6 Nyquist diagrams

0
i
x 0
tr''
6.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

,.'~ 0
This chapter follows on from Chapter 5 and presents another method of
considering the frequency response of systems and their stability. The
method uses Nyquist diagrams; in these diagrams the gain and the phase
of the open-loop transfer function, i.e. the product of the forward path
and the feedback path transfer functions, are plotted as polar graphs for
(a) (b) various values of frequency. With Cartesian graphs the points are plotted
according to their x and y coordinates from the origin; with polar graph
Figure 6.1 (a) Cartesian graph
the points are plotted from the origin according to their radial distance
with points specified by x and y
values, (b) polar graph with from it and their angle to the reference axis (Figure 6.1).
points specified by r and @values
6.2 T h e p o l a r plot The polar plot of the frequency response of a system is the line traced out
as the frequency is changed from 0 to infinity by the tips of the phasors
whose lengths represent the magnitude, i.e. amplitude gain, of the
system and which are drawn at angles corresponding to their phase
(Figure 6.2).

Example
,~ = 180"
( §= O* Draw the polar diagram for the following frequency response data.

\ Freq. rad/s 1.4 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.8

Magnitude 1.6 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.2
= 270* Phase deg. -150 -160 -170 -180 -190
Figure 6.2 Polar plot with the Note that the above data gives the phases with negative signs. This
plot as the line traced out by the means they are lagging behind the 0~ line by the amounts given.
tips of the phasors as the
Figure 6.3 shows the polar plot obtained.
frequency is changed from zero
to inifnity
6.2.1 Nyquist diagrams
The term Nyquist diagram is used for:

The Nyquist diagram is the line joining the series of points plotted
on a polar graph when each point represents the magnitude and
phase of the open-loop frequency response corresponding to a
particular frequency.

To plot the Nyquist diagram from the open-loop transfer function of a

system we need to determine the magnitude and the phase as functions of
frequency.
 Nyquist diagrams 127

-270 ~

3.8rad/s
0.2
3.2rad/s
-180~~ ~' 2.6rad/s,~ O*

,4,,~,,,~ .0

\r 1.6

-90*
Figure 6.3 Example

Example
Determine the Nyquist diagram for a first-order system with an
open-loop transfer function of 1/(1 + rs).

The frequency response is:

1 _ 1 1 -jcoT: 1 097:
1 +jcoz - 1 +jcoz 1-jcoz = 1 +092172 - j 1 +6027:2

The magnitude is thus:

magnitude =
~/1 + 0)27:2

~ =90*! and the phase is:

phase = - t a n -~ ~oz
~= 180" ,L rsz"= 0
~.=ooT~~~~§ = O* At zero frequency the magnitude is 1 and the phase 0 ~ At infinite
frequency the magnitude is zero and the phase is-90 ~ When co7:= 1
the magnitude is 1/~/2 and the phase is -45 ~ Substitution of other
#= 270*] r ~sing values leads to the result shown in Figure 6.4 of a semicircular plot.
frequency
Example
Figure 6.4 Nyquist diagram for Determine the Nyquist plot for the system having the open-loop
a first-order system transfer function of 1/s(s + 1).
128 Control Systems

The frequency response is:

1 1 1 _jco _ CO2
G(jco) = jco(ico + l) = jco - 6 0 2 - jco - 0) 2 -jco - co2
~= 900
--0) 2 (.0
(_~ " O0 a 0) 2 + (0 4 --J (.02 + 09 4

4= 180 ~ //7 §
the magnitude and phase are thus:
Increasing ;//
frequency magnitude =
CO~/CO2 + 1

phase = taw ~-1/(-co)= 180~ + tan -~1/co

= 270*
oJ--0'~ When (.0 = o, then the magnitude is 0 and the phase is 0~ As (.0 tends
to 0 then the magnitude tends to infinity and the phase to 270 ~ or
Figure 6.5 Example -90 ~. Figure 6.5 shows the polar plot.

6.3 Stability As indicated in Section 5.6: the critical point which separates stable from
unstable systems is when the open-loop phase shift is -180 ~ and the
open-loop magnitude is 1. ff a Nyquist diagram of the open-loop
frequency response is plotted then for the system to be stable there must
not be any phasor with length greater than 1 and phase -180 ~ Thus the
line traced by the tips of the phasors, the so-termed loci, must not enclose
the-1 point.

Closed-loop systems whose open-loop frequency response

GO'co)HO'co) loci, as (.0 goes from 0 to oo, do not encircle the-1 point
will be stable, those which encircle t h e - 1 point are unstable and
those which pass through t h e - 1 point are marginally stable.
Encircling the point may be taken as passing to the left of the point.

The above statement is known as the Nyquist stability criterion.

Figure 6.6 illustrates the above with examples of stable, marginally
stable and unstable systems. The Nyquist plots, not to scale, correspond
to the open-loop frequency response of:

K
G(jco)HGco) = (1 +jco0.2)(1 +jco)(1 +jcol0)

with K = 10 for the stable plot, K = 137 for the marginally stable plot
and K = 500 for the unstable plot.
The vertical axis of the Nyquist plot corresponds to the phase equal to
90 ~ and so is the imaginary part of the open-loop frequency response.
The horizontal axis corresponds to the phase equal to 0 ~ and so is the
real part of the open-loop frequency response.
Figures 6.7 to 6.10 shows examples of Nyquist plots for common
forms of open-loop transfer functions and their conditions for stability.
 Nyquist diagrams 129

=90 ~

Unstable
l Marginaily stable
.. Stable

§ = 1800 0 y j)+ oo

K =500 from 0 to
+oo
= 270*

Figure 6.6 Stability and the Nyquist plot

Imag. part of
open-loop freq.
response
Real part of
open-loop freq. response
0
-1
Frequency
increasing
from 0 to + oo

Figure 6.7 G(s)H(s) = K/(s + a), stable for all values o f K > 0

Imag. part of
open-loop freq.
response Real part of
open-loop freq. response
a
w

-, / f
'ruenc'I /
increasing
from 0 to

Figure 6.8 G(s)G(s) = K/s(s + a), stable for all values o f K > 0
130 Control Systems

Imag. part of
open-loopfreq.
response
Real part of
,2_
open-loopfreq. response
-1 ( ~ 0 J l lab
Frequency
] ~ increasing
from 0 to + oo

Figure 6.9 G(s)H(s) = K/(s + a)(s + b), stable for all values o f K > 0

Imag. part of
open-loop freq.
response

?,/ -1- Real part of

Frequency / open-loopfreq. response
increasing
from 0 to
+oo

Figure 6.10 G(s)H(s) = K/s(s + a)(s + b); this is unstable with large K
but can become stable if K is reduced, the point at which the plot crosses
the axis being-K/(a + b) and so stability is when-K/(a + b) > -1

Example
Plot the Nyquist diagram for a system with the open-loop transfer
function K/(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3) and consider the value of K needed
for stability.

The open-loop frequency response is:

K
009 + 1)(jco + 2)(jco + 3)

The magnitude and phase are:

magnitude = K
~/(0) 2 + 1)(o32 + 4)(co 2 + 9)

phase = tan-~ ( - ~ ) + t a n - ] ( - ~ ) +tan-~ ( - ~ )

When co = 0 then the magnitude is K/6 and the phase is 0 ~ When co

= oo then the magnitude is 0 and the phase is 270 ~ We can use
these, and other points to plot the polar graph.
 Nyquist diagrams 131

Alternatively we can consider the frequency response in terms of

real and imaginary parts. We can write the open-loop frequency
function as:

6K(1 _o92) coK(O92 - 11)

(0) 2 + 1)(o92 + 4)(092 + 9) + J (0) 2 + 1)(092 + 4)(092 + 9)

When o9 = 0 then the imaginary part is zero and the real part is K/6.
When o9 = oo then the imaginary part is zero and the real part is 0.
The imaginary part will be zero when o9 =~/11. This is a real part,
and hence magnitude, of-K/60 and is the point at which the plot
crosses the real axis. Thus for a stable system we must have-K/60
less than -1, i.e. K must be less than 60. Figure 6.11 shows the
complete Nyquist plot (not to scale).

Imag. part of
open-loop freq.
response

KI6

-K/60 Real part of

open-loop freq. response

//Frequency
increasing
from 0 to + oo

Figure 6.11 Example

6.4 Relative stability The use of gain margin and phase margin was introduced in Section
5.6.1 to discuss the relative stability of a system in the frequency domain
when described by a Bode plot. With Nyquist plots:

Gain margin
The phase crossover frequency is the frequency at which the phase
angle first reaches-180 ~ and thus is the point where the Nyquist
plot crosses the real axis (Figure 6.12). On a Nyquist plot the
Imag. part of (-1, j0) point is the point separating stability from instability. The
open-loop freq. gain margin is the amount by which the actual gain must be
Phase
crossover response multiplied before the onset of instability. Thus if the plot cuts the
negative real axis at -x (Figure 6.12), it has to be multiplied by 1/x
Real part of to give the value -1 and so the gain margin, which is expressed in
open-loop dB, is 20 lg(1/x).
freq. response When the open-loop plot goes through the (-1, j0) point the gain
margin is 0 dB, the system being on the margin of instability. When
the open-loop plot goes to the left of (-1, j0) point the gain margin is
Figure 6.12 Phase crossover negative in dB, the system being unstable. When the open-loop plot
and gain margin goes to the right of (-1, j0) point the gain margin is positive in dB,
132 Control Systems

the system being stable. When the open-loop plot does not intersect
Imag.part the negative real axis the gain margin is infinite in dB.
Phase margin
The phase margin is defined as the angle in degrees by which the
phase angle is smaller than -180 ~ at the gain crossover, the gain
crossover being the frequency at which the open-loop gain first
reaches 1. Thus, with a Nyquist plot, ff we draw a circle of radius 1
-1~]0 part
Real centred on the origin, then the point at which it intersects the
Nyquist line gives the gain crossover. The phase margin is the angle
through which this gain crossover line must be rotated about the
G a i l ~ origin to reach the real axis and pass through the (-1, j0) point
crossover
(Figure 6.13).
Figure 6.13 Phase margin: the
angle through which the gain Example
crossover line must be rotated Determine the gain margin and the phase margin for a system with
to reach the real axis and pass the open-loop transfer function K/(s + 1)(s + 2)(s + 3) with K = 20.
through the (-1, jO) point This system was discussed earlier in this chapter (see Figure 6.11 for
the Nyquist plot).

The open-loop frequency response is:

K
(jco + 1)(jco + 2)009 + 3)

and this can be rearranged to give:

6/(( 1 - 0) 2) COK(CO2 - 11)

(0) 2 + 1)(o92 + 4)(092 + 9) + j (0) 2 + 1)(o)2 + 4)(o92 + 9)

The imaginary part will be zero when co =~11 and thus the real part
is-K/60 and is the point at which the plot crosses the real axis.
Hence, if we have K = 20 then the plot intersects the negative real
axis at-20/60 = -1/3. The gain can thus be increased by a factor of
3 in order to reach the-1 point. The gain margin is thus 20 lg 3 =
9.5 dB.
The magnitude is:

magnitude = K
~/(CO2 + 1)(O92+ 4)(022 + 9)

Thus, for K = 20, the magnitude is 1 when co = 1.84 rad/s. The

phase is given by:

phase= tan-~ ( ~ ) + tan-~ ( - ~ ) +tan-~ ( ~ -)

and so, at this frequency, the phase is -135.5 ~. Thus the phase
margin is 44.5 ~
 Nyquist diagrams 133

Problems 1 Sketch the Nyquist diagram for a system having an open-loop

transfer function of 1/[s(s + 1)].
2 With a Nyquist diagram for the open-loop frequency response for a
system, what is the condition for the system to be stable?
3 Determine the gain margin and the phase margin for a system which
gave the following open-loop frequency response:

Freq. md/s 1.4 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.8

Magnitude 1.6 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.2
Phase deg. -150 -160 -170 -180 -190

4 Determine the gain margin and the phase margin for a system which
gave the following open-loop frequency response"

Freq. rad/s 4 5 6 8 10
Gain 3.2 2.3 1.7 1.0 0.6
Phase in deg. -140 -150 -157 -170 -180

5 Determine the gain margin and the phase margin for a system
having an open-loop transfer function of:

K
s(s+ 1)(s + 2)

when K = 4.
6 Determine the gain margin and the phase margin for a system
having an open-loop transfer function of:

s(O.2s + 1)(O.05s + 1)