Chapter 11: Blood 1.

Erythrocytes (RBC)

Functions of Blood ● disk-shaped w/ thick edges (biconcave)

● nucleus—lost through development
1. Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste products— ● live for 120 days in M; 110 in F
Transport medium: oxygen enters the blood in the lungs ● transport O2 from the lungs to tissues & CO2
to the cells; carbon dioxide is produced by cells and is from tissues to lungs
carried to the blood to the lungs where it is expelled.
Hemoglobin
2. Transport of processed molecules
● main comp. of RBCs
3. Transport of regulatory molecules ● transports oxygen
● each globin protein is attached to a heme
4. Regulation of pH and osmosis—blood’s pH 7.35-
molecule
7.45; osmotic composition—critical for maintaining
● each heme mol. has 1 iron atom
normal fluid & ion balance.
● O2 binds to iron—necessary for normal
5. Maintenance of body temp—heat generated by hemoglobin functions
metabolism warms the blood; Warm blood is trans. from ● Oxyhemoglobin: hemoglobin w/ an oxygen
the interior of the body to the surface where heat from attached
the blood is released. ● 4 protein chains (globin—bound to 1 heme) and
4 heme groups
6. Protection against foreign substances.
RBC Production
7. Clot formation—prevents excessive blood loss and is
the first step in tissue repair. 1. Decreased blood oxygen levels cause kidneys to
increase prod. of erythropoietin.
Composition of Blood
2. Increased prod of erythropoietin stimulates red bone
● 8% of total body weight marrow (RBM) to prod erythrocytes.
● connective tissue
● made of liquid (plasma) and cells & cell 3. Increased RBC causes an increase in blood oxygen
fragments (formed elements) levels.

Plasma (58% of blood volume)

● pale yellow; surrounds cells Fate of Old Erythrocytes & Hemoglobin

● 91% water, 7% proteins, 2% ions, nutrients,
Old RBCs – removed from blood by macrophages in
gases
spleen & liver.
Formed Elements (45%)
Hemoglobin – broken down after phagocytosis.
● erythrocytes (95%) 700x > WBCs & 17x >
Globin – broken down into amino acids.
Platelets
● leukocytes Hemoglobin’s iron is converted to bilirubin – end
● thrombocytes (platelets) product of RBC breakdown.
Plasma Proteins 2. Leukocytes (WBC)
● Albumin (58%)—water balance ● lack hemoglobin & spherical in shape
● Globulins (35%)—immune system ● with nucleus
● Fibrinogen (4%)—clot formation ● lack hemoglobin
● larger than erythrocytes
Hematopoiesis: process of formed elements formation
(In fetus: occurs even in tissues; after birth is only Function: fight infections & remove dead cells & debris
exclusive in the red bone marrow.) by phagocytosis
Stem cells (hemocytoblasts)

● origin of all formed elements

● differentiate to give rise to diff. cell lines, each
ends w/ formation of a particular formed
element
2 Types of WBCs
Formed Elements
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I. Granulocytes releases ADP & thromboxane (activates platelets to
connect to each other with fibrinogen)
a. Neutrophils (most common)
3. Blood clotting (coagulation)—liquid to gel
● stay for 10-12 hrs. then move to the tissues
● multi-lobed nucleus Clot/Fibrin
● pale red & blue cytoplasmic granules
● network of thread-like proteins (fibrins)—traps
● lysosomes blood cells, platelets, and fluid
● formation depends on the # of protein found
● Function: phagocytize microorganisms. within plasma—clotting factors
b. Eosinophils
Clotting Factors
● reduce inflammation
● destroys worm parasites ● proteins in plasma which are only activated ff.
● bi-lobed nucleus injury
made in the liver
c. Basophils (least common) requires vitamin K for synthesis
ex. Extrinsic Von Willebrand (VIIIth CF)
● release histamine and heparin (an
ex.Intrinsic fibrinogen (Ist CF)
anticoagulant—prevents clot formation)

II. Agranulocytes: no specific granules

a. Monocytes (largest WBCs)

● kidney-shaped nucleus
● becomes macrophages—ingest micro-orgs &
cellular debris

b. Lymphocytes (faintly blue-stained cytoplasm) 20-

40%

● antibody prod & other immune responses Steps in Clot Formation Control
● T (thymus) cells [cell-mediated immunity] & B
(bone marrow) cells

3. Platelets (thrombocytes)

● minute cell fragments, each has a small amount

of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane 3
micro diameter
● prod in the RBM from large cells—
megakaryocytes
● small fragments break off fr. the
megakaryocytes and enter blood & platelets

● important role in preventing blood loss

Blood loss/ Hemostasis

1. Inactive clotting factors in the plasma are activated by
● damaged blood vessels leak to other tissues and exposure to CT or by chemicals released from tissues.
disrupt normal functions The activated clotting factors form prothrombinase.
● lost blood is replaced by prod of new blood or
by transfusion 2. Prothrombinase converts prothrombin to thrombin.

Prevention of Blood Loss 3. Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin (clot).

1. Vascular spasm—tempo constriction of blood

vessels; results from injury (decreased blood flow)

2. Platelet plug formation—seals up small breaks in

blood vessels;

adhere in VWF to collagen;

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Clot Formation Control—needed as to not spreading - analysis of blood provides much useful
throughout the body information

Anticoagulants – prevent clot formation Variables:

heparin and antithrombin RBC

Injury causes enough clotting factors to be activated Male 4.7-6.1 million/ microliter
that anticoagulants can’t work in that particular area of
the body. Female: 4.2-5.4 million/ microliter

Thrombus: attached clot (not moving) WBC

Embolus (heart, brain, lungs): break loose thrombus 4500-11,000 WBC/ microliter of blood

Clot Retraction & Fibrinolysis Hemoglobin

Clot Retraction Male: 14-17g/100 ML of Blood

● clot condenses Female: 12-15 g/100 ML of Blood

● serum (in plasma)—squeezed out of the clot Hematocrit
● serum (plasma protein with no clotting factors)
● enhances healing M 40-54%

Fibrinolysis F 38 47%

● dissolves clot Differential WBC

● plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down clot
(fibrin) neutrophils 55-70% bacteria

Blood Grouping lymphocytes 20-40% parasite

Injury/surgery: can lead to blood transfusion monocytes 2-8% allergic reaction

Transfusion Reactions/Agglutination – bad clumping eosinophils 1-4%

of blood cells
basophils 0.5-1% anti inflammatory
Antigens: molecules on surfaces of erythrocytes
2 Ways to Measure the Ability of Blood to Clot
(recognized as foreign)
1. . Platelet count: 250-400k per microL of blood
Antibodies: bind to antigen and is very specific (1
antibody : 1 antigen); proteins in plasma 2.. Prothrombin time: usually 9-12 secs; time it takes
for blood to begin clotting (INR-international
Blood groups—named acc. to antigens (ABO)
nationalized ratio)

Diagnostic Blood Tests

Blood chemistry
1. Type and crossmatch
- composition of materials dissolved or suspended
- prevent transfusion reaction
in the plasma can be used to assets the function
- cells are separated from the serum and tested
of the body's system
with known antibodies (typing)
- donor’s blood cells are mixed with recipients
serum and the donor’s serum is mixed with
recipients cells (cross matching)

2. Complete blood count

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ABO Blood Groups

● 2 types of antigens that may appear on surfaces

of RBCs
● Type O—neither A or B antigens
● genetically determined
● antibodies against antigens—present in plasma
of blood
● plasma from type B blood contains anti-A
antibodies w/c act against type A antigens
● Type AB—no antibody (univ recipients) | Type
O—no antigen (univ donors)

Rhesus Blood Group

● Rh+: contains Rh antigens

● 95-85% of Ph population is Rh+
● Antibodies only develop if an Rh- person is
exposed to an Rh+ blood by transfusion or from
mother to fetus
● Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN):
mother Rh- (has antibodies for Rh+) RBCs
cannot identify the RBC of the fetus—attacks
RBCs of the baby; worst case: erythroblastosis
fetalis
● Coone’s Test (direct/indirect): test for det. if
baby is Rh+

Prevention of HDN

● Rh- mother can be injected with Rho(D)

immune globulin (RhoGAM)—antibodies
against Rh antigens
● 2 arteries 1 vein; umbilical cord is utilized for
transfusion
● any repeated mixing of blood causes a reaction
● occurs when mother produces anti-Rh antibodies
that cross placenta and agglutination &
hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes occurs
● can be fatal to the fetus

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