12:1888-1894.
17. Chadha MS, Comer JA, Lowe L, Rota PA, Rollin PE, Bellini WJ, et al. Nipah virus-associated
encephalitis outbreak, Siliguri, India. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:235-40.
18. Gurley E, Montgomery JM, Hossain MJ, Bell M, Azad AK, Islam MR, et al. Person-to-
person transmission of Nipah virus in a Bangladeshi community. Emerg Infect Dis.
2007;13:1031-7.
19. Daniels, P., Ksiazek, TG, Eaton, BT. Laboratory diagnosis of Nipah virus and Hendra
infections. Microbes Infect., 3. 2001:289-295.
20. Chong HT, Kamarulzaman A, Tan CT, Goh KJ, Thayaparan T, Kunjapan SR, et al. Treatment
of acute Nipah encephalitis with ribavirin. Ann Neurol. 2001;49:810-3.
21. McEachern JA, Bingham J, Crameri G, Green DJ, Hancock TJ, Middleton D, et al. A
recombinant subunit vaccine formulation protects against lethal Nipah virus challenge
in cats. Vaccine. Volume 26, Issue 31, 23 July 2008:3842-3852.
22. Weingartl et al. Recombinant Nipah virus vaccines protect pigs against challenge. Journal
of Virology 80, 2006: 7929-38.

Acknowledgement
Information on Nipah virus identification in countries of the Asia-Pacific Region
received from WHO Collaborating Centre for Viral Zoonoses, Division of
Neurovirology, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.

Nipah Virus Infection 9