Matrikulasi 1

Topics
• Economic models
• Optimization
Microeconomic vs Macroeconomic
Microeconomics

• Branch of economics that deals with the behavior of

individual economic units—consumers, firms, workers, and
investors—as well as the markets that these units comprise.

Macroeconomics

• Branch of economics that deals with aggregate economic

variables, such as the level and growth rate of national
output, interest rates, unemployment, and inflation.
 The Themes of Microeconomics
CONSUMERS
Consumers have limited incomes, which can be spent on a wide variety of goods and services, or
saved for the future.
WORKERS
Workers also face constraints and make trade-offs. First, people must decide whether and when to
enter the workforce. Second, workers face trade-offs in their choice of employment. Finally,
workers must sometimes decide how many hours per week they wish to work, thereby trading off
labor for leisure.
FIRMS
Firms also face limits in terms of the kinds of products that they can produce, and the resources
available to produce them.
Economic Models
• Theoretical Models
• Verification of Economic Models
• General Features of Economic Models
Why Economic Model
• The main goal : to introduce models to explain the behavior of
consumers, firms, and markets. These models are central to the study
of all areas of economics.
• it is essential to understand models and the basic framework used to
develop them.
• Using mathematics to solve microeconomic problems
Theoretical Model
• Economists’ models provide simplified portraits of the way individuals
make decisions, the way firms behave, and the way in which these
two groups interact to establish markets.
• Consumer Theory, producer theory
Verification of Economic Models
• There are 2 method have been used for verifying economic models:
• (1) a direct approach, which seeks to establish the validity of the
basic assumptions on which a model is based;
• (2) an indirect approach, which attempts to confirm validity by
showing that a simplified model correctly predicts real-world events.
General Features of Economic Models
• (1) the ceteris paribus (other things the same) assumption
• (2) “positive” and “normative” questions
• (3) economic decision makers seek to optimize something
Ceteris paribus
• models used in economics attempt to portray relatively simple
relationships.
• A model of the market for wheat,
wheat prices = F(wages of farmworkers, rainfall, consumer incomes)
• “outside” forces (presence of wheat diseases, changes in the prices of
fertilizers or of tractors, or shifts in consumer attitudes about eating
bread) affect the price of wheat are held constant in the construction
of the model.
Positive & Normative
• Positive analysis : real world as an object to be studied, explain
economic phenomena.
• Positive economics seeks to determine how resources are in fact allocated in
an economy.
• normative analysis : what should be done.
• economists have a great deal to say about how resources should be allocated.
• For example,
• positive analysis : The economist might want to measure the costs and
benefits for health care.
• But when he or she specifically advocates that more resources should be
allocated to health care, the analysis becomes normative.
Optimization assumptions
• Assumption that the economic actors being studied are rationally
pursuing some goal.
• Consumers maximizing their own well-being (utility)
• Firms minimizing costs,
• Government regulators maximize public welfare.
Mathematic for Microeconomics :
Optimization
optimization

No
Constraint
constraint

1 variable 2 variabel 2 variabel

Solution for optimization
• Define objective function
• Necessary condition
• 1st Derivative
• Critical value
• Sufficient condition
• 2nd derivative
• Checking for maximum and minimum function
Optimization 1 variable : Define objective function
• Maximize profit, Total revenue, utility
• Minimize total cost
• Contoh soal
• Sebuah perusahaan mempunyai fungsi TR = 60Q – 2Q2
• Sebuah perusahaan mempunyai fungsi TC = 1/3 Q3 -2,5Q2 -50Q+10
• Sebuah perusahaan monopolis mempunyai fungsi permintaan sebagai berikut
: P =24-3Q
• Hitunglah Q yang memaksimumkan/meminimumkan fungsi.
 Optimization 1 variable : Necessary condition

• Jika suatu fungsi y = f(x) maka first derivative-nya memiliki peranan

yang sangat penting untuk mencari nilai ekstrim.
• Asumsi y = f(x) continous.
• Untuk Fungsi yang halus (smooth), nilai ekstrim relatif dapat
ditemukan hanya jika first derivative bernilai nol.
Titik stationer

• Titik Stationer : titik yang y D

berada pada situasi tidak
positif atau negatif.
• titik stasioner : C, D + -
- +

C
x1 x2 x
Cont…
• Grafik fungsi f ( x) = x 3 − 12 x 2 + 36 x + 8

2 6 x
 Optimization 1 variable : Second Derivative

• Jika derivatif pertama dari fungsi f(x) pada x = xo adalah f `(xo) = 0,

maka nilai fungsi, f (xo), pada saat xo adalah:
• Maksimum relatif jika f ``(x) < 0
• Minimum relatif jika f ``(x) > 0
Cont…

y
Tanda derivative
B
X= x1 F’(x1) > 0 F’’(x1) < 0 A

A C
X= x2 F’(x2) = 0 F’’(x1) < 0 B

X= x3 F’(x3) < 0 F’’(x1) < 0 C

x1 x2 x3
Cont…

y
Tanda derivative

X= x4 F’(x4) < 0 F’’(x4) >0 D

D F
X= x5 F’(x5) = 0 F’’(x5) > 0 E E

X= x6 F’(x6) > 0 F’’(x6) > 0 F

x4 x5 x6
 Necessary Vs Sufficient Condition

• Necessary Condition for optimization

• first derivative = first order condition
• Determine stationary value.
• Sufficient Condition for optimization
• second derivative = second order condition
• Determine whether stationary value maksimum

minimum
 Profit Maximization

R(Q) = 1200 Q − 2Q 2
C (Q) = Q 3 − 61.25Q 2 + 1528 .5Q + 2000
 (Q) = −Q 3 + 59.25Q 2 − 328Q − 2000
d
First order = −3Q + 118 .5Q − 328 .5 = 0
2

dQ
Stationary value → Q1 = 3
Q 2 = 36.5
d 2  0 Q1 = 3
Second order = −6Q + 118 .5 
 0 Q 2 = 36.5
2
dQ
Optimization for Two variables : Define obejective
function
Z = f (x,y)
• Sebuah perusahaan mempunyai fungsi profit sebagai berikut :
Π = 25x –x2-xy-2y2+30y-28

• Sebuah perusahaan mempunyai fungsi total biaya sebagai berikut :

TC = 8x2 + 6y2 -2xy -40x -42y +180
Optimization for Two variables : Necessary condition

Z = f (x,y)
Total diferensial
dZ = fx dx + fy dy
Fx = dz/dx
Fy = dz/dy
Titik ekstrimum di cari ketika Fx = fy = 0
Optimization for Two variables : sufficient
condition
Condition Maximum Minimum
First Order Necessary Condition Fx= fy = 0 Fx = fy = 0
Second Order Sufficient Fxx, fyy < 0 Fxx, fyy > 0
Condition Dan Dan
Fxx . Fyy > fxy2 Fxx . Fyy > fxy2
Latihan
• 1. Carilah Nilai ekstrim dan Periksalah apakah fungsi berikut
maximum/minimum :
• A. Z = 60x+34y-4xy-6x2-3y2+5 (x= 4, y=3)
• B. Z = 8x -2X2+12xy-12y2+6y ( x= -5,5 y=-2.5)
• C. Z = 5x2-30x+4xy – 3y2 + 7y ( x=2 y= 2,5)
• D. Z = 9x – 3x2 + 6xy – 8y2 + 12y ( x = 3.6, y =2.1)
• E. Z= 48y – 3x2 - 6xy – 2y2 + 72x (x=0, y=12)
• F. Z = 120x – 2,25x2 - 4xy – 2,4y2 + 200y (x=-40 , y=75)
Constrained optimization : Define objective
function

• Kasus 1 : optimisasi tanpa kendala

• Max
 = Q1Q2 + 2Q1

• Kasus 2 : optimisasi dengan kendala

• Max
• Restriksi  = Q1Q2 + 2Q1
4Q1 + 2Q2 = 60
Metode Lagrange

• Metode Lagrange ditujukan untuk mengkonversi

restriksi kedalam suatu persamaan tertentu dimana
kondisi turunan pertama dari optimisasi tanpa
kendala dapat diterapkan.
 Cont…
• Misalkan fungsi tujuan didefinisikan sbb : z = f ( x, y)

• dgn restriksi : g ( x, y) = c c = constant

• Maka fungsi Lagrange diformulasikan sbb :

Z = f ( x, y ) +  c − g ( x, y )
 = lagrange multiplier
Constrained optimization : necessary condition

Kondisi Turunan Pertama :

Z  = c − g ( x, y ) = 0
Z x = f x −  g x ( x, y ) = 0 x = ... y = ...
Z y = f y −  g y ( x, y ) = 0
fx fy
= =
gx gy
Arti Lagrange Multiplier

• Lagrange multiplier mengukur sensitivitas Z

terhadap perubahan constraint (c ).
• Metode total diferensial

Z = f ( x, y ) +  c − g ( x, y )
Kondisi turunan pertama :
c − g ( x, y )  0
f x (x, y) −  g x (x, y)  0
f y (x, y) −  g y (x, y)  0
Contoh
• Problem :
• Maksimumkan utility U = x1 x2 + 2x1
• yang terkait dengan constraint 4 x + 2 x = 60
1 2
• Formulasi masalah : Fungsi Lagrange

Z = x1 x2 + 2 x1 +  (60 − 4 x1 − 2 x2 )
Cont…

Z = x1 x2 + 2 x1 +  (60 − 4 x1 − 2 x2 )

Z  ( Z /  ) = 60 − 4 x1 − 2 x2 = 0
Z x1 ( Z / x1 ) = x2 + 2 − 4 = 0
Z x2 ( Z / x2 ) = x1 − 2 = 0
x1 = 8 x2 = 14
Constrained optimization : sufficient condition

z = f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ), subject to g( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) = c

Z = f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) +  c − g( x1 , x2 ,..., xn )

Condition Maksimum Minimum

First order
Necessary Z  = Z1 = Z 2 = ... = Z n = 0 Z  = Z1 = Z 2 = ... = Z n = 0
condition
Second order H 2  0; H 3  0; H 4  0;
Sufficient H 2 , H 3 ,... H n  0
...; (− 1) H n  0
n
condition

Determinan Hessian

z = f ( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ), subject to g( x1 , x2 ,..., xn ) = c

0 g1 g 2 ... g n
g1 Z11 Z12 ... Z1n
H = g 2 Z21 Z22 ... Z2n
................................
g n Zn1 Zn2 ... Znn
Cont..

0 g1 g2 0 g1 g2 g3
H 2  g1 Z11 Z12 g1 Z11 Z12 Z13
H3 =
g 2 Z21 Z22 g 2 Z21 Z22 Z23
g 3 Z31 Z32 Z33
Contoh Soal
• Suatu perusahaan ingin meminimumkan fs. biayanya c = 3x 2 + 5 xy + 6 y 2
yang dibatasi oleh restriksi sbb : 5 x + 7 y = 732
• Tentukan nilai x dan y yang meminimumkan fungsi.
• Ujilah apakah x dan y yang diperoleh benar-benar telah
meminimumkan fungsi.
Jawaban soal
a. C = 3 x 2 + 5 xy + 6 y 2 +  (732 − 5 x − 7 y )
C x = 6 x + 5 y − 5 = 0
C y = 5 x + 12 y − 7 = 0
C  = 732 − 5 x − 7 y = 0
x = 75 y = 51
b. c xx = 6 c yy = 12 c xy = c xy = 5
gx = 5 gy = 7
6 5 5
H = 5 12 7 H 2 = −244 → C minimized
5 7 0