Geotechnics in Practice Instructor: Dr. Zeynep Özkul Birgören
Geotechnics in Practice Instructor: Dr. Zeynep Özkul Birgören
Geotechnics in Practice Instructor: Dr. Zeynep Özkul Birgören
515
Geotechnics in Practice
Instructor: Dr. Zeynep Özkul Birgören
Course Syllabus
Topic
3 In‐situ Tests: CPT test and interpretation HW #3
4 In‐situ Tests: DMT test and interpretation
5 Site Class
6 Liquefaction Analysis HW #4
7 Shallow foundation design, bearing capacity and settlement
8 Deep foundation design, various methods HW #5
9 Slope Stability
Course Grading
• Midterm: 25%
• Homeworks: 50%
• Final: 25%
Soils in Civil Engineering
Structures may rest on soils Bearing
strata (shallow and deep foundations)
Structures may be embedded in soils
soil interacts with structure (tunnels,
pipelines, etc.)
Structures may use soil as fill material
construction material (embankments,
dams, retaining walls)
What is needed for a geotechnical design?
Design Design questions Parameters needed Laboratory tests
required
Bearing capacity Soil Stratigraphy +GWT Grain size
(short term and distribution
long term) Soil class Plasticity limits
Water content
Foundations
Shallow
Void Ratio, e
Porosity, n
Saturation, S
Density of soil solids, s
Bulk density, b
Dry density, d
Unit weight of soil solids, s
Bulk unit weight, b
Dry unit weight, d
Specific Gravity, Gs
Soil Laboratory Tests
• Water content • Shear Strength tests
• Specific Gravity • Unconfined Compression
Soil Classification
• Grain size distribution • Direct Shear test
• Mechanical
• Hydrometer
• Triaxial test
• Unconsolidated undrained, UU
• Consistency Limits (Atterberg • Consolidated undrained, CU (can be
Limits) isotropically, CIU or anisotropically
• Moisture ‐ Unit Weight consolidated, CAU)
relationships • Consolidated Drained, CD (can be
• Permeability isotropically or anisotropically
consolidated)
• Consolidation test (clays)
Grain size Distribution Dry Sieving for clean sands and gravels
Procedure for Wet Sieving
In your report you must indicate which standard you are
following when you classify your soil (if fines > 5%)
• Dry sample for 24
hours and weigh
• Pass the sample
through #200 sieve
• Dry the grains retained
on sieve in oven
• If you will be doing
hydrometer then
retain the wash
through water, place in
oven and weigh
• Effective size D10
• Coefficient of Uniformity Cu
• Coefficient of Concavity Cc
• Sorting coefficient S0
D60
Cu
D10
2
D30
CC
D60 D10
D75
S0
D25
Copyright © 2006 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 1‐12
Grain Size Distribution: Hydrometer
• For identifying clay and silt fractions
• Use sedimentation (larger particles settle faster)
• For soils with significant fines use 30‐50 grams
of material passing #200 sieve. Seive and
hydrometer data will be combined in GSD curve
• Use dispersing agent to disperse clay particles
• Readings taken for 24 to 48 (until readings are
steady)
Combining Mechanical and Hydrometer test
data Example
Dry mass of soil sampled for
test: 1000 gr
% passing #200 sieve: 200 gr
Mass of dry soil used in
hydrometer test (‐#200 sieve):
50 gr %P’
Corrected percentage, P (%)
200
%
1000
Consistency Limits: Liquid Limit
Denoted as LL or wL
Casagrande Liquid Limit device (brass) • Conducted on % passing
‐#40 sieve
• Count blow until groove
closes 12.7 mm
• Repeat for different w%
Fall Cone test device
Consistency Limits: Liquid Limit
Semilog plot N vs w%
LL w% corresponding to 25 blows
Research shows that LL is the water
content at which the shear strength of
the clay is about 1.7 kN/m2 (Sharma and
Bora, 2003)
Consistency Limits: Plastic Limit
• Roll clay between glass and
fingers
• By definition PL is the w% at
which the clay thread begins to
crumble at a thickness of 3 mm
Research shows that PL is the
water content at which the
shear strength of the clay is
about 170 kN/m2 (Sharma and
Bora, 2003)
There is 100 fold increase in
strength between LL & PL
Soil Classification : USCS
Infinite combination of sediment sizes possible
Group them into a finite number of classes based on common
engineering behaviors
Each group name consists of two symbols
15 group names, + 12 dual groups about 27 groups in total
2nd symbol:
W vs P OR
C vs M
Prefix:
C , M or O
2nd symbol:
L vs H
Pt: Peat (or highly
organic soils)
USCS Classification: Info required
• % Gravel • Dual symbol for cases where % fines is
• % Sand between 5% ‐12%:
• In Gravels: GW‐GM, GW‐GC, GP‐GM, GP‐GC
• % Silt and Clay (i.e. ‐No. 200) • In Sands: SW‐SM, SW‐SC, SP‐SM, SP‐SC
• Cu and Cc
• LL and PI (fraction –No. 40) • Dual symbol for cases plasticity between
• About 26 groups 4% and 7 %:
• In Gravel: GC‐GM
• In Sand: SC‐SM
• In Clay: CL‐ML
• In Sand: SC‐SM
USCS Classification: Plasticity Chart
• Type of sediment (inorganic):
• C=clay (plots above A‐line) versus
• M=Silt (plots below A‐line)
• Consistency:
• H=High plasticity (i.e. LL>50 %) versus
• L= Low plasticity
• Organic soil (O)
• Can be of low (L) or high (H) plasticity
• CH, CL, MH, ML, OH, OL
• Also dual classification CL‐ML for
7<PI<10
1‐21
Group Names:
Granular Soils
Gradation:
• Well satisfies Cu & Cc criteria
• Poorly X
Type of fines:
• Clay (plots above A‐line)
• “clayey” (if fines > 12%) or
• “with clay” (if fines >5% but <12%)
• Silt plots below A‐line
• “silty” (if fines > 12%) or
• “with silt” (if fines > 5% but < 12%)
Group Names: Fine
Grained Soil
• Organic or Inorganic?
• LL above or below 50%
• LL<50% CL “Lean clay” or ML “Silt“ ML
• LL>50% CH “Fat clay” or ML “Elastic Silt”
• PI range:
• PI > 7% & above A‐line CL
• PI btw 4‐7% & above A‐line CL‐ML “silty
clay”
• PI < 4% & below A‐line ML “Silt”
• Percentage of coarse grained soil (i.e.
+No.200 sieve)
• +No 200 btw 15‐29 “with S or G”
• +No 200 > 30% “Sandy” or
“Gravelly”
Group Name: Organic Soils
• LL above or below 50%
• LL<50% OL “Organic Clay/ Silt”
• LL>50% OH “Organic Clay/ Silt”
• PI range:
• PI > 7% & above A‐line organic clay
• PI < 4% & below A‐line organic Silt
• Percentage of coarse grained soil (i.e.
+No.200 sieve)
• +No 200 btw 15‐29 “with S or G”
• +No 200 > 30% “Sandy” or
“Gravelly”
Moisture Unit Weight Relationship
(Compaction) test
• Energy is imparted to the soil
and the volume of voids
decreases.
• What is the maximum unit
weight possible at a given w%?
• At what w% will you get the
highest unit weight?
Standard Proctor Test
• Unit weight = Weight/Volume
• Mold = 944 cm3
• Rammer: 2.5 kg, fall height 12
inc (30.48 cm)
• No layers: 3
• No of blows / layer: 25
• Dry unit weight, d
1‐26
Standard Proctor Test
• Compact soil at different w% and
measure wet unit weight and
corresponding water content.
• Calculate the dry unit weight using
Gs and w%
• Plot dry unit weight vs water
content
• Plot zero air voids curve
• Equations for d & ZAV:
1‐27
Standard Proctor Test: ASTM D‐698
• What is happening at the grain level?
%
1 1
# / #
1‐28
Modified Proctor Test (Method A, B or C)
• Unit weight = Weight/Volume
• Mold = 944 cm3, diam=101.6 mm
• Rammer: 44.5 N (10 lb), fall height 18 inch
(45.7 cm)
• No layers: 5
• No of blows / layer: 25
• E=2700 kNm/m3 (approx. 4.5 times Std.
energy)
• Three methods described based on the
maximum grain size in mixture
1‐29
Summary of Standard
and Modified Proctor
compaction
• Developed to correspond
with the larger field
compaction equipment that
became available
• # layers, hammer wt, drop ht
• Compaction energy is 2700
kN∙m/m3
1‐30
Permeability
Very large range of permeability > 7 orders of magnitude
Coarse grained soils higher permeability >10‐3 cm/sec
Fine grained soils Lower permeability < 10‐3 cm/sec
Constant Head Permeability Test
• Used for granular soils
• Large volume of outflow
• Constant hydraulic head
through out test
• Q=vA
• v=ki
• k is measured in units of
velocity (length/time)
1‐32
Falling Head Permeability Test
• For fine grained soils
• Hydraulic head, h, changes
during test
• Volume of outflow, Q is low
• Q=vA
• v=ki
• k is measured in units of
velocity (length/time)
1‐33
One Dimensional Consolidation Testing
• First suggested by Terzaghi
• use a Consolidometer – 64 mm diam, 25 mm thick
• Fine grained soils which have low permeability settle over time
• How much will it settle?
• How long will it take?
• Oedometer test
• Metal rings: diam 50‐70 mm, H=20‐30 mm
• Soil must be saturated
• One‐dimensional test
1‐34
Consolidation: Oedometer test
• Undisturbed soil samples used
• Test durations are long: 10 ‐ 14 days
• Incremental loading: 25 , 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200 kN/m2
• Take readings at: 15 s, 30 s, 1 min, 2 min, 4 min, 8 min, 15 min, 30 min, 1 hr, 2 hr, 4 hr, 8
hr, 16 hr, 24 hr
Consolidation Test
Time deformation plot
Three stages:
I = due to preloading
II = primary consolidation due to changes in
pwp
III = secondary consolidation due to plastic
readjustment of fabric
Consolidation: e
vs log p Plot
Each load is kept for 24 hours
Test load is doubled after 24 hours
Generally and unload curve is also
included
Test duration is long about 10‐14 days
1‐37
Consolidation – Stress History
• Normally consolidated – clays whose
present effective overburden pressure
is the maximum pressure that the soil
was subjected to in the past
• Overconsolidated – clays whose
present effective overburden pressure
is less than that which the soil
experienced in the past.
• The maximum effective past pressure is
called the Preconsolidation pressure
• Cassagrande’s procedure to determine c’
• Overconsolidation Ratio OCR= c’/’
1‐38
Normally Consolidated and Overconsolidated
Clays
• Upper part a to b slightly curved
• Lower part b to c steeper
• Unload branch c to d not steep
• Reload branch d to f to g
• Maximum effective overburden
pressure, c’
• Stress release due to sampling causes
small expansion in soil
• When the effective pressue on the
specimen becomes greater than sc’
the change in e with inc in p is much
greater
1‐39
Secondary consolidation
∆ ∆
/
1
Soil Parameters derived from 1‐D
Consolidation Test
• Soil Parameters derived from consolidation test:
• p’ – preconsolidation pressure
• Cc – Compression index
• Cs – swell index/ recompression index
• c – secondary compression index
• av – Coef. of Compressibility
• mv – coef. of volume compressibility
• c v– coef. of consolidation
Void Ratio‐ Pressure plots for Consolidation
test
1.
2. Cal initial height of voids, Hv
3. Cal initial void ratio, e0
∆
4. Cal the first change in void ratio
5. Cal the new e after consolidation
under first load
∆
1‐42
Consolidation – Stress History
• Normally consolidated – clays whose
present effective overburden pressure
is the maximum pressure that the soil
was subjected to in the past
• Overconsolidated – clays whose
present effective overburden pressure
is less than that which the soil
experienced in the past.
• The maximum effective past pressure is
called the Preconsolidation pressure
• Cassagrande’s procedure to determine c’
• Overconsolidation Ratio OCR= c’/’
1‐43
Shear Strength Tests
• Stability problems: slopes (soils
generally fail in shear)
• Deformation problems: peak
strength & deformation are
important
Shear Strength Tests: Mohr Coluomb
• Failure envelope
• Failure occurs when Mohr circle
reaches envelopw
• Shear strength friction + cohesion
• Cohesion (true and apparent)
• Friction component
• internal friction angle: , ’
• Minerology, grain shape, grain size
distribution, void ratio, organic content
Shear Strength: Drained and Undrained
Condition
Undrained Conditions: Drained Conditions:
• Loading causes changes in pore • Loading does not cause any
water pressures (positive or change in pore water pressures
negative)
• effective stresses change • Effective stresses remain
(unknown) so use total constant (known)
stresses • Relevant when: permeability is
• Relevant when: permeability is high, loading rate is slow, and
low, loading rate is high, design design condition is long term
condition is short term
Unconfined Compression
• No confining pressure used
for clayey soils
• Undrained test pore
pressures are unknown total
stresses are used
• Undrained cohesion, cu is
reported as
2
Direct Shear Test
• Sample placed in a shear box with
two halves (square or circular)
• A normal stress is applied, N
• Test device moves bottom half of
box at a steady speed
• The soil is sheared along the
interface of the two half boxes
• The shear force developed is
measured at given values of
deformation
Direct Shear Test
• Tests conducted at 3 different normal stress levels
• Peak shear stress is plotted vs Normal stress level point on failure
envelope
Triaxial Test
Triaxial Test
Advantages:
• Can apply normal, lateral and pore pressures to sample replicate
actual soil conditions
• May be used for sands and clays
• Pore water pressure that develop can be measured
• Can conduct drained or undrained loading
• UU – unconsolidated undrained
• CU – consolidated undrained
• CD – consolidated drained
Triaxial Test
UU Test CU Test • CU Test
• Quick test, , c • Slow test, , c, ’, c’ • Very slow test, ’, c’
Soil Laboratory Tests – Review video (in
Turkish)
ZMGM youtube channel: MODÜL 1. Bölüm 1.1. Zemin özellikleri ve
laboratuvar deneyleri (Doç. Dr. Banu İkizler, KTU) ,
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=84AKK5CSeRQ&t=86s