Meeting 4-5

IDENTIFYING TYPES OF PARAGRAPH

A paragraph is much more than a collection of connected sentences. It is a

building block of essay development, and paragraphs provide the structure needed
to develop the thesis of a paper. In fact, a useful way to think about a paragraph is
as a “mini-essay,” or an essay within an essay, with its own mini-thesis (the topic
sentence), middle or body (the supporting details) and end or conclusion (the
concluding sentence). To understand how paragraphs help to develop a thesis, think
of them as landmarks on a map. With each paragraph, you describe where you are
standing and point the direction for your readers to make sure they complete the
journey to your conclusion. A vague signpost or a detour down a side trail could
well have your readers lost and wondering where you are taking them. Clear signals,
on the other hand, in the form of clearly worded topic sentences, relevant support,
reasonable interpretations of material, and logical conclusions will help your
readers follow the development of your ideas.

The link between clear, logical organization and effective communication

is powerful, both for the "sender" and the "receiver." For the writer, a well organized
outline of information serves as a blue print for action. It provides focus and
direction as the writer composes the document, which helps to ensure that the stated
purpose is fulfilled. For the reader, clear organization greatly enhances the ease with
which one can understand and remember the information being presented. People
seek out patterns to help make sense of information. When the reader is not able to
find a pattern that makes sense, chaos and confusion abound. Effective
communication, then, begins with a clearly organized set of ideas following a
logical, consistent pattern. Thus, one of the most important decisions a writer makes
concerns the pattern of organization that is used to structure and order information.

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 There are many patterns a writer can use to organize his/her ideas. The
specific pattern (or combination of patterns) chosen depends upon the particular
topic and the objectives the writer has identified for the document. There is no rule
to follow in choosing a pattern of organization; one must simply think carefully
about which pattern makes the most sense in helping the reader to better understand
and remember the information. There are many different ways of organizing the
same information, and often two or more different organizational patterns are
combined to create a final outline of information.

The most commonly used patterns of organization are described below

Sequence of dates and events

A sequence of dates and events paragraph or a chronological pattern of

organization arranges information according to a progression of time, either
forward or backward. When a topic is best understood in terms of different
segments of time, a chronological format works well. For example, topics of an
historical nature are best organized using this pattern.

When using a chronological pattern, each main section of information

represents a particular period of time, and the sub-points contained within each
main section refer to significant events that occurred within that time frame. A
variation of this organizational pattern involves dividing a topic into "past-present-
future" or" before-during-after" segments.

For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to describe the historical

development and evolution of the city of Seattle. Assuming that Seattle is 100 years
old, the writer could organize the information by grouping it into four 25-year
chunks. In this case, the sub-points within each main section of time represent the
most significant events that occurred during that particular time frame. Notice that
by breaking the 100 year span into distinct 25 year chunks, the writer can create an
outline that follows the guidelines of outlining described under "Principles of

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Organizing." This outline contains four mutually exclusive and balanced sections
of information

Sequence of dates and events Example

I. 1895 - 1920

1. Significant Event # 1

2. Significant Event # 2

II. 1920 - 1945

1. Significant Event # 1

2. Significant Event # 2

III. 1945 - 1970

1. Significant Event # 1

2. Significant Event # 2

IV. 1970 - 1995

1. Significant Event # 1

2. Significant Event # 2

Sequence of steps

A sequential pattern of organization is similar to a chronological pattern, but

arranges information according to a step-by-step sequence that describes a
particular process. Using a sequential pattern, each main section of information
represents a main step that one would follow in the actual process. The points
included within each main section represent the sub-steps one would follow. When
one wishes to describe a process that follows a specific series of steps in a particular
order, then, a sequential pattern works well.

For example, suppose a writer's stated purpose is to explain how wine is

made. A sequential pattern would be effective in this case because it breaks the
process down into a specific series of steps which should be followed in a precise

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order. Notice that a series of related smaller steps are grouped into one larger
category. Thus, a process which involves many specific steps can be simplified by
highlighting the most fundamental steps, which helps the reader understand the
process and remember its key parts.

Sequential Pattern Example

I. Step One: Harvest the grapes

1. Harvesting procedure number one

2. Harvesting procedure number two

II. Step Two: Prepare the grapes

1. Preparation procedure number one

2. Preparation procedure number two

III. Step Three: Ferment the grapes

1. Fermenting procedure number one

2. Fermenting procedure number two

IV. Step Four: Press the grapes

1. Pressing procedure number one

2. Pressing procedure number two

V. Step Five: Age the wine

1. Aging procedure number one

2. Aging procedure number two

Order Example

first, second, First, you need to become a leader of a political party.

third, etc. Second, you need to win a seat in the House of Commons.
Third, your party must have a majority of seats.

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 both Both Vancouver and Halifax have rain in the spring.

in the In the beginning, you need to become a leader of a political

beginning party.

before Before becoming the prime minister, you need to become

the leader of a political party.

then Then, you must win a seat in the House of Commons.

after After winning a seat in the House of Commons, you must

make sure you have a majority of seats.

finally Finally, after all these steps, you can call yourself the Prime
Minister.

at last At last, you can call yourself the Prime Minister.

subsequently Subsequently, you must make sure you have a majority of

seats in the House of Commons.

List of characteristics

List of characteristic or description creates a strong impression of your

topic: It shows how the topic looks, sounds, smells, tastes, or feels. Four Basics of
List of characteristic

1 It creates a main impression — an overall effect or image — about the topic.

2 It uses specific examples to create the impression.

3 It supports the examples with details that appeal to the senses — sight, hearing,
smell, taste, and touch.

4 It brings a person, place, or object to life for the readers.

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Let’s see the paragraph below for example:

Goldfish

Goldfish make the best pets for three reasons. First of all, goldfish are very
quiet. They don't bark, howl, meow, chirp, squawk, screech,1 or race around the
house at night while you and your neighbors are trying to sleep. Second, they are
economical. You can buy a goldfish at your local pet store for about 50<£, and a
small bowl for it costs less than $3.00. Water is practically free. Also, they eat only
a pinch of dried fish food daily, so their food bill is quite low. Third, goldfish are
very well behaved. They don't have teeth, so they can't chew your furniture or bite
your guests. They don't ever go outside, so they can't dig holes in your garden. In
addition, you don't have to spend hours teaching them commands such as "Sit!" or
"Heel!" If you want a quiet and economical pet that doesn't cause any trouble, visit
your nearest goldfish store.

Cause and Effect

Cause and effect paragraphs analyze the causes or the effects of something
or the relationship between both. If you want to explain the “why” of something—
a process, an event, a concept—then this is a useful pattern. In this pattern,
transitions of logic (e.g., thus, therefore, consequently, as a result) and words and
phrases of cause and effect (e.g., because, for the reason that, given that, in effect)
feature prominently. Be careful, however, when you make statements about cause
and effect. If there is more than one cause to a particular effect, be sure not to restrict
your analysis or explanation. On the other hand, if there is more than one effect, be
sure not to assume they all arose from the same cause. To be sure there is a
connection between the causes and effects you are analyzing or explaining, ask
questions like “Is this the only thing that could cause this effect?” and “Is this the
only possible effect this cause could have?” and “Was this cause sufficient to result
in this effect?” (Horner, 1988, p.127).

For example:

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 An avalanche is a huge snow slide that rushes down the side of a
mountain, carrying large trees, rocks, and other debris in its path. Avalanches are
similar to landslides but can be more dangerous and destructive. Avalanches can
occur when huge amounts of new snow fall on layers of snow and ice that have
become unstable because of melting. They can also be triggered by explosions or
earthquakes.

Classification

Classification—distinguishing types or classes—can help you explain a

great deal of seemingly unrelated information in an organized and easy-to-follow
manner. Take this paragraph that explains stringed instruments:

There are many types of stringed instruments. The violin family is

made up of the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. Fretted
instruments (frets are strips that show players where to put their
hands) include the banjo, mandolin, lute, ukulele, and guitar.
Related to these instruments are the lyre and the harp. The dulcimer,
zither, and psaltery form another family, whose strings are stretched
over flat sound boxes. Finally, there are the keyboard stringed
instruments such as the piano, clavichord, and harpsichord.

NOTE: Once again, remember that two methods of development can be used
together. Read the paragraph on stringed instruments above again. See if you
can find places where the writer has used definition and description.

There are many types of stringed instruments. The violin family is

made up of the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. Fretted
instruments (frets are strips that show players where to put their
hands) include the banjo, mandolin, lute, ukulele, and guitar.
Related to these instruments are the lyre and the harp. The dulcimer,
zither, and psaltery form another family, whose strings are stretched
over flat sound boxes. Finally, there are the keyboard stringed
instruments such as the piano, clavichord, and harpsichord.

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EXERCISE

There are 5 paragraphs below. Please identify what types of paragraph are they and
why.

1 (1) The writing process has four distinct phases. (2) The first is invention,
which is aided by any number of techniques, including free-writing, mind-
mapping and outlining. (3)In this first stage, it’s important for a writer not to
edit but to let ideas flow and to simply get them down on paper. (4) After
invention, comes the first draft—the stage where the ideas start to take shape.
(5) Many writers use a sentence outline at this stage to see where they need
to cut and where they need to add material. The first draft is also where
writers should develop a tentative thesis to guide the structure of their essay.
(6)The next stage of the process is when both the second and third drafts are
done. (7)Here, ideas and structure are refined, and the thesis is revised until
it becomes the unifying idea of the paper. (8)Finally, comes the last stage,
that of editing. (9 Writers should take care at this stage that all sentence
structure and punctuation is correct, and they should make corrections to
documentation format as needed. (10) Writers often repeat these four phases
more than once, or skip a phase and go back to it, making the writing process
more cyclical than linear.

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2 (1) The trail, perching precariously 500 feet above the roaring surf and then
dipping effortlessly into dark lush valleys, snakes its way along the fluted
coastline. (2) From a distance, it is hard to believe there would be any way
to traverse the cliffs that dip like fingers into the frothing Pacific. (3)The first
half of the trail is densely overgrown, and the air is dripping with the aroma
of over ripe guava. Waterfalls and streams cascade unceasingly down along
the trail from Mount Waialeale, the wettest spot on earth. (4) Vegetation
grows thickly on the near vertical slopes above and below the trail, lending
a sense of false security to the path, which at its widest measures ten feet
across. (5)The landscape on the second half of the trail, the leeward side,
changes dramatically from jungle to semi-arid desert. (6)Now, the cliffs are
bare rock, and a three-foot wide ledge is all that protects the wary hiker from
the black shoreline below.(7) Nevertheless, the white sand beach that marks
the end of the trail is more than ample reward for the dangers survived.(8)
The colors of this last valley, the Kalalau Valley, are a vivid red and green
against a cloudless blue sky. (9)This, however, is not the end of the trip. The
only trail out is the trail in. Not for the faint of heart, the Kalalua Trail on
Kauai’s north shore is eleven miles of rugged adventure.

3 (1)While there were many contributing factors to the French Revolution, a

primary cause was a financial crisis brought on by royal extravagance. (2)
For years before the revolution finally exploded in 1789, the royal
government had been borrowing heavily to cover deficit spending. (Cobb,
1988.) (3) Even though France’s high courts of appeal cautioned against such
borrowing, the royal’s extravagance continued, eventually resulting in a
financial crisis that required the government to institute a series of taxes. (4)
As the press highlighted the government’s spending with cartoons and
stories, the peasants, already burdened by high taxes, low wages and poor
harvests, began to resent the demands of the royals. (5)Finally, in 1789, the
Third Estate—the common people—became so enraged, they demanded a

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 new constitution and refused to compromise with the existing government
until it was written. (6) This demand set off the first sparks of revolution.

4 Different students attend various types of schools; however, they can usually
be classified as either public, private religious, private non religious, or
alternative. Public schools are funded by the state, and the majority of
students in the United States attend them. Private religious schools are based
around a particular faith, such as Catholicism, Judaism, and so forth. The
religion is part of the every day lives of the students and they also learn about
the faiths. All types of private schools do not receive state funding.
Therefore, private non religious schools are simply just that: schools which
do not receive state funding and have the ability to make their own rules.
Alternative schools can be made up of a variety of different categories, such
as the Montessori program or technical schools. Most students who attend
class in an actual school building go to one of these types of institutions.

5 In the relatively short span of sixty years, there has been an incredible
evolution in the size and capabilities of computer. Today, computer chips
smaller than the tip of your fingernail have the same capabilities as the room-
sized machines of years ago. The first computer was developed around 1945.
They were so large that they required special air-conditioned rooms.
About twenty years later, in the 1960s, desk-sized computers were
developed. This represented a gigantic advance. Before the end of that same
decade, however, a third generation of computer, which used simple
integrated circuits and which were even smaller and faster, had appeared. In
1971, the first micro-processor, less than one square centimeter in size, was
developed. Today modern microprocessors contain as many as 10 million
microprocessors doubles every eighteen months.

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