Module 5: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Hypothalamo -hypophyseal

portal system
Nervous System: short term effects

Endocrine System:
GH (somatotropin)—growth of bones &
- most important of control system tissues
along with Nervous System.
- Secrets substances which is - Target tissue: most
hormone to plasma or blood. - Functions: stimulates growth of
bones, muscles and organs
Exocrine System: hollow organs and - Abnormalities:
ducts ^ GH= gigantism
Hypothalamus v GH= dwarfism

 Important autonomic nervous TSH (thyrotropin)— thyroid glands

system (enlarges when there is hypersecretion,
 ‘’master control center’’ vice versa)
 base of the brain, anterior portion - Target tissue: thyroid gland
of diencephalon, below the - Function: regulates thyroid gland
thalamus secretion
 Nuclei- several group of neurons - Abnormalities:
 Hypophysis- stalk-like ^ TSH: large thyroid gland
infundibulum connects v TSH: shrink thyroid gland
hypothalamus to pituitary gland

Pituitary Gland (hypophysis)

 A small gland pea size ‘’MASTER

GLAND’’
 Sits in HYPOPHYSIAL FOSSA of
SPHENOID BONE
 releasing (stimulating) hormones
—stimulate the production and
secretion of a specific hormone.

 Inhibiting hormones: decrease

secretion of a spec. AP hormone

Parts of

- Anterior pituitary (adenophysis)-

connected to hypothalamus by
blood vessels network known as
LHI (luteinizing)—sexual function and skin
production. of the sex hormones; - Function: stimulate melanin
production in melanocytes
Females

- Target tissue: ovaries

- Function: promotes ovulation ACTH (adrenocorticotropic)—
estrogen, progesterone and stimulates the adrenal glands to prod.
steroid hormones
Male
- Target tissue: cells of adrenal
- Target tissue: testes cortex
- Function: sperm production & - Functions: stimulate production
testosterone of certain corticosteroids
FSH (gonadotropic)

Females

- Target tissue: follicle in ovaries Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

- Function: follicle maturation and connected to hypothalamus by neurons
estrogen secretion that from the Hypothalamo
Male -hypophysial tract

- Target tissue: seminiferous - no hormone of its own rather

neurosecretory cells 
tubules (testes)
- Two hormones (neuropeptydes)
- Function: sperm production
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin)

 acts on the kidneys to increase

water retention from renal tubules 

 acts as constrict blood vessels 

Target tissue: kidneys

Prolactin— Functions: conserve water
- Target tissues: mammary glands Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus
and ovaries - Low ADH
- Kidneys to produce large amounts of
- Functions: milk prod. in women
dilute urine
(mammary glands)

Oxytocin 
Melanocytes- melanin production of  causes smooth muscle contraction
skin in both male and female
reproductive tracts
- Target tissue: melanocytes in the
 stimulates milk ejection by the
 lactating mammary gland Thyroid Hormone Disorders

Target tissue: uterus and mammary gland Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism

Functions: increase uterine contraction slower fast metabolism
during labor and milk production metabolism
weight gain, weight loss and
reduced appetite, greater appetite
For example thyrotropin-releasing hormone fatigue
secreted by the hypothalamus stimulates low temp and nervousness
thyrotropic cells of the anterior pituitary to pulse
increase secretion of thyroid stimulating dry cold skin high temp and
hormone which then regulates activity of the pulse
thyroid gland  myxedema: warm flush skin
severe form in
that are transparent to the posterior pituitary adults
by hypothalamic hypophysial tract 
These hormones are stored in nerve
cretinism in Grave’s (Robert
terminals in the posterior pituitary and infants (severely James Grave)
released into the blood upon simulation of stunted physical & Disease
the axons mental growth
owing to
untreated
Thyroid Glands congenital
- Made up of 2 lobes connected by a deficiency of
narrow band balled isthmus thyroid hormone)
- one of the largest glands and
requires iodine to function
- Highly vascular
- Regulate metabolism in the body
- TSH from APG stimulates thyroid
gland to secrete thyroid hormone
Thyroid hormones secreted by follicular
cells:

- Target tissues: most

- Functions: regulates metabolic
rates and is needed for growth
Calcitonin secreted by parafollicular cells:
Target tissue: bone and some other
tissues
Function: reduce blood calcium level
when high
  Hormones: Epinephrine
(adrenaline) & Norepinephrine
(noradrenaline)—work rapidly to
Adrenal Glands help body deal with stress and
prod. the ‘fight or flight’ reaction
1. Adrenal Cortex (outer)  Target tissues: heart, blood
vessels, liver, fat cells
 A top the kidneys; surrounds the  Function: increase BP, heart rate,
adrenal medulla pupil dilation (adrenaline rush)
 sitting “hats” on top of kidneys  Maj. DO: Pheochromocytoma
 Steroid hormones (neoplasm charac. by excessive
(corticosteroids): glucocorticoids catecholamine secretion)
(cortisol) and mineralocorticoids
(aldosterone) Pancreas
 Function: maintains BP,
 around stomach and small
metabolism, levels of estrogen and
testosterone intestine
 Hormones: Insulin and Glucagon
 Target tissues: kidneys
 Maj. DO: Addison’s and Cushing’s —secreted by the pancreatic
Disease islets/Islets of Langerhans
 Function: digestion of enzymes,
Glucocorticoids: helps control cell regulate blood glucose levels
metabolism & reduces stress  Target tissues: liver, adipose
tissue, skeletal muscle
Cortisol (released by glucocorticoids):  Maj. DO: hypo- & hyper-glycemia,
speeds up the breakdown of fat and diabetes mellitus
protein for energy use; reduces  Islets—3 cell types, each of which
inflammatory response secretes  separate hormone
 Alpha cells: secrete glucagon
Androgens
 Beta cells: secrete insulin
- Target tissue: most  Delta cells: secrete somatostatin
- Functions: (GH)
o Males; secondary sexual
Insulin—reduces blood glucose levels by
characteristics stimulating the cells to take up glucose
o Females: sex drive and the liver to store glucose as glycogen
Mineralocorticoids: ctrl. levels of (liver)
sodium and potassium in the blood  Maj. DO: hypo- & hyper-glycemia,
Aldosterone: regulates salt and water diabetes mellitus
levels in the body; effect on BP *After a meal, glucose levels are high and
2. Adrenal Medulla insulin is secreted. The extra glucose are
stored in the liver as glycogen.
 atop the kidneys and covered by
adrenal cortex Glucagon—increases blood glucose levels
and stimulates liver to break down
glycogen (stored glucose) and release
glucose into the bloodstream.

 Target tissues: liver

 Maj. DO: diabetes mellitus type I & Hormone of reproductive system
II Testes (es-2; is-1)
*In between meals, glucose levels drop  within the scrotum
and glucagon is secreted.  Hormones: testosterone; ICSH
Diabetes mellitus—group of metabolic (interstitial cell stimulating
disorders in which a person’s blood hormone)—LH equivalent for men
glucose level is high due to either  Target tissue: most
inadequate insulin prod. or the inability of  Functions: aids in sperm and
body cells to respond to insulin, or both. reproductive organ development
and function
3 Maj. Symptoms  Maj. DO: testicular cancer

 Polyuria: need to urinate Ovaries

frequently
 Polydipsia: increased thirst and  in the abdomen at the end of the
fluid intake Fallopian tubes
 Polyphagia: increased appetite  Hormones: estrogen and
progesterone
Type I Diabetes  produces oocytes (eggs) for
fertilization
 body does not produce insulin  Target tissue: most
 reg. take insulin injections for a  Functions: involved in uterine and
lifetime and go for reg. blood tests mammary gland development and
and follow a specific diet menstrual cycle
 Maj. DO: ovarian cancer
Type II Diabetes

 90% of diabetes cases (overweight Thymus Gland

& obese are at high risk for this  thoracic cavity below the neck and
type) posterior to the sternum
 body prod. minimal insulin/body’s  Hormone: thymosin
cells do not react to insulin (insulin  Target tissue: immune system
resistance) tissues
 diet, exercise, and taking  Function: responsible for normal
antidiabetic tablets can control the dvpt. of T-lymphocytes & the
progression immune response
 Maj. Disorders: hypo- & hyper-  most active in children & shrinks
glycemia, diabetes mellitus throughout adulthood
 Maj. DO: thymus cancer

At a young age: the thymus (very large)

produce WBCs that protect body tissues
by triggering an immune response against 4. Hormones & Neurohormones
infectious agents. It decreases in size as endocrine chemical messenger
one gets older because other glands in the (endocrine—epinephrine & insulin)—
body take over its job. By adulthood—size secreted into blood and bind to receptor
of the thumb sites to target organ cells

Hormones control and regulates

1.reproduction (gonads)
Pineal Gland (pea-sized) 2. metabolism and energy balance
 bet. pons & sides of thalamus 3. growth and development
 hanging from the roof of the 3 rd

ventricle in the posterior 4. body defenses

diencephalon
 Hormones: Melatonin  5. General homeostasis including water,
 Target tissues: Hypothalamus nutrient and electrolyte balance of the
blood.
Functions of Melatonin 10 Functions of the ES
 regulates sleep patterns; day and 1. Metabolism
night rhythm 2. Ctrl of food intake & digestion
 secretion (24-hr cycle) or the 3. Tissue development
circadian rhythm—levels are 4. Ion regulation
high at night and falling around 5. Water balance
midday, in response to variations 6. Heart rate and BP regulation
in light levels relayed to the pineal 7. Ctrl of blood glucose & other nutrients
gland by the hypothalamus 8. Ctrl of Reproductive functions
 set the body’s thermal clock 9. Uterine contractions & milk release
 high melatonin—drowsiness 10. Immune system regulation
 Maj. Disorder: insomnia

Cell Secretion Types (class of CM)

1. Autocrine (eicosanoids)—released by
cells and have a local effect on the same
cell type

2. Paracrine (somatostatin)—release by
cells that affect other cell types in close
proximity

3.Neurotransmitters&
Neuromodulators

(epi and acetylcholine)—secreted by

nerve cells, NS function
 Hormones
 Greek word; hormone (to set into
E N D O C R I N ESYSTEM motion)

Principles of Chemical Communication Chemical Nature of Hormones

Chemical messengers – allow cells to communicate 1. Lipid-Soluble
with each other - Non polar
- Includes steroids and eicosanoids
Secretion – controlled release of chemicals from a - LH, FSH and androgens
cell 2. Water-Soluble
- Includes proteins, peptides, amino
Classes of Chemical Messengers acid
1. Autocrine – stimulates the cell that - Most common
originally secreted it; WBCs during an
infection

2. Paracrine – act locally on nearby cells;

WBCs during allergic reactions
Control of Hormone Secretion
3. Neurotransmitter – activate an adjacent Stimulation/Inhibition of Hormone
cell Release
1. Humoral Stimuli – blood levels of
4. Endocrine – secreted into the chemicals
bloodstream by certain glands and cells 2. Neural Stimuli – nervous system
3. Hormonal Stimuli - hormones
Functions of the Endocrine System (MC3
I2WHUT) Humoral Regulation
1. Metabolism.
2. Control of blood glucose and other STIMULATION
nutrients. 1. In the blood stream direct stimulate
3. Control of reproductive functions.
4. Control of food intake and digestion.
5. Ion regulation.
6. Immune system regulation.
7. Water balance.
8. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation.
9. Uterine contraction and milk release.
10. Tissue development.

Characteristics of the Endocrine System

Endocrine System – composed of endocrine glands
+ endocrine specialized cells

Hormones – chemical messenger that is

secreted into the blood; particular response in Inhibition
target tissue
Usually each of the companion hormones performs an
Target tissues – effectors; specific site; receptor for opposite function. For example,
a specific hormone
to raise blood pressure, the adrenal cortex secretes=
Endocrine – Greek word; endo (within) + krino aldosterone
(secrete)
to lower bp it the heart atria =atrial natriuretic peptide.
Exocrine glands – have ducts that carry their
secretions to the outside of the body

Endocrinology – study of the endocrine system

Neural Regulation
Inhibition

Release CRH (APG)- release ACTH(APG)- effect on

Targets as often as they stimulate adrenal g
Does not secrete hormone

Hormonal Regulation
1. Neurons in hypothalamus release stimulatory
Mechanisms of Action Receptors – H can
H (release H) travels in blood to anterior PG stimulate only the cells that have receptor for
2. Release H stimulate release of H from anterior that hormone
travel in blood to target endocrine cell
3. Target endocrine cell secrets H to blood travels Receptor site – the portion of each receptor
to target and produce response molecule where a hormone binds
Inhibition
reduce release of hormone Specificity – tendency of hormones to bind to one
type of receptor

Target tissue – the responding tissue based on the

hormone released

Hormone Classes of Receptors

Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood 1. LSH bind to nuclear receptors.
A. Negative feedback  Interaction with cell DNA to
 Blood conc. of hormone declines regulate transcription.
 More hormone is secreted - Protein synthesis
 If max. set point is exceeded 2. WSH bind to
 Hormone production is halted membrane bound
H secretion is inhibited when certain receptors.
point is reach  Hormone receptor complex
initiates a response inside the
B. Positive feedback cell (G proteins, cAMP, protein
 exemplifies Tropic hormones kinase).
stimulate the release of other
hormones