Problem

solving and
innovation
on the
farm
A how-to
manual

TOMASZ B. FALKOWSKI AND LAURIE E. DRINKWATER

COPYRIGHT © 2020
All rights reserved. This material is protected by copyright and based upon work supported by the National Institute of Food and
Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture, through the Northeast Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education program under
subaward number ENE15-135. No part may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher.

2
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Contents
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Chapter 1 – Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 6
How this manual was developed................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
Content and organization of the manual.................................................................................................................................................................................. 7
Chapter 2 – How do expert farmers solve problems on their farms?.................................................................................................................. 8
Overview of the Problem Solving and Innovation Framework presented in this manual................................................................. 8
Adaptive whole farm management.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 11
The role of farmers in agricultural research and innovation.................................................................................................................................... 12
Fostering problem solving and innovation............................................................................................................................................................................. 13
Problem solving or innovation?....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 3 - Establish life and farm goals....................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Step A: Identify a farm vision............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 16
Step B: Define the farm system....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 20
Recommended resources.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 4 - Identifying problems and opportunities.......................................................................................................................................................... 28
Step C: Observe and gather information on the farm system................................................................................................................................. 28
Step D: Evaluate the farming system.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Recommended resources.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39
Chapter 5 – Problem solving and experimentation.............................................................................................................................................................. 40
Step E: Design actions............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 40
Step F: Implement the plan................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 49
Step G: Evaluate outcomes................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 52
Recommended resources.................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 6 – Example experimental designs................................................................................................................................................................................ 56
Trials repeated over time without a control or replication......................................................................................................................................... 56
Unreplicated side-by-side comparisons with a control treatment, repeated over time..................................................................... 59
Side-by-side comparisons with a control treatment, replicated in multiple fields................................................................................. 60
Side-by-side comparisons with a control treatment replicated in a single field...................................................................................... 61
Randomized, complete block designs....................................................................................................................................................................................... 63

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Chapter 7 – Case studies................................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 64
Case Study #1: Setting goals and determining quality of life requirements
(Anton Burkett, Early Morning Farm).......................................................................................................................................................................................... 65
Case Study #2: Observing patterns
(Jean-Paul Courtens and Jody Bolluyt, Roxbury Farm)................................................................................................................................................. 67
Case Study #3: Developing a cropping system and a unique market niche
(Thor Oechsner, Oechsner Farms)................................................................................................................................................................................................ 69
Case Study #4: Adapting to climate change through innovative management
(Lou and Merby Lego, Elderberry Pond Farm).................................................................................................................................................................... 71
Case Study #5: Background investigation
(Klaas and Mary-Howell Martens, Lakeview Organic Grain)................................................................................................................................... 74
Case Study #6: Experimental Design
(Lou and Merby Lego, Elderberry Pond Farm).................................................................................................................................................................... 77
Case Study #7: Success criteria
(Karma and Michael Glos, Kingbird Farm)............................................................................................................................................................................. 80
Case Study #8: Evaluating results
(Chaw Chang and Lucy Garrison, Stick & Stone Farm)............................................................................................................................................... 82
Case Study #9: Invite feedback from collaborators
(Harold Schrock, Berry Hill Farm).................................................................................................................................................................................................. 84
Case Study #10: Reinventing a whole farm system
(Adam and Courtney Squire, Unbound Glory Homestead)...................................................................................................................................... 86
Case Study #11: Developing an innovative farming system
(Steve Groff, Cedar Meadow Farm).............................................................................................................................................................................................. 88
Chapter 8 – Appendices.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 91
Appendix I: Established farmer networks and agricultural organizations..................................................................................................... 92
Appendix II: Sample resource inventory worksheet....................................................................................................................................................... 93
Appendix III: Grants for farmer experimentation................................................................................................................................................................ 94
Appendix IV: Personal weather stations................................................................................................................................................................................... 95

4
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Acknowledgements
We thank the following farmers and agricultural service providers for their
contributions to and feedback on this manual:
• Chaw Chang and Lucy Garrison, Stick and Stone Farm, Ithaca, NY
• Brian Caldwell, Research Associate, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
• Jean-Paul Courtens & Jody Bolluyt, Roxbury Farm LLC, Kinderhook, NY
• Michael and Karma Glos, Kingbird Farm, Berkshire, NY
• Steve Groff, Cedar Meadow Farm, Holtwood, PA
• Thor Oechsner, Oechsner Farms, Newfield, NY
• Anton Burkett, Early Morning Farm, Genoa, NY
• Robert Hadad, Extension Associate, CALS Coop Ext. Area Vegetable, Lockport, NY
• Lou and Merby Lego, Elderberry Pond Farm, Auburn, NY
• Nicolas Lindholm, Hackmatack Farm, Penobscot, ME
• Klaas Martens, Martens Farm, Penn Yan, NY
• Eero Ruuttila, New Entry Sustainable Farming Project, Lowell, MA
• Brent Welch, Bright Raven Farm, Trumansburg, NY
• Michael Kane, Shamrock Hill Farm, Port Crane, NY
• Craig Cramer, Communications Specialist, Cornell University
• Abby Seaman, Vegetable Integrated Pest Management Coordinator, Cornell Agritech, Geneva, NY
• Harold Schrock, Berry Hill Farm, Deansboro, NY
• Adam and Courtney Squire, Unbound Glory Homestead, Pomfret Center, CT

We thank Kirsten Ankers, Citrine Sky Design, Edgewater, MD, for her contribution to the
design and layout of this manual.

5
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 1 Introduction
Ask any farmer, and they’ll tell you that their job is never are appropriate for their farms and are generally more
boring. Farmers deal with new challenges that arise on a successful than generalized, cookie-cutter fixes. In some
near-constant basis, be it unpredictable weather, new cases, they even discover a new solution that is broadly
pests, volatile prices, or changing customer preferences. applicable across farms.
If anything, the speed and magnitude of these changes In this manual, we present a step-by-step process for
are likely to increase in the coming years as a result of on-farm problem solving and experimentation and
environmental shifts, accelerating technological devel- provide real-world examples of this approach in action.
opment, and an increasingly interconnected economy. In learning from these farmer-innovators’ collective
As a result, it’s advantageous—and arguably essential— experience, we believe that you can also become an
for farmers to develop problem-solving skills. innovative farmer ready to tackle any of the challenges
Although the ability to respond to change is a key that inevitably lie in your future.
feature of adaptive farm management, problem solving
and the ability to develop innovations are often seen as How this manual was developed
innate skills rather than something that can be learned. Our conversations over the years with experienced
Some farmers consider the development of innovative farmer-innovators inspired us to embark on this project.
solutions to be extensionists’ and researchers’ job. By We learned that each of these farmers had developed
contrast, farmer-innovators are those farmers who have inventive approaches to combine experimentation with
integrated problem solving and experimentation into their normal farming activities. These systems of inquiry
their normal farming operations. The solutions they find had some common patterns across farms while also

6
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
being fine-tuned to be compatible with each farmer’s We start by introducing the Problem Solving and
personality and management style. We systematically Innovation Framework in Chapters 1 and 2, along with
documented these farmers’ techniques and processes to some background about the role of farmers in agricul-
produce this manual in the hope that this information tural innovation and adaptive management approaches.
would be useful to other farmers and extension educators. Subsequent chapters cover the details of the seven-step
The Northeast Sustainable Agriculture Research and process, developed by the farmer focus group. Chapter 3
Education program funded our proposal, and we held focuses on developing life and farm goals that are a
the initial focus group workshop on March 1-2, 2017. The necessary foundation of effective experimentation and
focus group consisted of nine organic farmers who both problem solving. This chapter is most relevant to new
we and other farmers identified as innovators. We farmers or those who are contemplating starting a farm.
included farmers who maintained a range of production Chapter 4 deals with identifying and prioritizing prob-
systems (e.g., grain, vegetables, livestock). The product lems and opportunities for improving a farming system.
of the workshop was the seven-step system for on-farm We focus on aspects of these tasks that are particularly
problem solving and innovation illustrated on page 9. relevant to problem solving and innovation rather than
discussing general farm management at length. Chapter 5
We also conducted individual interviews with the
then builds upon this groundwork to describe how to
farmers who participated in the initial workshop as well
design, execute, and evaluate on-farm experiments.
as farmers who were recommended to us. These
interviews clarified the results of the workshop and
provided specific examples of on-farm problem solving
and innovation. We incorporated feedback from farmers, We hope this manual will not only offer
extension educators, and researchers who reviewed the guidance for aspiring farmer-innovators, but
completed manual. We hope this manual will not only
offer guidance for aspiring farmer-innovators, but will will also help explain farmer problem solving
also help explain farmer problem solving and innovation and innovation to the broader community
to the broader community of agricultural professionals, of agricultural professionals, including
including scientists and extension educators.
scientists and extension educators.
Content and organization of the manual
Many guides lay out basic on-farm research approaches
(see the references provided at the end of Chapter 5).
The final two chapters of the manual include material
These resources emphasize different aspects of the
that complements and expands on the Problem Solving
process, but they all try to help farmers apply the
and Innovation Framework. We provide example prob-
scientific method to conduct on-farm trials. Taken
lems with suitable experimental designs and diagrams in
together, these manuals provide an excellent guide to
Chapter 6. Chapter 7 contains 11 case studies document-
applying simple research approaches that follow the
ing illustrative real-world examples of farmers problem
scientific method.
solving and innovating.
This is not our goal with this manual. Instead, we are
Lastly, at the end of each chapter, we have provided a
presenting informal, farmer-developed methods used by
number of useful resources associated with the content
experienced and innovative farmers that are compatible
of the problem-solving steps. In addition, several appen-
with day-to-day farming activities. Most of these farmers
dices at the end of the manual provide additional
are aware of the basic elements of the scientific method
resources, including a list of farmer networks and
but developed their own approaches for studying their
agricultural organizations that support farmer problem
farms that don’t completely match the requirements of
solving and adaptive management, worksheets, funding
formal research. Rigorous experimental designs have led
sources for on-farm research grants, and information on
to countless discoveries, but we are increasingly recog-
personal weather stations. Throughout the manual,
nizing the importance of other, complementary
hyperlinks are indicated with blue text; those that connect
approaches to producing knowledge, including those
to internal sections within this document are underlined.
developed by people who aren’t necessarily trained in
the scientific method.

7
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
2 How do expert farmers solve
problems on their farms?

Overview of the Problem Solving and order to spot areas in need of improvement and takes
Innovation Framework presented in this you through the process of experimentation including
manual designing, implementing, and evaluating on-farm trials in
The Framework that was developed by the farmer focus conjunction with normal farming activities. This cycle is
group (Table 2-1) is divided into two parts (Figure 2-1). typically repeated annually.
Part I (Steps A and B) includes steps that focus on While we have organized the steps and tasks of the
establishing a farm vision and understanding your whole Framework in a sequence that reflects the consensus of
farming system. The farmer panel agreed that having a the farmer panel, in practice, farmers don’t solve prob-
solid vision and farm plan is the foundation of effective lems in a linear fashion. You may find that your preferred
problem solving and innovation. Once established, these sequence differs from the order outlined in the
steps can be revised periodically (i.e., every 5–10 years) Framework (Figure 2-2). You might also find that in some
or when there are events that require you to reconsider cases, you don’t need to carry out all steps or tasks. This
your vision or farm plan (i.e., having children, moving is particularly true in the case of urgent problems that
from rented to owned land). Part II (Steps C–G) empha- need a speedy solution; it might be prudent to shorten
sizes observing and evaluating your farming operation in certain steps or skip them entirely.

8
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
TABLE 2-1: The Problem Solving and Innovation Framework is composed of steps and tasks that
farmer-innovators agreed were important for the problem-solving process. Tasks flow from left to
right, but the precise order of actually implementing them is flexible.
Parts Steps Tasks
A-2: Identify quality of life A-3: Identify personal/farm
A-1: Network with farmers
requirements values and goals
Identify the
A
farm vision
A-4: Articulate farm vision A-5: Identify target market A-6: Write business plan
Part I
B-2: Identify resource B-3: Develop whole farm
B-1: Map the farm
inventory plan
Define the farm
B
system
B-4: Determine means of B-5: Determine farm
production interactions

C-2: Record observations

C-1: Walk the farm C-3: Observe patterns
and events

Observe/gather
C-5: Collect outside
C information on C-4: Perform routine testing C-6: Taste your own food
observations
the farm system

C-7: Invite feedback from C-8: Invite feedback from

C-9: Assess equipment
farm staff customers

D-1: Review annual farm

D-2: Analyze financials D-3: Analyze records
schedule/calendar

Evaluate the D-5: Review successes and D-6: Review means of

D D-4: Establish benchmarks
farm system failures production

D-7: Identify important D-9: Prioritize problems

D-8: Consult experts
trends/changes and opportunities
Part II
E-2: Research solutions/ E-3: Assess risks and
E-1: Investigate subject
options rewards
E Design actions
E-4: Choose best course of E-5: Design trial/course of E-6: Identify success
action action criteria

F-3: Assign roles and

F-1: Collect resources F-2: Allocate necessary time
duties
Implement F-4: Execute plan F-5: Collect data F-6: Monitor results
F
your plan

F-7: Fine tune actions F-8: Review success criteria

G-3: Reassess risks and

G-1: Observe end result G-2: Analyze data
rewards
Evaluate
G
Outcomes
G-4: Invite feedback G-5: Determine next steps G-6: Share results

9
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 2-1: Relationship between Innovation Framework sections. The steps in Part I inform those
in Part II (large arrow), and you can use the information you learn from Part II to occasionally revisit
your farm vision and system in Part I (small arrow).

Identify
farm vision

Part I:
Background
planning
Define
farm
system

Evaluate Observe
outcomes the farm
Part II: Cycle of
problem solving
and innovation Implement Evaluate
test the farm

Design test

10
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 2-2: Suggestions for where to start and how to use this manual.

Are you a new farmer or

contemplating starting a Are you an experienced
farm? farmer interested in Do you already have an
designing, implementing, established way of integrating
Start with Chapter 3 before
and interpreting results? innovation and problem solving
diving into the rest of the
into your farmwork?
manual! Jump to Chapters 4 & 5 and
go through the Innovation Skip ahead to Chapters 6 & 7
Framework! to check out the example
experimental designs and
case studies

Adaptive whole farm management management. It involves multiple, continuous cycles of

adjusting and evaluating farming systems on an ongoing
To avoid reinventing the wheel, we anchored the
basis to improve farm operations. The aim of adaptive
Framework developed by the farmer focus group to the
management is to improve a farm system incrementally
established concept of adaptive whole farm manage- over time in response to changes, be they environmen-
ment (Figure 2-3). This cycle of problem identification, tal, governmental, economic, or personal. The cycle of
experimentation, evaluation, and adjustment is common problem solving presented in this manual (Figure 2-4)
across many forms of natural resource management, follows the “plan”, “do”, and “evaluate” stages of adaptive
including fishing, forestry, as well as game and wildlife management.

FIGURE 2-3: Diagram of adaptive management cycle (adapted from Jones [2009]).

Determine management
objectives
Periodically review Define key desired
overall management outcomes
program
Identify performance
indicators
Adjust ma
na
ar gements t geme
ra n Develop management
oe
nh nt a strategies and actions
an ct
Report findings and ce i
e
on ect

recommendations
s a iven
ff

of evaluation
nd ess

Establish monitoring
programs for selected
performance indicators

Implement strategies
Evaluate management and actions to achieve
effectiveness objectives

11
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 2-4: Graphic illustration of the cycle of on-farm problem solving. The process begins with
observing a problem or opportunity, and it continues until an acceptable result is found and
implemented.
Observed problem
or opportunity

Implement: Gather information

Observe and adjust

ACCEPTABLE Identify management

NOT ACCEPTABLE change/potential solution
Evaluate results

Design actions: How will you

Monitor: Observation test the potential solution
and data collection

Execute plan

The role of farmers in agricultural research

and innovation BOX 2-1: Comparing and contrasting informal
If adaptive management is commonly practiced in many and formal research.
natural resource management fields, why is it rarely Formal research usually refers to scientific research
taught to or used by farmers? Before the rise of land conducted to test a hypothesis or answer a specific
grant universities, farmers produced and shared new question. It involves systematic research and abides
discoveries within the farming community through by the scientific method, which lays out a series of
informal social networks, town meetings, and farmer requirements for the research design. By contrast,
organizations. Until about the mid-1950s, the role of informal research is carried out without using the
farmers in problem solving and experimentation was scientific method. People have engaged in informal
widely recognized as a cornerstone of agricultural research since long before the scientific method was
production and innovation. developed.

The transition to industrial agriculture resulted in a shift Experienced farmers can carry out formal, scientific
research independently or by collaborating with an
in agricultural knowledge systems and an increased
extension educator. However, experimental designs
reliance on formal research and the scientific method
that meet all of the strict criteria of the scientific
(Box 2-1). Farmer innovation and farmer-to-farmer
method are not always the best approach to prob-
knowledge sharing diminished as researchers produced
lem solving and innovating on working farms.
and provided knowledge directly to farmers. On-farm Formal and informal research are complementary,
research declined, and the farmer’s role was often not replacements for one another. Both play a role in
limited to implementing researcher-designed trials or increasing the productivity and resilience of farm
merely granting permission for researchers to install a systems.
trial on their farm.

12
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
TABLE 2-2: Benefits and challenges of carrying out farmer-led research and experimentation.
Strengths/Benefits Weaknesses/Limitations

• Farmers have detailed knowledge of conditions on their • Farmers may have limited knowledge of or access to
farms current science and emerging technologies
• Topics investigated are relevant to farmers • Requires time, effort, and resources
• Management practices/technologies are evaluated • Imprecise data collection and monitoring methods
within the context in which they will be used • Communication of results may be limited
• Allows for new practices to be adjusted to the particular • Fear or lack of self-confidence
needs of the farm
• Expands farmers’ understanding of their farming system
• Empowers and stimulates innovation

Even though farmer knowledge systems may have been funding targeting organic production systems stimulated
undervalued in formal academic institutions, informal researcher–farmer collaborations and enabled the
experimentation by farmers has always been critical to transmission of organic farming knowledge from farmers
successful farm management. There are many examples to university researchers. Currently, it is widely recognized
of innovations developed through informal farmer that farmers are uniquely qualified to assess their own
research, including the roller-crimper/cover crop manage- needs and priorities, as well as develop, evaluate, and
ment approaches Steve Groff (Cedar Meadow Farm, Case implement solutions to issues arising on their farms. Table
Study #11) adapted for North American farm systems and 2-3 illustrates the continuum of researcher and farmer
the complex vegetable-cover crop rotations developed by collaborations. The focus of this manual is farmer-led
Eric and Anne Nordell (Beech Grove Farm). Conducting research where farmers either test solutions inde-
research while managing your farm comes with a number pendently or collaborate with scientists and extensionists
of benefits and limitations (Table 2-2). to design and carry out trials on their farms.
The emergence of the sustainable agriculture movement
challenged the knowledge system in which researchers Fostering problem solving and innovation
produce technology and information and expect passive In developing this manual, we learned that successful
farmers to implement these technologies. The recent farmer-innovators have one thing in common: they have
renewal of farmer engagement in university-led agricul- developed systems of problem solving and experimenta-
tural research is most evident in organic agriculture tion that are compatible with their normal farming
where, prior to the 1990s, farmers had to develop their operations and enable them to be proactive in testing
own management systems. The advent of USDA research improvements.

TABLE 2-3: Gradient of farmer involvement in research; rather than merely involving farmers as
consultants or asking them to implement trials designed by scientists, participatory action research
places farmers on equal footing with scientists in designing and interpreting research. This manual
focuses on farmer-led research.
Researcher-led Participatory action research Famer-led

Independent of Consultative: Collaborative: Farmer-scientist Consultative: Advice

Independent
farmer input Farmer advisors partnerships from scientists

13
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 TABLE 2-4: Conditions that stymie and ease farmer experimentation.
Advantages Barriers
• Years of farming in a particular place provide experience • New farmers have limited experience to establish
and perspective necessary for identifying and solving baselines and benchmarks for detecting changes
problems • A lack of resources that ensure basic stability
• Financial stability • Experienced farmers may not want to change their
• Obvious and easily observable problems production systems
• Eagerness to continually improve farming systems or try • Low commitment to farming (work commitments
new technologies outside of farming)
• Commitment to allocate time and resources annually to • Facing a complex problem whose root cause is
continual improvement uncertain
• Self-confidence, curiosity, and creativity

We believe problem solving and innovation skills can be Problem solving or innovation?
learned by any farmer who is interested in improving
Problem solving and innovation have much in
their farming operation. The first step in cultivating your
common. Innovation typically involves some degree of
innate problem-solving and innovative capacity is
problem solving, and problem solving can lead to the
creating an environment in which you aren’t afraid to try
development of innovative solutions. Both are equally
new things and occasionally fail (Table 2-4). While
important aspects of managing a farm successfully.
personal and financial stability increase the capacity to
However, they can differ slightly in scope and intent
experiment on a farm, courage and passion for learning
(Table 2-5).
are the essential ingredients. We have known this central
lesson since childhood, if only we remember it: get dirty, Although problem solving is a daily part of farming, this
make mistakes, and have fun! manual isn’t about day-to-day troubleshooting. Instead,

TABLE 2-5: Comparing and contrasting the characteristics of problem solving and innovation on
the farm. Adapted from Boersma (2013).
Problem Solving Innovation
• Reactive to address a problem • Proactive to take advantage of opportunities
Differences • Maintain the status quo • Improve beyond the status quo
• Motivated to solve a particular problem • Motivated to continuously improve the farm
• Needs to be addressed as soon as possible system as a whole
• Important, but not necessarily urgent

• Easier to do with clear goals and measures of success

• Based on observing and understanding the farm system
• Benefit from broad background investigation and networking
Similarities
• Rigor of experimentation reflects the risk involved
• Improved through methodical evaluation of results
• Typically repetitive, cyclical, and based on past efforts
• Allow you to better understand your farming system and maintain its viability

14
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
we focus on how problem solving will enable you to or technologies in a new way to solve a problem.
steadily improve your farm and adapt to changing Alternatively, innovation can result from a more proactive
conditions by testing various possible solutions to find the process of setting a goal for improving your farming
one that best suits your needs. Many problems don’t have system before problems arise, and pursuing a series of
obvious, immediate solutions, and therefore demand that steps to realize that goal. Regardless of the starting
you develop a new approach. Some examples of situa-
point, the process of innovation is more involved than
tions this manual can help you address are:
problem solving, and usually requires more background
• Problems that require multiple trials because there are research and several rounds of experimentation.
several possible solutions and the best option is
unclear For example, when Lou Lego discovered that downy
mildew was killing his cucumber crops, he needed to act
• A solution that served you well in the past is now
proving ineffective, or what worked for someone else fast to find a solution. He started with row covers—a
isn’t doing the same for you known practice that is effective for protecting crops from
• Problems that aren’t widely acknowledged or foliar diseases and insect pests. While this was some-
understood what effective at reducing the disease, it had other
• Situations where the immediate problem has a known drawbacks that led him to an innovative solution,
solution, but through solving this problem you see an described in Case Study #6.
opportunity for an innovation and substantial improve-
ment of your farming system
• Problems that arise due to changing environmental
conditions (i.e., climate change, increasing weed Innovation pushes beyond solving a
pressure, a pest that isn’t responding to your usual problem to producing something entirely
measures) or changing markets/regulations that
require substantive changes in your farming system
new that does not yet exist.
• Any improvement you want to pursue that involves a
substantive change in farming practices
The types of solutions you test can run the gamut. They
Similarly, Steve Groff’s adaptation and integration of the
can be small modifications, such as variety trials, testing
a change in rotation sequence or cover crop species, or roller-crimper into his no-till cover cropping system
modifying seeding densities or other aspects of planting (Case Study #11) for growing tomatoes offers another
practices. Alternatively, they can also be more substan- great example of innovation. He started out with a goal
tive changes, such as adding a new cash crop to your of growing tomatoes while also restoring soil health and
operation, modifying/inventing new equipment, or reducing chemicals. This led him to develop a no-till
substantially changing tillage intensity. cover cropping system. Following this, inspired by
Innovation pushes beyond solving a problem to produc- farmers in Brazil, he modified existing equipment for a
ing something entirely new that does not yet exist. new use in order to kill the cover crop without tillage.
Innovation can be the result of bringing together ideas More information on this system is available here.

15
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
3 Establish life and farm goals

There are many excellent guides for starting a farm, and revisiting such a vision will help ensure the sustainability
we encourage those who are thinking of starting a farm of your farm, because a farm vision changes over the
or are in the process of doing so to seek guidance from course of a lifetime.
these resources (Box 3-1). Likewise, guides for applying
whole farm management approaches are also available A-1 Network with farmers
in the form of books and online resources. In this Finding a mentor or colleague can help you learn about
chapter, we limit discussion of Steps A and B to the common problems, new solutions, mistakes to avoid,
features most essential for farmers’ success in problem and ideas for improvements. Farmer networks can be
solving and innovating on their own farms. For broader, informal (e.g., neighbors, peers) or connected to a
more comprehensive information, please consult the farmer-oriented NGO or private organization (e.g.,
resources we have listed at the end of this chapter. Northeastern Organic Farming Association, Soybean
Growers Association).
Step A: Identify a farm vision
Having a clear farm vision enables the development of A-2 Identify quality of life requirements
problem solving strategies that are compatible with What do you want out of life? What makes you happy?
current farm operations and innovations that will help These deceptively simple questions are at the heart of
you achieve your hopes for the future. Creating and

16
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 BOX 3-1: Reading suggestions for beginner farmers from our farmer-innovator consultants.
Here are a few books recommended for beginners. The books on this list will inform your farm management,
help you clarify your business practices, and inspire you to be creative and courageous farmers.
• Brunetti J (2014) The farm as ecosystem: Tapping nature’s reservoir — biology, geology, diversity. Acres U.S.A.,
Austin, Texas.
• Fukuoka M (2009) The one-straw revolution: An introduction to natural farming. New York Review Books, New
York, New York.
• Hartman B (2015) The lean farm: How to minimize waste, increase efficiency, and maximize value and profits
with less work. Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction, Vermont.
• Montgomery DR (2017) Growing a revolution: Bringing our soil back to life, First edition. W.W. Norton &
Company, New York.
• Penniman L (2018) Farming while Black: Soul Fire Farm’s practical guide to liberation on the land. Chelsea
Green Publishing, White River Junction, Vermont.
• Strauss SD (2012) The small business bible: Everything you need to know to succeed in your small business,
3rd ed. Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey.
• Wiswall R (2009) The organic farmer’s business handbook: A complete guide to managing finances, crops, and
staff — and making a profit. Chelsea Green Pub, White River Junction, Vermont.

the definition of quality of life—a broad concept that • What are my other interests/hobbies in life? How
includes one’s satisfaction with their health, social much time do I want to devote to them? What about
relationships, environment, and economic status. those of my family? How do they fit into my schedule
Establishing quality of life goals will help clarify your for managing the farm?
farm vision and determine which solutions and innova- • What makes me happy? Who is important to me?
tions to pursue down the road as you adapt to changing Where do I want to live? How do I balance tradeoffs
conditions and solve problems. Many questionnaires can and priorities between these?
guide you through the process of defining quality of life • Who and what am I responsible for?
goals, and while they aren’t the only approach, they offer
concrete methods to clarify the concept and spur A-3 Identify values and a mission
creative insights. It’s beneficial to do this with your Your personal values, mission for the present, and vision
business partners and family to avoid tension down the for the future of your farm are the basis for all your
line and make sure everyone involved in the farm is on decisions about your farm, including choosing production
the same page. Questions you can ask yourself to systems, targeting markets, and deciding on changes to
determine your own definition of quality of life include: implement to improve your system. Values, missions,
• How valuable is sharing free time with friends and family? visions, and goals are interrelated—but distinct—concepts.
Identifying them may seem intuitive, but devoting time to
• How much am I willing to work on and off the farm?
think about and write them down can help to clarify your
• Do I enjoy working with others or by myself? motivations and guide your approach to innovation and
• Do I particularly enjoy specific tasks or aspects of problem solving. Chaw Chang (Stick and Stone Farm)
managing my farm and business? Are there any I believes that you have to be brutally honest with yourself
particularly dislike? about your values and beliefs and use them as a starting
• How much risk am I willing to take? Do I prefer point for envisioning your farm.
stability, or am I comfortable with uncertainty if there Values are the principles, standards, beliefs, and quali-
may be a payoff? ties you consider important in life. Values guide deci-
• How do I define financial security? sion-making processes and are, in turn, reflective of the

17
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
decisions you make. We encourage you to grab a • What do I want to accomplish? Are these goals
notebook, sit down, and take as much time as necessary material? Spiritual? Personal? Is there conflict between
to address the following questions: these objectives and, if so, how can I reconcile them?
• Do I have a personal ethic to which I am bound? • How much money do I want? How much do I need? Is
• How do I want to relate to other people and my the difference between the answers to these questions
environment? important to me?
• How do I want others to perceive me and my farm?
• What are my fundamental, intrinsic motivations?
• How do I define success? For example, Good Works Farm’s vision is, “to be a
person-centered, integrated, sustainable community
Your mission is focused on how your values inform
where individual choice is respected, community
decision-making. A mission statement describes the
involvement is encouraged, and independence is
primary purpose of your farm operations. It identifies:
fostered.” Here, you can see the farm’s desired qualities
• The purpose of the farm (person-centered, sustainable, etc.), goals (fostering
• Who performs what tasks independence for differently-abled farmers), and how
• What you want to provide to others, when, and to they want the farm to be perceived (one where individ-
whom ual choice is respected and community involvement is
encouraged).
• How others perceive you and your farm
• What sets your farm apart Together, the mission and vision statements will serve as
the basis for your farm goals that establish concrete
• How you manage your farm and farm business
steps to perform to achieve your farm vision. Goals can
Having a clear set of guiding personal values and an be personal, production-oriented, or business-oriented.
established mission statement will help prioritize It’s useful to have both short- and long-term goals.
problems and identify the constraints placed on your Having clear farm goals is essential for prioritizing and
problem-solving process. For example, Karma and solving problems, as well as providing inspiration for
Michael Glos (Kingbird Farm, Case Study #7) decided to innovation. To improve the probability of achieving goals,
breed their own organic chickens because one of their it’s helpful to verify that they’re SMART:
farm goals is to minimize external inputs and avoid • Specific: Specific goals are clear and address primary
dependence on conventional inputs. This goal reflects questions such as: What is the end goal and why is it
their values related to self-sufficiency and organic important? Who will participate in the work needed to
practices. Raising their own chicks is a costlier option achieve this goal? Where will it take place? When do
compared to buying conventionally produced chicks. you want to complete the goal?
However, because of their values and goals, they
• Measurable: Goals can be qualitative or quantitative
developed a system of maintaining breeding stock and
(e.g., having an aesthetically satisfying farm or achiev-
producing their own chicks through a series of on-farm
ing a particular level of production, respectively).
trials. Other farmers who have different values and goals Develop some way of tracking your progress toward
might decide that raising chicks organically isn’t worth achieving them.
the effort or cost.
• Achievable: All projects have limitations and tradeoffs,
so goals should be realistic and attainable. It will take
A-4 Articulate farm vision and goals some effort to determine whether a goal is too low or
While a mission statement is focused on the present, a high, so it may be useful to identify goals that are
vision statement looks to the future and identifies what highly aspirational as well as backup options in case
you would like yourself and your farm to become over any of the initial (higher) goals fail.
time. A farm vision can be written as a narrative or • Relevant: Choose goals that relate directly to your
represented as a diagram showing how you want your actual vision for your farm, not what you think your
farm to develop. Questions to ask yourself to clarify your vision ought to be based on someone else’s’ standard.
vision statement include: It’s also important to focus on goals that you can
• What do I like about my farm that I want to maintain? actually control and aren’t entirely dependent on
What qualities do I want to change? external factors like weather or prices.

18
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
• Time-bound: Establish deadlines for goals. Identify
goals that are short-term (1–6 months), mid-term (1–5 FIGURE 3-1: Determining your target audience
years), and long-term (>5 years), as well as intermedi- can have implications on how you market your
ate objectives for mid- and long-term goals that can be farm products.
used as checkpoints to assess progress.

A-5 Identify a target market

While farms aren’t just businesses, they’re still busi-
nesses. Therefore, finding a suitable market is essential
for success, and it follows that the markets you target
will play a large role in driving the kinds of solutions and
innovations you can pursue (Figure 3-1).
Many resources compile market data; one that can be
useful to farming businesses is the United States Small
Business Administration. Using readily available data
(e.g., interest rates, consumer demographics) can be
quick and relatively straightforward, but the data may
not reflect local markets or unique goods and services
comparable to what you provide. Gathering your own
market data (e.g., number of consumers, average
purchase price of goods) may require time and effort,
but the results will likely be more accurate and applica-
ble to your unique situation. This information will be
more useful in guiding decisions about what you can
improve or change the most.

BOX 3-2: How to use Purdue University’s Agricultural Economics INventure Business Planner to
generate a business plan.
1. Visit https://www.purdue.edu/newventure.
2. Sign up for a new account if you are a first-time user. Repeat users will be able to log in directly with their
previously established credentials.
3. Click the “New” button.
4. Enter your farm’s information into the fields in the pop-up (e.g., farm name, phone number, address).
5. Click on the first step (i.e., “Why do you want to begin this venture?”) if beginning a new business plan. If
returning to an existing plan, click on whichever step you want to revise.
6. Enter your responses to the resulting prompts into the corresponding text boxes. Additional information—
including definitions, examples, and additional resources—can be found in the left margin of the page. Click
the “Save” button in the top center of the page if you want to leave the plan incomplete and return to it at a
later time.
7. Click the “Next” button to advance to the next step and set of prompts.
8. Continue until you have responded to all prompts.
9. After finishing all of the prompts, save your responses, and click the “Main Menu” button. Verify that all of the
steps have been completed and click the “Generate Report” button at the top of the Main Menu page.
10. Click “Generate Report” on the next page. The compiled business plan will download automatically as a
Microsoft Word document, which you can edit further.

19
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Your target market may change, either as a result of viability of a farm to potential lenders and partners.
shifting demographics, changes in consumer prefer- While it’s beyond the purview of this manual to describe
ences, or personal circumstances. For example, Pat and how to write a business plan, we provide a list of
Mike Kane (Shamrock Hill Farm) had run a CSA for resources at the end of this chapter and offer some
many years, but Pat’s new off-farm job at the Accredited additional details in Box 3-2. Additionally, Greenway
Certifiers Association prevented her from helping Mike Farms LLC has provided a sample business plan, which
around the farm as much as she had in past years. In is viewable here.
order to maintain a work/life balance that ensured the
quality of life they wanted, Mike and Pat ultimately Step B: Define the farm system
decided to stop running the CSA and focus on direct
bulk sales of produce and beef despite their efforts to B-1 Map the Farm
keep the CSA program afloat.
Regularly remapping a farm offers a bird’s-eye view
(Figure 3-2) that can reveal changes you might not
A-6 Write a business plan
notice from the ground. For example, Luke Gianforte
A business plan will help identify the limitations of a
(Gianforte Farm) used drone imagery to assess crop
farm’s finances; it doesn’t make sense to attempt what
health, which helped him identify patches within his
you can’t afford. It will also help identify which problems
fields that performed poorly year after year. In some
and opportunities you can address to increase your
cases, the conclusions he drew from these images led
profits the most. This document is crucial for evaluating
the financial effects of management decisions, identify- him to stop renting particular fields altogether.
ing potential market strategies and opportunities, and Obtaining digitally rendered and/or geospatially refer-
communicating information that determines the financial enced maps may ensure accuracy, but this can be

FIGURE 3-2: Example farm map with soil and land use/cover data from the National Resource
Conservation Service soil mapper (Box 3-5).

20
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 BOX 3-3: Instructions for using Google Earth to acquire satellite imagery for maps.
1. Visit www.google.com/earth and download the desktop program. There is an online version, but it lacks
many of the features to perform the steps listed below.
2. Type your address into the search bar near the top left of the screen and click the search button. The map will
then zoom to your farm.
3. You can click and drag the map to change your position. Zoom in and out using the scroll wheel on your
mouse or using the +/- buttons near the top-right of the screen. Zooming can change the angle of the imag-
ery, so press the “r” key on your keyboard to get a perpendicular view.
4. You can add points and shapes by clicking the respective buttons on the toolbar at the top of the screen. For
instance, in Figure 3-1, the farmer added polygons to denote different cropping systems for different fields.
5. Print maps by clicking File>Print. You can edit the title and legend by clicking on them when the map print
preview appears on screen. Once you are satisfied with the map, click “Print…” or “Save as PDF…” in the
toolbar that appears near the top of the screen.

expensive, and processing software tends to have a manure compared to fields more distant from the barn,
steep learning curve. A hand-drawn map can meet most introducing more weed seeds and creating higher
needs if it’s more or less to scale. An intermediate nutrient levels that enabled weed growth. This led him to
alternative would be to print satellite imagery from be more careful about distributing manure more evenly
Google Earth and draw in additional details (Box 3-3). across his farm.
Note the area of different fields, and label physical
features such as water bodies, land cover, structures, B-2 Perform a resource inventory
and topography. In addition, consider the history of the A resource inventory (Appendix II) can provide you with
farm, including past farm management, yields, and information about your farm’s current shortcomings and
results from soil testing and whether regulations regard- the resources available to address them. The farm map
ing management differ across the property. The United identifies available natural resources, such as soils and
States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources water. Other features to consider in your resource
Conservation Service Web Soil Survey provides freely inventory include livestock, equipment, and infrastruc-
downloadable soil maps that include information such as ture. Inventories of financial resources can include liquid
geography; descriptions of soil types; and biophysical assets such as checking and savings accounts, invest-
characteristics such as cation exchange capacity, water ments, and real estate. Consider human resources,
retention, and organic matter (Box 3-4). The data making note of skills and availability. Finally, it can be
presented along with these maps may not accurately helpful to identify people who you can turn to for help
reflect conditions on the ground, so we suggest compar- beyond your farm, like your Soil and Water Conservation
ing the data with your own observations. District, extension, and United States Department of
Agriculture National Resource Conservation Service
Sometimes, besides documenting the locations of
representatives. Have your written goals/mission
resources, the very act of mapping a farm can help
statement nearby, and consider how each part of the
identify the cause of a problem. For example, Klaas
resource inventory aligns with your goals.
Martens (Lakeview Organic Grain, Case Study #5) had
been fertilizing his fields with manure from a nearby An alternative to a resource inventory is a Strength-
dairy when he noticed that weed populations were Weakness-Opportunity-Threat (SWOT) analysis (Table
substantially greater in particular areas of his farm. 3-1). This analysis evaluates asset availability (or lack
When he mapped the fields with the worst weed thereof) and determines how these resources can be
problems, he concluded they had one thing in common: used to improve farm function, resilience, and sustain-
their close proximity to the barn where the manure was ability. The sample business plan from Greenway Farms
stored. He realized they were probably receiving more LLC includes a SWOT analysis that can serve as an

21
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
TABLE 3-1: Strength-Weakness-Opportunity-Threat (SWOT) analysis framework. Consider each
bullet point for the unique situation of each particular farm.
Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

• Knowledge, skills, and • Limitations of property • Emerging markets • Rising input costs
experience of farm team (e.g., poor soil fertility, • Education/extension • Price volatility
• Infrastructure (buildings, limited water access) programs • Environmental factors
equipment) • Old or damaged equip- • Business partnerships (e.g., erosion, climate
• Environmental resources ment and structures change, flooding)
• New technologies and
(soils, water, etc.) • Market limitations management strategies
• Certifications • Gaps in farm team abilities • Grant and funding
• Financial resources • Regulatory constraints opportunities

BOX 3-4: Instructions for using the United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources
Conservation Service Web Soil Survey to generate soil maps and obtain soil information.

1. Visit the soil survey website and click the green “Start WSS” button.
2. You will define your area of interest (AOI) in the resulting window.
a. Click the button. Then, using the crosshairs on the map, click and drag to create a box that includes
your farm area. The map will zoom to the area you selected.
b. Repeat this step until you have located your farm and defined the extent of the map window to display the
appropriate scale/level of detail.
c. You can pan in the map using the button or zoom out using the button.
d. Click the “AOI by Rectangle” to establish a rectangular AOI by clicking and dragging the crosshairs in the
map as you did to zoom. Alternatively, click “AOI by Polygon” to create an irregular AOI by clicking individ-
ual points using the map crosshairs that will serve as corners of the shape. Double-click to close the
shape area.
3. After selecting an AOI, click the “Soil Map” tab at the top of the window. This will display the soil map of the
AOI, along with the soil types and their total area.
a. You can access a description of the soil types by clicking on their names in the left-hand panel.
b. You can print the resulting map by clicking the “Printable Version” button at the top-right corner of the
window and then clicking the “View” button in the resulting pop-up. This will produce a PDF of the soil
map that you can save to your computer or print.
4. You can also access data regarding other soil properties for your farm by clicking the “Soil Data Explorer” tab
at the top of the window.
a. The left-hand panel lists several agricultural land-use guidelines (e.g., susceptibility to compaction,
organic matter depletion) under the Soil Health heading.
b. Clicking the “Soil Properties and Qualities” tab at the top of the map will allow you to determine various
soil chemical and physical properties (e.g., calcium carbonate, organic matter, pH) measured as part of
the National Resources Conservation Service soil mapping efforts. These coarse estimates cannot replace
actual field measurements.

22
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
example. They have considered how their internal The general process of whole farm planning involves
strengths can exploit external opportunities through four major steps:
innovative changes to their farm system, as well as how 1. Setting goals
their internal weaknesses can be addressed to respond
2. Performing a farm inventory
to external threats, lest they become problems.
3. Developing and implementing actionable manage-
ment plans
B-3 Develop a whole farm plan
4. Monitoring progress and reevaluating goals
All the work and consideration described in the previous
tasks are brought together through whole farm planning: A web diagram is one way to track farm operations over
a process by which farmers balance their quality of life time and determine how close you are to meeting your
needs, the farm’s resources, financial limitations and goals. This diagram considers multiple categories, each
requirements, and sustainable environmental steward- of which correspond to your farm vision and goals.
ship. We list several examples of whole farm planning Figure 3-3 shows a rose diagram for Northland Sheep
frameworks in the resources section at the end of this Dairy (Marathon, NY). The categories that Karl North
chapter. Similarly, many tools including software, work- used to define farm sustainability changed in different
shops, and workbooks are available to facilitate whole ways over time. For example, he found that sheep health
farm planning. and labor efficiency were typically not big problems, but

FIGURE 3-3: Northland Sheep Dairy sustainability illustrated in a rose diagram. The different lines
represent different years when the farm’s sustainability was assessed. For example, input self-suffi-
ciency improved from 1992 to 1997, but then fell in 2002. On the other hand, labor efficiency improved
continuously. Copied from the Magazine on Low External Input and Sustainable Agriculture.

23
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 3-4: Example supply chain analysis for a commercial forage production system.

Input supply
Agents Inputs Output
• Farmers • Seeds • Seeds for fodder producers
• Seed dealers

Production
Agents Inputs Output
• Farmers • Labor • Cultivated fodder crops
• Farmworkers • Land
• Equipment and fuel
• Water
• Fertilizer

Processing
Agents Inputs Output
Farmers Labor • Harvested and baled fodder
Farmworkers Equipment and fuel

Retailing
Agents Inputs Output
• Farmers • Labor • Fodder for distribution to
• Wholesalers • Marketing livestock operations

Consumption
Agents Inputs Output
• Farmers • Baled forage • Livestock and livestock products
• Farmworkers • Labor
• Veterinarians • Water
• Medicine and veterinary services
• Animal housing

24
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
lamb growth and energy self-sufficiency tended to get Recommended resources
worse over time. This allowed him to focus his problem-
solving and innovation efforts on those farm operations. Innovation inspiration
Whole farm planning offers several benefits that make it • Albrecht WA (2011). The Albrecht Papers. Acres U.S.A.,
useful for solving on-farm problems. The process builds Greely, Colorado.
on and contributes to farmers’ knowledge of their farms, • Boersma R (2013). Innovation in a Box. Juice Inc.
allowing it to accommodate the needs, desires, and
• Brunetti J (2014). The farm as ecosystem: tapping
resources of individual farmers. Whole farm planning
nature’s reservoir. Acres U.S.A., Greely, Colorado.
also takes a broad perspective to consider how the farm
interacts with its surrounding environment and whether • Fukuoka M (2009). The one-straw revolution: An
changes might have positive or negative ripple effects. introduction to natural farming. New York Review
It’s also a good idea to revisit your whole farm plan Books, New York.
regularly (every few years) to ensure that it’s up to date. • Hartman B (2015). The lean farm: How to minimize
waste, increase efficiency, and maximize value and
B-4 Determine production systems profits with less work. Chelsea Green Publishing, White
River Junction, Vermont.
Having a clear plan for farm management will determine
the details of crop production systems (e.g., rotations, • Howard, A (1940). An Agricultural Testament. Oxford
planting, harvesting, fertilization, pest control, product University Press, Oxford, UK.
storage, tillage, irrigation). Decisions regarding farm • King FH (2004). Farmers of Forty Centuries: Organic
production systems influence innovation and problem Farming in China, Korea, and Japan. Dover
solving by limiting potential options as you try to Publications, Mineola, New York,
improve your farming operation. To proactively identify • Montgomery DR (2017). Growing a revolution: Bringing
emerging problems and opportunities, you need a our soil back to life, First edition. W.W. Norton &
functioning farm to start with. Because this is such a Company, New York.
broad topic, we list additional resources that address the • Penniman L (2018). Farming while Black: Soul Fire
details of farm production at the end of this chapter. Farm’s practical guide to liberation on the land.
Chelsea Green Publishing, White River Junction,
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• United States Department of Agriculture (1938). Soils
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Department of Agriculture, Washington, District of
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Columbia.
While these analyses can inform decision making, they
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how your farm interacts with other systems. Some
• Assessment of Quality of Life. (n.d.). Accessed 5 Sept
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2019.
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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
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• Mid-Atlantic Regional Water Program. (2006). The grower’s handbook for small-scale organic farming.
Mid-Atlantic Nutrient Management Handbook (No. Gabriola Island, BC: New Society Publishers.
MAWP 06-02). • Hansen, A. L. (2010). The organic farming manual: a
comprehensive guide to starting and running a
Pest management certified organic farm. North Adams, Mass.: Storey
• Maryland Department of Agriculture. (2010). Integrated Pub.
Pest Management in Schools: IPM Training Manual. • Pieters, A. J. (1927). Green manuring: organic principles
Annapolis, MD. and practices.
• Randall, C. (1998). General Pest Management: A Guide
for Commercial Applicators (No. E-2048). Michigan Harvesting and storage
State University Extension. • Hodges, R., & Stathers, T. (2012). Training Manual for
• Randall, C. (2013). Integrated Pest Management Improving Grain Postharvest Handling and Storage.
Training Manual. Lansing, MI: Michigan Department of United Nations World Food Programme.
Agriculture and Rural Development. • Kitinoja, L., & Kader, A. A. (2015). Small-scale
Postharvest Handling Practices: A Manual for
Horticultural Crops (Postharvest Horticulture Series
No. 8E). Davis, CA: University of California, Davis
PostHarvest Technology Research and Information
Center.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
4 Identifying problems
and opportunities
make up your farming system. Some choose to set aside
The tasks described in this chapter depend on the
outcomes of the whole farm and business planning a specific block of time at regular intervals to walk the
processes described in Chapter 3. The two steps we farm, while others find it easier to make observations as
present here contain tasks that are extremely flexible in they arise during the course of farm operations.
terms of their timing and frequency, so there is no reason Ultimately, any approach will have pros and cons; the
to view them as sequential activities. Rather, try to important thing is that you develop a strategy for
seamlessly weave them into your normal farming activi- systematic observation that works for you.
ties to reduce the effort required to perform these tasks.
C-2 Record observations and events
Step C: Observe and gather information on Memories are fallible, and most people find that their
the farm system recollections become less accurate over time. Therefore,
The process of mindful, ongoing observation will enable although some farmers are able to rely on memory for
you to be proactive in solving emerging problems before effectively spotting problems as they develop, the
they become serious. majority of farmers we interviewed remarked that
keeping some sort of record to document their observa-
C-1 Walk the farm tions was crucial to illuminating patterns and trends.
Farms are complex, dynamic systems. Experienced Experienced farmers use a variety of different systems
farmers agree that walking the farm is essential for for record keeping, including photographs, noting
keeping track of fields, soils, crops, and animals that harvests on a calendar, and journaling (Box 4-1). Curtis

28
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 BOX 4-1: Tips for making and recording farm observations.
• Carry a small notepad you can use for writing down observations in the field, and then transfer the contents of
these notebooks to a more permanent location, like a journal or computer document.
• If you notice something unusual, make note of it and return soon to verify your observation.
• Take time-stamped pictures of fields, crops, and soils at regular intervals to document gradual changes
between seasons. It can help to take photos from the same position. Alternatively, photographs can be used to
compare spatially distinct areas on the farm. Include notes on the weather, management, and other conditions
along with these photos.
• Enlist the help of others who work on the farm to notice changes and communicate their observations to you.
• Discuss observations with others—family members (e.g., through conversations over dinner), other farmers
(e.g., at twilight meetings), or extension educators or researchers (e.g., at farming conferences).
• Keep things organized. All the notes in the world aren’t going to help if they’re scattered between different
sources and out of order. At the very least, date photos and notes. Some farmers use software like Evernote to
create a sharable, searchable file.
• While Excel spreadsheets and specialized agricultural record-keeping software (e.g., Tend) can help organize
and analyze data to inform management, it’s only useful if you actually collect the data. The more you can
automate your data collection, the more of it you are likely to have, and the more useful it is likely to be.
• Smartphones have opened up a whole new world of opportunities for farmers. They can be used to receive
weather alerts, take photos in the field, and look up information (e.g., weed and pest identification).
• Many farmers use GPS technology that is a part of their farming operations for record keeping. For example,
equipment can be outfitted with GPS tracking technology to record tillage passes and monitor yields.
Although the upfront costs may be high, automatically collecting all that data is much easier than doing it
manually.
• Livestock farmers in particular emphasize having a comprehensive database system to keep track of multiple
data streams, including milk production, somatic cell counts, mastitis, butter fat, platelet counts, etc.

Stone (Green City Acres), for instance, prefers to use

FIGURE 4-1: Taking photos can be an effective
spreadsheets to ensure they don’t get lost and to keep
way to record and store observations. Here, the
his observations organized. On the other hand, Eric and
camera lens cap serves as a way to gauge the
Anne Nordell (Beech Grove Farm) use photography
broccoli crown size.
(Figure 4-1) combined with careful record keeping of the
time/location of the image as a key strategy to docu-
ment changes in their farming system. They do this by
taking pictures of their fields every year at the same
point in the growing season in order to record how their
system is performing from year to year. If they’re testing
a specific management practice such as a new cover
crop, they take pictures more frequently to document the
practice over the course of the growing season (e.g., at
different growth stages).

C-3 Observe patterns

Discoveries often start with “that’s weird” rather than
“eureka!”. Looking for patterns in plant health and animal
behavior is a good way to identify problems and

29
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
opportunities for improvements. Identifying these trends local weather stations can help with regional forecasting,
will allow you to forecast potential problems before they many of these stations are located in urban environ-
affect your farm. It’s far less risky and requires fewer ments where weather conditions can differ considerably
resources to nip an emerging trend in the bud before it from those of rural areas. As technology becomes more
blossoms into a problem. Likewise, you can identify affordable, farmers are increasingly installing their own
possible opportunities for innovation. Patterns and on-farm weather stations to provide real-time weather
trends can be indicative of how your farm is changing, information. This investment will also enable you to
and these changes can be positive (e.g., gradual accurately track multi-year and decadal weather pat-
declines in insect pest populations) or negative (e.g., terns. A wide assortment of weather stations, varying in
increasing weed pressure). function and cost, are available. Choosing the system
Noticing patterns requires familiarity with the typical that is right for you will depend on your available
conditions on your farm (Box 4-2) and can uncover financial resources, the variables you want to measure
unexpected solutions to existing problems. With practice (e.g., wind speed, air pressure, precipitation, soil tem-
and experience, your ability to notice and understand perature, air temperature, etc.), and whether or not you
the significance of these patterns will improve. This is are interested in automating data collection and storage.
particularly true for slow changes that can accumulate We provide some additional guidance on this topic in
over many years but ultimately result in large changes Appendix IV.
that cause problems. Soil degradation is a prime exam-
ple of how gradual changes can ultimately cause serious C-4 Perform routine testing
problems, such as a reduction in yield. Dave and Meg Routine testing of soil, crop, forage, and animal fecal
Schmidt (Troublesome Creek Cattle Co.) offer an samples is another essential part of documenting how
example of how to track subtle patterns. To minimize well a farm is operating. Performing the same analyses
costs, the Schmidts monitored feeding on their grass- repeatedly over time is an excellent strategy for detect-
fed cattle farm. They tracked the weights of their ani- ing patterns and can serve as an early warning system
mals, as well as the amount and value of the feed they for problems that may be developing but don’t yet
consumed, over three years to determine the “normal” show visible symptoms. Soil properties tend to change
range of values they could expect. These data showed slowly, so soil testing on an annual or semi-annual
them they could diversify their feed during winter basis is particularly valuable. Doing so can help you to
months to cut costs. detect problems before they impact crops.
Furthermore, in the early years of farming, annual tests
Identifying significant weather patterns will be increas-
provide important feedback on how management
ingly important as a result of climate change. Although
practices are affecting the farming system. You may be
able to reduce the frequency of some tests once your
farming systems stabilize.

BOX 4-2: The perils of confirmation bias and For example, Jeff Main (Good Humus Produce) con-
cherry-picking data. ducted annual soil tests on all of his fields. He noticed
that the soil pH on the farm was gradually becoming
Everyone is subject to biases. A common one is more alkaline and wondered if the compost that he had
confirmation bias, which is the tendency to consider been applying to his fields every year was the culprit. He
only new evidence that fits your pre-existing beliefs. submitted a compost sample to the lab for analysis and
Pay particularly close attention to how you interpret discovered that it had a high pH. Based on this knowl-
observations that fall outside of what you consider edge, he changed his soil management practices by
to be normal. It’s all too easy to ignore them because reducing application rates and finding a different
they don’t conform to your perspective on how compost supplier. Combined with diligent use of legume
things are supposed to be. Don’t just cherry-pick the cover crops, these modifications reversed the trend in
data that you like. Sometimes, that means you will
soil pH before he experienced significant yield declines
acknowledge that mistakes were made or that you
and actually improved plant health and production. After
misunderstood the nature of the problem, but doing
many years of farming in this manner, his soil properties
so can reveal new insights and lead to innovations.
stabilized and he no longer needs annual soil tests.

30
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 4-2: ipmPIPE map of downy mildew from North Carolina State University Extension.

C-5 Collect outside observations closest to their farm. Meanwhile, growing season
In addition to walking the farm, you can obtain informa- predictions are available through Cornell University’s
Climate Smart Farming program (Figure 4-4).
tion about environmental and economic patterns from
outside sources, such as online data repositories. For In addition to providing raw data, these sources typically
instance, North Carolina State University Extension offer visualizations and analyses, as well. Lou Lego
publishes locations of pest and disease outbreaks online (Elderberry Pond Farm, Case Study #4) used National
(Figure 4-2). National and regional weather services can Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration climate data to
alert you to large-scale weather events like droughts and verify his own anecdotal experience that precipitation
storms (Figure 4-3), while Weather Underground offers was becoming more erratic and intense, which spurred
finely tuned forecasts based on data from the National him to research, evaluate, and implement a novel
Weather Service and a massive pool of personal cultivation technique on his farm.
weather stations, allowing users to select the station

31
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 4-3: Drought prediction map from US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

C-6 Taste your own food that the wheat he produced was well suited for the
market he was planning to target.
Although it may not be easily measured, one of the most
important characteristics of food is its taste. The productiv-
ity and ecosystem health of the farm isn’t very meaningful if C-8 Invite feedback from farm staff
consumers don’t want to eat your food. Tasting the food Encouraging feedback from everyone working on the
coming from your farm ensures you are providing a farm multiplies the number of “eyes on the fields” and is
high-quality product to customers. Plus, you may detect another valuable strategy for observing the farm system
trends in taste before your customers notice them. to identify problems. For instance, Lou Lego (Elderberry
Pond Farm) realized that he could use sunflowers to
C-7 Invite feedback from customers draw pests away from his crops when a worker told him
there were no cucumber beetles on the melons and
You can use many strategies to solicit feedback from
squash planted near his sunflowers. He followed up this
customers, including asking them about their prefer-
tip with a small-scale experiment in which he observed
ences at farmers’ markets, mailing questionnaires to
CSA members, or hosting taste-testing events. Quite a pest damage in crops surrounded by sunflowers to
few farmers ask repeat customers what they liked or those without a flower border.
didn’t like about the produce they bought in order to You can involve farm workers in their observation and
identify preferred cultivars. For example, Thor Oechsner data collection efforts in different ways. While some
(Oeschsner Farms, Case Study #3) offered bakers farmers actively solicit feedback during regular meet-
samples of flour from wheat varieties that he knew grew ings, others simply ask questions if they suspect some-
well on his farm and used this feedback to make final thing is amiss or create a collegial environment that’s
decisions about what varieties to grow, thus ensuring conducive to sharing information.

32
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 4-4: Growing season predictions from Climate Smart Farming.

C-9 Assess equipment no product really suited his needs. However, inspired by
Have a system to ensure your equipment is functioning farmers in Brazil, he realized that he could use a rolling
on a year-round basis. Most of the farmers we interviewed stalk chopper for a purpose completely different from its
reserved time annually (usually in the off-season) to intended use: a roller-crimper in lieu of a mower.
inventory their equipment and carry out routine preventa-
tive maintenance. Evaluating the safety, functionality, and Step D: Evaluate the farming system
effectiveness of farm equipment ensures that farming While the tasks described in Step C are more or less
operations can be executed in a timely fashion. A broken done on a continual basis, the process of evaluation
harvester isn’t a big problem if there is a month to repair outlined in this section is typically carried out annually
it, but it can be a costly issue if you don’t notice it until a and serves as a starting point for planning the next
day before it’s time to harvest your crops. growing season.
Equipment will also limit potential solutions. For example,
Adam Squire (Unbound Glory Farm, Case Study #10) D-1 Review the annual farm schedule/calendar
wanted to reduce erosion by shaping his beds to the Maintaining a calendar for scheduling is something
contours of his farm, but this wasn’t possible for him until common to nearly all farm operations. Any number of
he purchased a bed shaper attachment for his tractor. options—ranging from a wall calendar to detailed farm
If you can’t find the right piece of equipment, you can scheduling software—can help you remember what you
develop your own innovative tool for the job; necessity is did in past years and plan ahead for the future. In
the mother of invention. After Steve Groff (Cedar addition to outlining the timeline for farming operations,
Meadow Farm, Case Study #11) assessed the available a farm schedule/calendar can help identify potential
cover crop termination equipment, he determined that problems and opportunities for improvements. If you

33
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
TABLE 4-1: Comparison of cherry tomato enter- have already settled on an issue to address in the
prise budgets. Franzenburg uses a heated coming growing season, a farm schedule will be essen-
greenhouse while Johnson produces her cherry tial to determine when you can address it.
tomatoes in the field under an unheated, move-
able high tunnel. Both farms had profitable D-2 Analyze financials
cherry tomato crops, netting $1.31/lb at Like any small business, keep detailed records of your
Franzenburg and $1.54/lb at Johnson. Used with financials. You will already need to do this for tax pur-
permission; the full case study can be found on poses, and looking at multi-year trends provides an
the Practical Farmers of Iowa website. opportunity to adjust your business plan to make sure
Cherry Tomato Enterprise Budget that you are on track. Tracking financials (such as sales
records and expense reports) over time can help you
Franzenburg Johnson
identify potential financial problems, such as low rates of
Marketable harvest (lb) 941 1,200 return, high costs, overleveraged debts, or depreciating
Marketable harvest (pint) 1,255 1,600 assets. On the bright side, doing so might also uncover
resources that you didn’t know about. Specialized
Marketable harvest (lb/ft2) 0.87 1.71 software (e.g., QuickBooks) can help guide you through
Marketable harvest 1.16 2.29 this process.
(pint/ft2)
Enterprise budgets are one of many financial tools that
farmers can use to inform decision-making on the farm.
GROSS REVENUE $3,524.10 $3,160.00 They consist of four parts:
Revenue/lb $3.74 $2.63 1. Estimate of total yields, prices, and income
Revenue/pint $2.81 $1.98 2. Estimate of variable unit costs associated with
producing something
Revenue/ ft2 $3.26 $4.51
3. Estimate of fixed costs for producing something
4. Record of net profit
Transplant supply costs $12.70 $63.78
A completed enterprise budget will determine the
In-field supply costs $202.95 $231.50 minimum prices needed to turn a profit. It will also
Marketing cost $424.00 $38.70 identify the most profitable components of a farm
operation and those that operate in the red. This will
Machinery cost $0.00 $6.75
help you forecast how making changes in production,
Building/structure cost $236.63 $77.50 such as focusing on the most profitable enterprises or
Land cost $6.20 $3.20 abandoning those that don’t offer good returns on
investment, will affect the profitability of your farm.
Labor cost $1,410.00 $887.90
Making a change is financially smart if the costs of the
TOTAL ANNUAL COST $2,292.48 $1,309.33 solution/innovation increase your farm’s profitability, or
Cost/lb $2.44 $1.09 at least decrease profits less than doing nothing.
Cost/pint $1.83 $0.82 We found an interesting example of how farmers use
enterprise budgets to evaluate production systems in a
Cost/ft2 $2.12 $1.87
Practical Farmers of Iowa research report (Table 4-1).
Cost/revenue (efficiency) 0.65 0.41 Two farmers collaborated using enterprise budgets in
order to compare and contrast the costs associated with
differing cherry tomato production systems. One farmer
NET INCOME $1,231.62 $1,850.67
(Franzenburg) grew tomatoes in a heated greenhouse,
Income/lb $1.31 $1.54 while the other (Johnson) used an unheated, moveable
Income/pint $0.98 $1.16 high tunnel. While Franzenburg bore substantially higher
overall annual costs, she was able to sell her tomatoes at
Income/ft 2
$1.41 $2.64
a higher price. Johnson had a shorter growing season
Net/gross income (ratio) 0.35 0.59 but higher yields. The result of all of these tradeoffs and

34
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
TABLE 4-2: Yields recorded in variety trials conducted over four years. See the Practical Farmers of
Iowa website for additional information on this example. Used with permission.
Mean Yield by Year
Year Variety Crown weight (lb/crown) Crown yield (lb/ft2) Yield with side shoots (lb/ft2)
Belstar 0.79 0.15 0.23
2014
Gypsy 0.86 0.17 0.34
Belstar 0.92 0.22 0.22
2015
Gypsy 1.04 0.24 0.26
Belstar 0.53 0.10 0.10
2016
Gypsy 0.61 0.10 0.10
Belstar 0.91 0.19 0.21
2017
Gypsy 1.04 0.21 0.31

differences between the two production systems determine what they wanted to maintain, investigate
resulted in similar gross incomes, but the high tunnel further, or change during the next growing season.
system generated greater net income. This enterprise
Your approach to analyzing records largely depends on
budget exercise identified inefficiencies in both produc-
the types of data you have recorded. The main point is to
tion systems that could still be improved, such as
review your records from multiple years in order to gain
increasing labor efficiency by planting varieties that were
a better understanding of how your farm is changing
easier to harvest.
over time, due to either management decisions or
Enterprise budgets are not for everyone because they factors out of your control (e.g., weather, new pests
generally require farmers to focus on clearly distinct migrating into your area). Even doing something as
aspects of their farm operations, which may not work simple as graphing yields over time can provide useful
well in integrated farm systems. However, they can serve insights. Rob Faux, (Genuine Faux Farm) recorded yield
several functions in appropriate situations. These sorts data for two broccoli varieties using unreplicated,
of financial tools only consider economic value, over- side-by-side trials. He found that yields were similar
looking many other values that you may have estab- most of the time, but in three plantings, “Gypsy” had
lished along with your farm vision and mission. These significantly higher yields compared to “Belstar” (Table
data also only offer a snapshot in time (typically a year). 4-2 and Figure 4-5). Despite these higher yields in
Even though there’s no question that it’s critical for farms Gypsy, Rob plans to continue growing both varieties
to be financially viable, it’s not necessarily advisable to because yield is not his only criteria, and the Belstar
base your judgement entirely on financial analyses; that
variety has other characteristics he values. This rein-
could lead to some decisions that maximize profits in the
forces how criteria for success can be varied and are
short term without concern for their long-term impacts.
defined, in part, by your farm vision.

D-3 Analyze records D-4 Establish benchmarks

We discussed the importance of keeping detailed
Benchmarking compares the relative performance of a
records of farm observations. Analyzing these records
farm business against a standard. Standards can include
can reveal concerning trends, identify problems before
historical data from an individual farm, the performance
they grow, and find opportunities for innovative improve-
of regional competitors, or industry-wide average
ments. The more significant the issue you are investigat-
standards. Successful benchmarking requires you to
ing, the more essential it is to collect and analyze data
collect and record accurate data for your farm.
rather than rely on memory. Although the farmers we
spoke to used their memories and notes to inform The main purpose of establishing benchmarks and
day-to-day farm management, most also took time indicators is to determine how your farm is changing
during the off-season to review their records and over time. It can also be useful to have at least some

35
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 4-5: Bar graph of broccoli yields from two planting dates during 2014–2017. See Table 4-2 for
more information regarding this example.

 
 
  












       

performance indicators (Box 4-3) that are comparable to D-5 Review successes and failures
other farms’ benchmarks. That said, the interpretation of Review and reflect on past attempts at solving problems
benchmarks may differ depending on the farm. For in order to understand how to build on and improve them
example, a farm located in an area with a weaker market in the future. Consider which past management changes
and lower rent prices may generate less gross income effectively solved problems and which didn’t. While the
compared to a farm in a more populated, high-income exact nature of the current problem will likely differ, you
area, but the overhead costs of the former are likely to can still learn general principles from the previous
be lower as well, resulting in similar net profits. problem-solving process. This requires you to adopt a
Comparing benchmarks across farms can be particularly “process-oriented mindset” in contrast to an “out-
useful in spotting areas where management changes come-oriented mindset.” Rather than bemoaning a failure,
can potentially improve performance. ask yourself: what challenges arose with carrying out the
trial, and how could they be addressed? What aspects of
The best benchmarks can be quantitative (e.g., yields,
my approach worked well that I would like to retain?
profits) or qualitative (e.g., taste, appearance) and will
reflect your goals and the target markets. For example,
Lou Lego (Elderberry Pond Farm) focuses on qualitative
D-6 Review the farm production system
metrics (e.g., produce taste, attractiveness) because the Reviewing your farm’s means of production can allow
majority the fruits and vegetables grown on his farm are you to identify problems or inefficiencies that waste
resources in the long term and are prime candidates for
used in the restaurant that is part of his farming opera-
more ambitious innovative improvements. Reducing
tion. He noted that he might focus more on yields if he
waste is particularly beneficial because it can free up
were supplying wholesalers. Thor Oechsner (Oeschsner
wasted resources (e.g., time, money, land, tools) for
Farms, Case Study #3) measures both wheat yields per
additional innovating and problem solving.
acre and protein content. Thor needs to use a quantita-
tive indicator of wheat grain quality because his custom- Reviewing farm production systems can be as simple as
ers, who are making bread, require flour made from revisiting your business plan to take a critical view of
high-protein wheat. Chaw Chang (Stick and Stone Farm) your farm operations’ current strengths and weaknesses.
uses yield as a benchmark for vegetable crops he Questions to ask include:
terminally harvests for storage. In contrast, he uses gross • Which farm tasks do I particularly enjoy? Which do I
or net profit as the benchmark for crops that he can’t not enjoy?
store because increasing yields for these crops does not • Which farm operations are the most productive and
matter if he can’t sell all of what he produces. offer the highest net profits? Which offer the least?

36
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 BOX 4-3: Suggestions for indicator selection.
Indicator selection is particularly important when it’s difficult to measure something directly. Good indicators
share a number of common characteristics:
• Easy to monitor: Measuring indicators should be inexpensive and offer immediate information without delays.
• Stable: Certain indicators depend on external factors, making them highly variable and susceptible to change
(e.g., price depends on market conditions). Choose indicators that are more stable and easily comparable.
• Appropriate in scale: For problems on individual farms, avoid focusing on either site-specific or land-
scape-level indicators.
• Concrete: Indicators do not necessarily need to be quantitative, but it’s better for them to be easily under-
stood, particularly with regard to whether a value is “good” or “bad.”
• Relevant: Choose indicators that are indicative of the aspect of farm management you are concerned with. Be
sure that the indicator is directly and causally linked (as opposed to merely correlated) with the process or
characteristic you want to measure.
• Normalized: It’s often a good idea to express indicators per unit area or volume to make sure they’re
comparable.
The procedures for monitoring and recording indicator information are very similar to keeping records of farm
observations. Keep the information in a single, centralized location for ease of use. Electronic spreadsheets and
ledgers can assist with organization.

• Are there unnecessary inputs that I could do without ranges of introduced pests can expand or contract. The
or waste I could reuse or recycle within my system? challenge is discerning “important” changes from the
One book mentioned by several farmers is The Lean background noise of normal variability.
Farm by Ben Hartman. Lean farming applies concepts Three main factors interact to determine whether or not
developed by Taiichi Ohno, a Japanese industrial a trend is important. The first two considerations are the
engineer and father of the Toyota Production System, speed and the scale of the change; the faster and more
which became generally known as lean manufacturing. pronounced it is, the more important it will be to
Applying these concepts to farming systems provides a address. Finally, the nature of the change is also rele-
systematic way to identify and reduce inefficiencies. The vant. What is important depends on your unique per-
first step of this process is to use market research to spective on the situation (Figure 4-6). For instance,
identify customer values, which drive both farm produc- when a local factory converted to biofuel-fed heat
tion and marketing. Once you identify what customers generators, local dairies using loose housing systems
value, you determine how to produce that value. This suddenly had to reckon with higher prices for the wood
involves taking a systems perspective of your whole chips they used for their compost bedded pack barns.
farm operation and determining the steps and resources They ultimately had to choose between paying higher
needed to produce a particular product that customers prices, changing their bedding material, or converting to
appreciate. The supply chain analyses described on a stall barn. Meanwhile, nearby vegetable growers were
page 24 are particularly useful to inform this task. Lean not particularly affected by this change.
farming principles—like nearly all the concepts in this
manual—are continuous and cyclical. D-8 Consult experts
There are many points in this process when it is useful
D-7 Identify important trends/changes to seek information from outside sources. Consulting
Change is the only certainty in life. New regulations with experts can accelerate the information-gathering
affect what you can do on your farm, shifts in consumer process. Specifically, seeking advice from experienced
preferences impact demand for farm products, and the farmers and industry experts can serve as an excellent

37
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 4-6: What is “important” depends on perspective.

starting point for finding a solution you want to try, and • The magnitude and nature of the negative conse-
can save you time and effort. quences: Attend to problems with significant conse-
quences for your bottom line immediately.
Klaas Martens (Lakeview Organic Grain) sought advice
from university scientists to get help diagnosing the • Incremental problems with longer timeframes:
cause of his declining bean yields. The scientists identi- Don’t ignore these until they become urgent. For
fied the root pathogen that was causing yield losses, example, negative trends in soil properties often occur
allowing Klaas to rule out soil problems, such as chemi- over many years and will only worsen without taking
cal imbalances or compaction, and to focus on finding steps to correct your soil management system before
ways to reduce pathogen populations in his fields. Lucy yields are impacted.
Garrison (Stick and Stone Farm) regularly emails seed
dealers to learn more about the lineage and characteris-
tics of hybrid cultivars. She uses this information to
TABLE 4-3: Eisenhower matrix for task
prioritization.
select the most interesting varieties to include in the
annual variety trials she and Chaw Chang conduct every
Urgent Not Urgent
growing season.
Important Do Plan
D-9 Prioritize problems/opportunities
Farmers often remark there are never enough hours in Unimportant Delegate Ignore
the day to accomplish everything that needs to be done
on a farm. As a result, it isn’t surprising that farmers
prioritize certain problems over others. Prioritization
An Eisenhower matrix (Table 4-3) is one of many tools
depends on a number of factors including these
that can help you prioritize what needs to be done. This
considerations:
approach classifies problems and tasks depending on
• Extent of the problem: Prioritize problems that affect their urgency and importance. In general, address
the entire farming operation above those that might urgent and important tasks as quickly as possible.
only impact one crop or a single field. Develop a plan to address important, but non-urgent

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
tasks in a way that prevents future problems. Delegate • Kahan, D. (2013). Farm Business Analysis: Using
unimportant, urgent tasks; unimportant, non-urgent benchmarking (Farm management extension guide).
tasks can largely be ignored. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
Problem solving tends to be more urgent than innova- • Parsons, J., Tranel, J., & Hewlett, J. (n.d.). Benchmarking
tion, but that does not mean it’s necessary to prioritize in agriculture (No. RMP-201412.001). United States
the former over the latter, or even that they’re mutually Department of Agriculture RightRisk.
exclusive. Innovation can result in substantial improve-
ments in your farming system and address a suite of Collecting outside observations
small, related problems with one sweeping change. • ATTRA | National Sustainable Agriculture Information
Time-sensitive problems can be minor to the overall Service. In: ATTRA | National Sustainable Agriculture
farming operation and have limited impact on the farm Information Service. Accessed 13 Mar 2019c
system as a whole. The challenge is to balance the time • Climate Smart Farming Powerful and user-friendly
devoted to improving your farming operation so that you climate tools for farmers in the Northeast. Accessed 13
react to important problems as they arise while also Mar 2019f
reserving time for proactive innovations. • Data Snapshots Start Page | NOAA Climate.gov.
Accessed 13 Mar 2019d
Recommended resources • eOrganic. Accessed 13 Mar 2019e
• Go Botany. Accessed 13 Mar 2019f
Benchmarking
• IPM PIPE. Accessed 13 Mar 2019a
• Franks, J. R., & Collis, J. (n.d.). On-farm Benchmarking:
How to do it and how to do it better. School of • Practical Farmers of Iowa. Accessed 13 Mar 2019d
Agriculture, Food and Rural Development of • PubAg. Accessed 13 Mar 2019a
Newcastle. • Rodale Institute - Pioneers of Organic Agriculture
• Hudson, T., & Krause, M. (2014). How can benchmark- Research. In: Rodale Institute. Accessed 13 Mar 2019b
ing assist in the management of your business? (No. • USA National Phenology Network | USA National
AES000006). Australia: Grains Research & Phenology Network. Accessed 13 Mar 2019c
Development Corporation. • Weather Forecast & Reports - Long Range & Local |
Weather Underground. Accessed 13 Mar 2019b

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
5 Problem solving and
experimentation

In this chapter, we discuss how to develop, test, and In addition to allowing the diagnosis of the true cause(s)
evaluate solutions. Steps E-G are the core of on-farm of the problem, this initial analysis can help identify
experimentation and closely mirror the adaptive man- potential ways to solve it using ecological processes and
agement cycle presented in Chapter 2. You can repeat on-site resources. Klaas Martens (Lakeview Organic
the steps presented in this chapter over multiple Grain) urges farmers to “think about the unacknowl-
growing seasons or within a single season to fine-tune edged assumptions you’re making and do research to
and improve promising solutions and innovations. confirm that they are correct.” Otherwise, you may
mistakenly reach the wrong conclusion about a symp-
Step E: Design actions tom and overlook the problem’s fundamental cause,
leading you down the wrong path.
E-1 Investigate the issue Diagnosing plant or soil health problems can be particu-
Rather than developing completely novel solutions, larly tricky. Lou Lego’s problem (Elderberry Pond Farm)
draw on previous education and experience combined with cucumber and downy mildew is a great example of
with information obtained from a variety of sources. In the value of reaching out to confirm the correct diagno-
addition to extension, library, and internet resources sis of a problem. Lou noticed that his cucumbers’
(Box 5-1), observing other farms can inspire innovative response to downy mildew changed from a minor
solutions. nuisance that reduced yields to a devastating disease
If you are reacting to an existing problem, determine that quickly killed the plants. Changes in the way plants
why and how it’s occurring before jumping to solutions. respond to a pathogen can have many causes, including

40
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 BOX 5-1: An inexhaustive list of online resources for on-farm problem solving.
• ATTRA Sustainable Agriculture: Information regarding current events in farming.
• Climate Smart Farming: Information on improving farm resilience to climate change impacts and limiting
greenhouse gas contributions.
• eOrganic: An online network of organic farmers offering articles, webinars, and forums for information
exchange.
• Go Botany: A user-friendly method of identifying weeds.
• IpmPIPE: A pest information platform showing maps of pests reported in the continental United States.
• National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration: Weather forecasts and historical climate data.
• Network for Environment and Weather Applications: Network of observations regarding weather and pests.
• Practical Farmers of Iowa: An organization focused on promoting farmer-led research that offers research
reports, protocols, and webinars.
• PubAg: Database of US Department of Agriculture publications.
• Rodale Institute: Organic farming research institute offering farmer training, webinars, and online courses.
• Weather Underground: Localized weather forecasts.

poor nutrition or other soil-related problems, infection and there is usually an access fee. You can request
with a second pathogen, or the development of a new, journal articles from extensionists and university-associ-
more virulent pathogen strain. Lou sought advice from ated scientists at no cost. Some land grant libraries also
North Carolina State Extension and learned that a allow non-affiliated community residents to use library
deadly new strain of downy mildew had originated in the resources for a small annual fee.
south and was spreading north. With that information, Secondary sources (e.g., extension materials, grant
he could then develop an effective solution based on his reports, trade publications, books) produced by recog-
knowledge of the actual problem (Case Study #6). nized institutions, such as government agencies and
If you are considering substantial modifications that university extensions, often boil down the information in
fundamentally change your management, devote more these primary sources into accessible language. They
effort to information gathering. Start with the informa- will typically list the primary literature they used so you
tion you used to help prioritize farming issues, and add can find it if you need further information. However,
to it by following up with peer networks and experts. secondary sources such as industry or trade publica-
While investigating the science behind the issue by tions start with their own assumptions and can be
consulting with researchers or reading the scientific biased towards or against particular practices. Pay
literature it may require extra effort, it may pay off in a attention to who is providing the information to ensure
big way. This is particularly true in cases where using that the authors are qualified while also being aware of
established solutions may not fit well with your situa- their potential biases.
tion. Moreover, innovation requires thinking outside of
the box and having as much information as possible E-2 Research solutions/options
about the big picture. Once you understand the nature of the problem and feel
Peer-reviewed journal articles found through databases you have sufficient background knowledge about the
like Google Scholar and university libraries are generally subject, you are ready to consider solutions. You will
the most reliable sources of information. However, likely run into examples of solutions while investigating a
journal articles aren’t particularly accessible to farmers; problem, but it can be important to dig a little deeper
the writing is often technical and can be full of jargon, before deciding how to move forward depending on the

41
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 BOX 5-2: Evaluating vendor claims.
It seems that there is now a quick fix or silver bullet you can buy to solve any problem that may arise on your
farm. These include soil microbial additive products (i.e., so-called bug-in-a-jug), brix enhancement, and cation
balancing, among others. However, many of these popular products and practices don’t have much independent
testing to back them up. Here are a few tips for evaluating sales pitches:
• Don’t be afraid to ask for data or experimental results associated with the product or process.
Extension educators can help you find any published results.
• Correlation does not always mean causation. Just because an effect was observed after a particular
change doesn’t mean that the change was what caused it. There needs to be a link that explains why
one led to the other.
• Be wary of claims backed only by the dealers’ own testing, which may bias results.
• Was the testing rigorous and appropriate? The principles we outline in Chapters 5 and 6 (e.g., impor-
tance of controls, accounting for variability) apply to testing products, too.
• Consider the risks and rewards of a product. The more involved and expensive solutions are, the
warier you should be of applying them.
• Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence.
• Is the solution coming from an established/reputable institution?
• Be aware of your personal biases. Easy solutions are appealing to busy people, and it’s easier to
accept ideas that are in line with your perspectives.
Talking with other farmers to hear about their experiences may be a good way to separate the wheat from the chaff.
Still, be sure to do small-scale testing on your own farm to see whether a solution is as good as it claims to be.

scope of the change you are considering (Box 5-2). writing down pros and cons revealed through your
Furthermore, evaluating more than one solution is initial research or can include a more complete analysis
especially important in cases that require you to make of anticipated resource needs (e.g., amount and timing
significant modifications. In addition to collecting of labor needs, costs), potential impacts on income,
information to assess how well different options may vulnerability/resilience to climate change, domino
work in practice, consider whether they’re compatible effects on other farming operations/crops, and input
with your broader goals and farming practices. from stakeholders/customers. Having a clear idea of
Extensionists and other farmers can help identify pros what you want to accomplish (e.g., income or yield goals,
and cons of potential solutions, especially if they have
reduced labor) will determine what you include in the
personal experience with them.
risks/rewards analysis and how thorough it needs to be.
We discuss this further in the Identify Success Criteria
E-3 Assess risks and rewards section.
Methodically evaluating the risks/rewards associated
with each potential solution is the most effective way to While some costs and benefits can be quantified (e.g., the
lay the groundwork for choosing which option to try on amount of time or money needed to implement a solution,
your farm. The effort put into this process needs to returns on investment), others are intangible (e.g., a
correlate with the size of the anticipated modification. solution’s effect on quality of life, how enjoyable a task is).
You can use a mental risk/reward analysis for evaluating Both are important to consider. Even though it may be
small changes, but projects requiring extensive more straightforward to use objective, quantitative
resources (e.g., time, money, labor) need a more thor- metrics, evaluating risks and rewards is largely a subjec-
ough analysis. This assessment can be as simple as tive process that reflects your personal goals and values.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
E-4 Choose the best course of action valuable aspects of formal and informal research
Once you have determined the costs and benefits of methods and reflect years of farmers’ experience. You
potential solutions, choose the best of those available can find examples of experimental designs that illustrate
depending on their effectiveness, profitability, and application of these guidelines in Chapter 6.
alignment with your farm goals. In some cases, you may
want to compare more than one approach, or, if they are Integrate experiments with farming activities
not mutually exclusive, determine if two complementary The extent to which you can integrate experimentation
strategies can be implemented together. Increasing the with your normal farming activities will have a huge
number of potential solutions you evaluate can compli- impact on your willingness and ability to actually carry out
cate the experimental design, but there are ways to experiments. Some steps that will simplify things are:
minimize this tendency (examples are provided in • Arrange experimental plots so they are compatible
Chapter 6). with field/bed layout and equipment dimensions.
The criteria used by farmers at this stage are as varied as Practical Farmers of Iowa recommends using plots
their farming systems and personalities. For instance, to with field operations in mind. For example, use plot
decide whether to test a possible solution, Klaas sizes that are the same width as your equipment or are
Martens (Lakeview Organic Grain) weighs the difficulty multiples of that width, and arrange plots so they do
and expense of implementation. He sets a low bar for not interfere with the normal movement of equipment
testing options that are easy or cheap because, “the though fields.
worst I’ll do is learn something that isn’t necessarily • Locate experiments with accessibility in mind. You will
useful.” He is much more careful when it comes to trying be more likely to keep an eye on trials that are conve-
out approaches that are resource-, time-, and effort-in- nient to visit.
tensive. In those cases, he requires more evidence • As much as possible, rely on data you are already
demonstrating a high likelihood of success. Karma Glos collecting as a part of normal farm operations (i.e.,
(Kingbird Farms) agreed with Klaas’s approach, but yields). If you do need additional data, try to focus on
before starting big projects, she also performs an variables that are simple and quick to measure.
analysis of projected income. One of her key criteria is • Schedule research activities that are beyond the scope
that the solution needs to pay for itself within ten years of normal farming activities into periods that are
for her to pursue it further. otherwise less busy.
Our initial reactions to a new problem rarely result in the • Make experimentation a group effort by involving
best solution. When Lou Lego (Elderberry Pond Farm, co-managers and delegating responsibilities to other
Case Study #6) faced the problem of downy mildew farm staff. For example, Chaw Chang (Stick and Stone
killing his cucumber plants, he initially thought that he Farm) plants the variety trials they conduct on their
would simply stop growing cucumbers and replace them farm, but his co-manager/wife researches and identi-
with another crop. However, when Merby Lego, his fies new varieties to evaluate along with preparing the
co-farm manager and wife, pointed out the importance annual seed order.
of cucumbers for their restaurant, he realized he needed • Keep experiments small at first before scaling up. This
to come up with a solution that would allow him to grow can prevent wasting a lot of time, energy, and money
cucumbers. Discussing a potential solution with Merby, on solutions that aren’t effective.
who is more involved in the restaurant, provided a
broader, well-rounded perspective and led to a more Match the experimental design to your core question
suitable solution. Ultimately, any experiment worth doing needs to
address your core question, while also being feasible to
E-5 Design a trial carry out alongside normal farming activities. While
Developing an effective plan for testing solutions and simple experiments are easy to implement for yourself, it
innovations can be a complex task. There is no experi- can be worthwhile to use a more formalized experimen-
mental design that will work in all situations; however, tal design that draws from the scientific method in
following the key principles will help you to design situations where changes are significant, costly, or
experiments that are practical and produce useful difficult to measure. This might involve testing multiple
results. These principles bring together the most solutions at the same time in multiple plots. In contrast,

43
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
you can use a simpler experimental design when the anticipate factors that might impact your experiment to
change is minor, inexpensive, or if you expect clear or avoid implementing a flawed design. Doing this will help
consistent outcomes (i.e., crop dies, yield loss). you work with, rather than against, circumstances out of
As an example, Jill Beebout (Blue Gate Farm), Alice your control. The three main sources of variation that
McGary (Mustard Seed Community Farm), Rob Faux affect results in field trials, regardless of where they’re
(Genuine Faux Farm), and Sarah Foltz Jordan (Keepsake conducted, are:
Farm) tested single small strips of various annual flower 1) climatic inconsistency,
mixes to attract pollinators. They did not use complex 2) different environmental conditions across and within
experimental designs because they all wanted to add fields, and
pollinator habitat on their farms and were trying to find
3) differences in how people perform the work associ-
one mix that would work well; this issue did not neces-
ated with experiments.
sarily threaten the viability of their farms. On the other
The effects of climate change are numerous and vary by
hand, Jack Boyer (Jack Boyer Farms, Inc.) and Tim
location. It is extending the growing season in much of
Sieren (Green Iron Farms) used a replicated randomized
the Northeastern United States, as is readily apparent in
complete block design (see Chapter 6 for further details
flowering times and migration patterns. Weather pat-
on this experimental design) to evaluate a new cover
terns have also become more and more inconsistent and
cropping system’s effect on weed abundance and cereal
crop yields. This was a drastic change and would extreme in many regions of the United States, making it
substantially impact the profitability of their farms, so difficult to plan accordingly. For example, from 1931
they wanted to use a formal scientific experimental through 1996, the amount of precipitation falling during
design. In addition, evaluating weeds can be challenging weeklong, once-a-year precipitation events increased
because their distribution tends to be highly variable significantly across the country. In the Northeast, the
across fields, further necessitating a rigorous experiment amount of precipitation falling in the heaviest storm
design in order to yield meaningful results. events has increased by 71% over the past five decades
(Figure 5-1).
Another important consideration is the duration of the
test. You can sometimes evaluate small modifications in In addition, many environmental variables vary
a single growing season. However, due to interactions between and within fields. It’s important to consider
with seasonal weather variations, it’s usually a good idea these differences when choosing where to test modifica-
to plan to test new practices for several growing seasons tions. In some cases, you may intentionally choose a
before concluding whether or not they’ve made a field that has been giving you problems (e.g., poor
positive impact. Jean Paul Courtens (Roxbury Farm) likes drainage or low fertility) in order to improve it. On the
to obtain up to three years of data for big changes on his other hand, for testing a more general improvement, you
farm to make sure the failure or success he observes at may want to know if it will achieve your goals regardless
first is not just a fluke. He does, however, slightly vary the of variability in local conditions. In this case, you will
experimental treatment each year to see whether he can likely want to try out the practice in a couple of fields
improve the outcome. In the case of integrating bell that represent the full range of settings where it could be
beans into his cover crop rotation (Case Study #2), Jean implemented on your farm. Lastly, use your knowledge
Paul tinkered with the percentage of oats and bell beans of within-field variation to avoid locating your trial in an
in his seed mix to achieve benefits in both weed sup- abnormal section of the field or a set of problem beds.
pression and soil nutrient enhancement. Regardless of the particular improvement you are
testing, factor environmental variation in soils, the
Consider how different sources of variability could influence surroundings, water, and any number of other factors
the results into your experimental design.
Without question, the solutions you consider and the Finally, differences in who performs certain tasks or the
practical issues involved in testing them on a working techniques they use can introduce an unexpected
farm play a big role in determining the best experimental source of error and affect results. For instance, the
design. It is also almost certain that you will overlook effectiveness of field operations such as tine weeding or
something in the design or that the experiment will differ cultivation often reflect differences in operator skill level.
from the original plan. However, it is useful to try and Having the same person manage the whole experiment

44
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 5-1: Percent increases in the amount of daily precipitation falling during the heaviest 1% of
storms from 1958 to 2012. Trends toward more intense precipitation are particularly strong in the
Midwestern and Northeastern US. Copied from U.S. Global Change Research Program.

minimizes this source of variation. If you are involving whether apple cider vinegar supplementation could
multiple people in the work, each person can rotate improve pig health, as measured by vitality, growth, and
responsibilities so the differences you observe between coat quality. One group of pigs received apple cider
potential solutions are a result of the change in manage- vinegar in their feed (treatment group) while another did
ment, not the person performing it. Alternatively, each not (control group).
person could manage a different section of each experi-
mental plot so that no single person is managing a
single plot by themselves.
A “control” or “check” is identical to the
Is a control plot necessary? “treatment” in all aspects other than the
To decide whether the modification you are testing is practice to be tested.
actually an improvement, compare outcomes to some
type of benchmark, typically one that reflects your usual
practices. The chosen benchmarks will vary depending
on the question being addressed. Benchmarks can also
differ from “control” treatments used in formal agricultural The simplest benchmark used in on-farm experimenta-
research conducted by universities. A “control” or “check” tion is comparing the present (new modification) with
is identical to the “treatment” in all aspects other than the past outcomes resulting from normal practices. This can
practice to be tested. To illustrate this, consider Tom and be very effective for testing some improvements if you
Irene Frantzen’s (Frantzen Farm) experiment testing have reliable data averaged over multiple seasons to

45
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
compare with the outcomes of your trial. However, there When is replication necessary or particularly
are drawbacks to this approach that can lead you to advantageous?
misinterpret results. The most problematic aspect of this Perhaps one of the most significant differences between
approach is its vulnerability to seasonal variation. If the farmer experimentation as part of adaptive management
weather is unusual during your experiment, observed and academic research is the use of replication (Box
differences in the outcomes of your trial could be due to 5-3). Farmers have succeeded in making an enormous
differences in the weather during the trial and the number of improvements and innovations without
weather during the previous growing seasons you are replicating treatments in the same field or across fields
using as your benchmark. Conducting multiple repeti- during the same growing season. Instead, farmers tend
tions of the trial for several seasons can provide informa- to replicate trials over time by repeating trials across
tion on how the solution interacts with weather, provided multiple seasons. This underscores the importance of
you carry out the experiment in fields with similar talking with more experienced farmers who have been
environmental conditions (e.g., soil type, drainage) and farming for a while and know whether the conditions in
minimize year-to-year variation in the management which you experimented are normal and representative.
practices that you aren’t testing (e.g., irrigation, planting, It may be easier to accomplish this in family farms with
harvesting). These requirements can be tricky to carry long lineages of information about a particular site that
out, and as a result, it’s often worthwhile to use a has been passed from generation to generation.
side-by-side comparison of the modification versus your
We discuss the pros and cons of replication in Chapter 6
normal practice.
along with specific examples of different experimental
Side-by-side comparisons of the normal practice designs. The main advantages of using a replicated
(control or check) and the improvement (treatment or design is that it allows you to account for potential
experimental plot) are very doable, and farmers com- sources of variability in the experiment and test multiple
monly use this design. In fact, it’s the single most solutions to find which works best in various settings in
important aspect of formal experimental design that is a single growing season. Then, if the outcome is favor-
both valuable and practical for farmers to implement. able, you can continue to evaluate or begin to implement
Choose experimental and control sites that have similar the practice in subsequent growing seasons to learn
environmental conditions in order to reap the full about its resilience to varying weather conditions.
benefits of this design. The best approach is to situate
The main drawback of a replicated design is that it
control and test plots next to one another in an area that
requires more time and resources. A simple model of a
is relatively uniform. Using two fields and managing one
replicated experiment commonly used on farms is paired
of them with your normal practice while implementing
the modification in the other field does not provide a
reliable control and is susceptible to producing mislead-
ing results.
BOX 5-3: The importance (or lack thereof)
It’s simply impossible to avoid having some differences of replication.
between fields on a working farm. Even when soil type,
drainage, and topography are identical between fields, Replicated treatments are a critical part of the
legacy effects of management history have potent scientific method used in formal agricultural
impacts on growing conditions. For instance, the legacy research. Replication increases the ability of
effects of one-time differences in soil amendments can researchers to distinguish between treatment effects
linger for several years. In addition, even in fields with and other sources of variability, such as soil varia-
identical crop rotations and management, large differ- tion across and within fields and unintentional
ences in growing conditions between fields are still management-induced variation. In formal research,
common. Furthermore, the crop that was grown the a minimum of three replicates are necessary to
previous season can have an enormous impact on field conduct statistical analysis of the data. Replicated
conditions in the following field season. Recent cropping experimental designs can speed up the research
history has a particularly strong effect on disease and process by allowing researchers to quantify the
weed pressure conditions. effects of different treatments while accounting for
natural variability within a single growing season.

46
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
trials. Farmers either establish multiple side-by-side
control-treatment pairs across a single field to control for
variation in environmental variables (e.g., soil conditions
or weed pressure) within fields or establish paired
control-treatment plots in several separate fields to
control for differences in growing conditions across the
farm. If you are considering an experimental design that
involves multiple treatments and replication, we strongly
recommend that you read Chapter 6 and consider
finding an extension collaborator to assist with design
and monitoring.
In general, we don’t recommend farmers use more
advanced experimental designs (e.g., replicated, ran-
domized, complete block designs) because they tend to
over-complicate management and data analysis in most
situations. However, replication may be important if a
solution is costly to implement, or if the outcomes are
particularly sensitive to environmental variation.
Collaborating with several other farmers can help to
provide some degree of replication. For instance, Andy
and Melissa Dunham (Grinnell Heritage Farm), Mark
Quee (Scattergood Farm), and Jorden Scheibel (Middle
Way Farm) all coordinated to evaluate the impact of
paper and plastic mulch on weed populations, as well as
crop yields. Each farm established one set of side-by- considered before. Thinking about potential challenges
side plots comparing the two mulching systems to a or things that could go wrong can increase your success
control (i.e., bare soil). This reduced the amount of land in using experimentation as a tool to improve your
each needed to devote to the experiment, which was farming system, but only if you follow up your concerns
particularly valuable for them as small farmers who with steps you can actually take to respond to these
needed to maximize the productive capacity of their pitfalls. Running through possible scenarios beforehand
acreage. However, it also allowed them to account for can make the difference between letting circumstances
variable environmental conditions and enabled later beyond your control disrupt the trial and benefiting from
statistical analysis.
chance events. Examples of how experienced farmer-in-
novators dealt with and took advantage of unexpected
Anticipate problems that might come up during the trial and
events during their trials are included in the case studies
consider how to respond
presented in Chapter 7.
Unexpected events beyond your control can end up
jeopardizing any field experiment. The majority of these
E-6 Identify success criteria
are weather-related circumstances that farmers deal with
on a regular basis. You probably can’t salvage either the To ensure that you will learn something from your trial,
crop or an experiment following extreme weather that it’s best to decide how to evaluate outcomes during the
floods the field and causes severe crop damage. However, design process. Collecting and keeping track of mea-
there are instances where you can respond to unexpected surements and observations is one of the most challeng-
events and maintain an experiment. For instance, ing aspects of experimentation. Choose variables and
although a surprisingly dry spring can pose some threat measurements that reflect the experimental goal while
to plant survival, this can be addressed by irrigation, as being compatible with both your experimental design
long as you irrigate in the same way for all treatments. and normal farming activities.
Furthermore, unexpected events can open new doors Experienced farmers use both qualitative and quantita-
and present opportunities to study options you hadn’t tive observations, each of which have their own pros and

47
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 Schmidt (Troublesome Creek Cattle Co.) measured the
fatty acid composition and quality (taste, texture, etc.) of
the meat from their grass-fed cattle to determine the
optimal harvest window. Using a number of qualitative
and quantitative metrics helped them consider the range
of possible outcomes of different harvest times, all of
which are relevant to consumer preference and the
performance of their farm operations; just measuring
yield wouldn’t matter if the product was of low quality
and no one wanted to buy it.
The specifics of what you will document during your test
depend on your research goal and experimental design,
but there are three basic categories of information
necessary to interpret results:
1. Management practices: Documentation of how you
planted and managed the plots, including data such
as seeding rates, crop variety, soil amendments,
timing of field operations, and equipment used.
2. Weather data: At a minimum, you need basic
information on temperature and precipitation. It can
be particularly useful to note any extremes occurring
during the experiment. Installing a personal weather
station can automate this process and save time in
the long run (Appendix IV).
cons. Quantitative methods involve numerical measure- 3. Primary results: These are criteria for success that
ments (e.g., precipitation per day, yield per acre, or soil you will use to evaluate whether the change in
nitrogen content). Collecting your own quantitative data farming practice will be beneficial. The variables you
requires you to devote time to carrying out, recording, measure need to address the question of interest.
and organizing measurements. On the other hand, these Some examples include crop yield and quality, net
data can be less prone to personal bias than qualitative income, labor, and quality of life.
data based on observation, and they can help to detect
Few farmers have the time to collect quantitative
obscure treatment effects that may remain undetectable
measurements beyond those normally used in financial
through observation alone.
records (e.g., income) or for certifications (e.g., organic
Qualitative data include any information relevant to your certification). Besides these data—which usually include
research goal, even simply observing the growing soil tests, timing of field operations (often recorded on a
conditions of the experiment and estimating crop perfor- calendar, field notebook, or journal), yields, farm
mance by visual assessment. Qualitative data are typically expenses, and sales—systematic observation is the most
easier to integrate into normal farming activities, but the common approach used to monitor results. It may be
methods involved can be subjective and introduce more practical to use qualitative observations of growing
observer bias. That said, qualitative data that are collected conditions to interpret results of a trial rather than rely
systematically in a way that attempts to control personal on exact measurements. Furthermore, resources or time
biases can be very effective for documenting outcomes required to quantify the effects of complex phenomena
and providing a basis for solid conclusions. (e.g., weed communities, soil health) on crop yields are
There is nothing preventing you from using both types of rarely available. If you are overwhelmed with the respon-
data to gain a more complete, well-rounded perspective sibility of using complicated methods to measure
on experimental results. Both types can be useful for complex variables, it may be worth seeking outside
evaluating experimental outcomes. Bruce and Connie collaborators (e.g., university or private sector research-
Carney (Carney Family Farms) and Dave and Meg ers) to carry out these measurements.

48
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
While you are deciding what to measure, also consider observation. For example, Tim Sieren (Green Iron Farm)
what success means to you. For instance, how large of a and Dick Sloan (Sloan Farm) needed to schedule their
change is meaningful improvement? In addition to being experiment in a narrow window that ensured they could
specific, simple to monitor, and relevant to the question, frost-seed a clover cover crop before planting their corn.
the indicators you choose should be aligned with your This required them to pay attention to weather condi-
farm vision and goals. tions in addition to their normal farming schedule when
For example, when evaluating whether kaolin clay and deciding the best time to implement their experiment.
row covers could reduce flea beetle damage on egg-
plants relative to a control (no treatment), Ben Saunders F-3 Assign roles and duties
(Turtle Farm) evaluated fruit harvest and pest damage at If you plan to hand over the responsibility of managing
regular intervals throughout the harvest period. He your experiment to another person, do so before the
would have done this anyway, so it took no additional throes of the field season. As with any other farm duties,
effort to gather these data in his experiment, whereas effective delegation requires taking time beforehand to
measuring flea beetle populations would have been make sure your employee understands your expecta-
much more labor intensive. tions. They will be able to do a better job if they are
brought on board early and understand the reasons for
Step F: Implement the plan conducting the experiment. In fact, it’s a good practice to
The majority of implementation tasks are essentially make sure all employees are aware of any trials you are
the same as normal farming tasks that are required for conducting to avoid accidentally disturbing the experi-
carrying out production plans each growing season. ment. It will also allow you to reap the benefits of having
We assume that farmers using this manual understand even more eyes on the field.
planning and coordinating farming activities, and in the
interest of sticking to our subject, we don’t discuss these F-4 Execute the plan
basics of farm management; instead, we concentrate on The primary goal of your experimental plots is to learn
aspects of implementation that differ from production about how a change affects a crop or farming system. If
and are vital for getting the most out of experimentation. you intend to learn about a management change, you
can’t respond to events that might detract from yields in
F-1 Collect resources the same way you would in fields dedicated solely to
Gathering resources in advance of planting an experi- crop production. An experiment needs to be managed
ment is no different than preparing to plant crops for just as you would normally farm, except for the improve-
harvest. It can be as simple as ordering seeds for new ment you are testing. For instance, if you are testing a
varieties you plan to evaluate or as complex and drought mitigation strategy, you can’t rescue the crop
time-consuming as modifying a piece of equipment. The with irrigation at the first sign of water stress.
main difference stems from decisions about what you If your design is a side-by-side trial (see Chapter 6 for
will measure. Consider which new tools or supplies (if examples), there is more latitude to intervene. In this
any) are necessary to collect data or monitor outcomes. case, you can react to growing conditions and problems
as long as you do the same thing in both the control and
F-2 Allocate the necessary time treatment plots so the action does not unequally influ-
Allocating time for data collection is probably the most ence the tested modifications. For instance, if you are
challenging aspect of successfully testing improvements testing soybean varieties to find which best outcom-
on your own. It’s tough to make time during the growing petes weeds, the results will be meaningless if you
season to carry out measurements that are more intervene with an extra cultivation in one of the plots due
involved than simple observation and aren’t part of your to above-average early-season weed germination. On
normal routine. Therefore, try to work them into what- the other hand, if you are mainly interested in yield and
ever approach you usually use to schedule farm opera- bean quality and don’t mind the additional effort
tions. Strategies include adding research monitoring to involved in mechanical weed control, then responding to
the farm calendar, delegating this task to a trusted weed conditions will not undermine the variety trial as
employee, and simply intensifying normal practices of long as you cultivate all varieties equally.

49
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
F-5 Collect the data documenting the success of insect pest control prac-
Two critical pitfalls can limit the reliability of any data you tices. Deciding ahead of time whether you will use
collect. However, you can easily avoid them through indirect (e.g., plant damage levels) or direct (e.g., abun-
forethought and experience. The first issue stems from dance of the pest) metrics and then sticking with it
throughout the course of the experiment is essential to
relying on memory to document observations. Some
maintain consistency.
farmers, particularly those who are visual learners and
who are very experienced, can accurately remember For instance, to determine the effect of integrating
observations. Their memory can serve as a dependable bee-friendly pollinator habitat in different cropping
means of data collection and monitoring. However, most systems, Sean Skeehan, Jill Beebout (Blue Gate Farm),
people aren’t able to do this consistently, and in the and Will Osterholz (Mustard Seed Farm) set up bee
course of interviews and discussions, several farmers bowls to trap and count insects. These bowls were set
noted situations where actual data contradicted their up in established spots on each farm, and samples were
memory of outcomes. Thus, it is extraordinarily useful to collected at regular intervals every 24 hours. The farmers
record your observations and data in some way beyond then recorded the abundance of different species in
relying on memory. tables to document their results.

Some examples of strategies for documenting experi-

mental results are:
F-6 Monitor the results
Regardless of an experiment’s duration, periodically
• Record dates of field operations on a central calendar reviewing the results during the field season can help
or in a journal. you spot unexpected problems that arise and react
• Avoid collecting data or observations from areas that quickly. This can be critical in years when extreme
aren’t representative of the field, such as low spots or weather events affect trials in ways that can undermine
borders. the experimental goal. Monitoring results can take many
• Systematically (e.g., from the same spot, using labels) forms, depending on the data you are collecting, ranging
take photos of trials throughout the growing season. from visually assessing the control and experimental
• Observe the experiment at regular intervals and record plots on a weekly basis to looking at recorded data
your observations in a field notebook, on your phone sheets of things like insect counts, labor hours, or
(Box 5-4), or in journal in the evening. yields for crops that are harvested continuously.
Regular, detailed observation of test plots during
• Use a small notebook that is easy to keep with you and
experimentation is by far the most common approach
write down all dates and observations relating to the
to monitor ongoing trials.
trial (some use their phone in the same manner).
• For field data collection, make pre-formatted data sheets
F-7 Fine-tune the experimental management
and take these to the field on a clipboard. This is an easy
Based on your monitoring, it may become necessary to
way to ensure consistency in data collection that needs to
tweak the experimental design, management practices,
be done more than once and makes it possible for you to
or data collection. Experimental designs can be more
delegate data collection when necessary.
difficult to implement than expected during the planning
• Use flagging tape or surveying flags to mark where you
stage, particularly if you laid out an ambitious design with
collected samples so you can return to the same spot
multiple replications or treatments. If you are just starting
for repeat measures. This can be particularly useful in
to investigate a new practice, implementing a new
fields with a lot of soil variation, or if you are monitoring technique may be different from what you anticipated.
features that tend to be patchy, such as insect damage. Alternatively, you might find that data collection is too
A second pitfall that can undermine your assessment of time-consuming and just not practical. Complications like
outcomes is a lack of consistency in data collection these can eventually become valuable learning opportuni-
during the season or from year to year. Planning what ties or even lead to successful solutions. Just make a note
data you want to collect and how to collect it will go a of the changes you made, along with when and why you
long way toward ensuring consistency during the hectic made the change. For example, when Matt and Diana
field season. For instance, you have several options for Stewart (Stewart Farm) trialed a transition to a

50
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 BOX 5-4: Agricultural mobile apps.
Cell phones have transitioned from being something you would only find on Wall Street to an everyday tool that
most people carry in their pockets. There are many apps that can help with tasks around the farm, including
preparing maps, identifying pests, and checking prices. For a more complete listing beyond those that we
describe here, check out the resources at the end of this chapter.
• agDNA: Allows you to map field boundaries and keep records of seeding, inputs, and harvesting.
• AgPlots: Maintains records of crop yields for different fields.
• Agrivi: Monitors farm management activities and offers best practice suggestions.
• Agrobase: Helps identify plant pests, weeds, and diseases.
• Calcagro: Allows you to calculate yield rate, planting rate, seeding rate, and moisture, among other relevant
measures.
• CowManager: Monitors cow status and health.
• Crop Farmers App: Describes crop-specific pests and diseases, as well as their treatments.
• Cropio: Uses real-time vegetation monitoring to identify problem areas and track field performance.
• Farm Management Pro: Records farm management activities and decisions.
• Farmer Income & Expense Manager: Records and analyzes farm financial data.
• FeedMix: Estimates nutritional content of various livestock feeds.
• FieldBee: Offers GPS navigation for tractors to optimize farm machinery operations and tracks data on
seeding and harvesting.
• Field Navigator: Uses GPS to guide parallel driving during field navigation.
• Livestocked: Provides herd management and monitoring.
• OneSoil: Calculates vegetation index to determine crop health based on satellite images.
• Plantix: Takes photos of plant diseases to get diagnoses from a community of farmers.
• Soil Sampler: Locates and records appropriate soil sampling locations.
• UNIFORM: Helps with record keeping for cattle operations.
• Veterinary Handbook: Comprehensive guide on livestock disease diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.
• Wolf GIS: Enables mobile-ready map drawing.

grazing-oriented operation, they realized that their cows F-8 Review success criteria
were too thin, and so they slightly increased the grain Sometimes it’s beneficial to change the criteria of
content of their dairy cows’ feed. success if experimentation reveals flaws in your
Adjusting management practices during an experiment underlying assumptions about what constitutes a
needs to be done in a way that furthers the experimental successful outcome. This is particularly true if your
goals rather than simply boosting crop yields (more success criteria were based on a misunderstanding or
discussion of this under F-4). Discussing modifications a misdiagnosis of the problem. Alternatively, you may
with your co-manager or other farmer staff before realize midway through a series of changes made over
intervening can help to avoid accidents that undermine the course of several years that the outcomes you were
the trial, such as unintentionally performing normal farm aiming to achieve have unforeseen, negative conse-
operations where you are trialing a new approach. quences. For example, Anton Burkett (Early Morning

51
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Farm, Case Study #1) initially attempted to increase his Even if you have been routinely documenting
farm’s profitability by expanding his production and quantitative data, it can be extremely useful to examine
hiring additional workers. However, he came to realize the experiment critically to collect any last-minute
that he had not considered the degree to which this qualitative observations. You can compare side-by-side
conflicted with his personal philosophy and under- plots before crops are terminated by harvesting or
mined his quality of life. Hiring additional labor required tillage or (in the case of orchards and pastures) before
him to spend more time in a managerial role, which he the plants go dormant. However, sometimes the results
didn’t enjoy, and less time on farming tasks. In won’t be so clear-cut, and the conclusions you draw
response, he changed his criteria of success from will be a bit more nuanced. For instance, perhaps the
focusing solely on profitability to including happiness change you were testing only had a small impact, or its
as a metric. In so doing, cutting costs by downsizing his final effect was different from what you saw earlier in
farm staff and selling equipment became a more viable the growing season. This is when it’s necessary to
and successful solution than increasing his farm’s analyze your data.
production capacity.
G-2 Analyze the data
Step G: Evaluate outcomes The method of data analysis you choose depends on the
experimental design, the data collected, and other
G-1 Observe the final result information you may have from observation and normal
Eventually the experiment will run its course. Deciding farm recordkeeping. Data analysis can be as simple as
when to end your experiment depends on what you reaching a conclusion based on your final walk through
were actually testing. Sometimes, you can observe the the trial or as complicated as using statistics to analyze
outcome just by walking the field and looking at the trial. quantitative data. A majority of innovations developed by
The process of observing an experimental endpoint is farmers arise from simple experimental designs and
quite similar to observing your farm system. This is the repeated cycles of testing. In keeping with this straight-
last chance to gather information that can help you to forward approach, there is rarely a need for a formalized
interpret the results and reach conclusions about the process of data analysis. When differences between
value of the improvement you are testing. what you’ve been doing in the past and the tested

52
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 BOX 5-5: Principles of data analysis.
Many of the same principles of experimental design apply to data analysis, whether you are using your observa-
tions and historical knowledge of trends in key indicators (e.g., yields, farming expenses, net income) to analyze
and interpret results, or carrying out statistical analysis with spreadsheets and graphing results:
• Keep an open mind and be aware of your assumptions.
• Become familiar with the data. Review your notes from the trial. Look at results from any quantitative data
relating to the trial.
• Focus the analysis. Keep your core question and the purpose of the experiment in mind.
• Organize information into the main categories: growing environment, management, and effects of the
change.
• Look for patterns and trends, particularly if you have run the trial for more than one growing season.
• Consider other factors that could account for the results.

modification are obvious, an informal approach that reconsider whether these risks/rewards were accurate.
reflects your personal style will do the job. Everything we said about the first round of risk/reward
assessment applies here, but now you have additional
Jill Beebout (Blue Gate Farm), Carmen Black (Sundog information to help with reassessment. In deciding to
Farm), and Kate Edwards (Wild Woods Farm) used make a change, weigh the risks and benefits a solution
advanced statistical software to compare multiple offers in terms of time/cost, as well as how important the
replicates of pelleted seed and covered trays for summer core question is to you.
lettuce germination. These farmers received funding
from an external source, and the treatments they tested G-4 Invite feedback
were fairly expensive to implement, demanding a more
Outside feedback from fellow farmers, extension educa-
rigorous analysis. Alternatively, Jan Libbey and Tim
tors, and (in some cases) researchers, can be particu-
Landgraf (One Step at a Time Gardens) used systematic
larly valuable when you have completed a trial, assessed
observations of weeds in their fields paired with photos
its outcomes, and are making decisions about a path
for record keeping to visually assess the ability of tillage
forward. Feedback is useful at various times during the
radish to suppress weeds (relative to a control).
process of experimentation, so seek it whenever a
You can find examples of different approaches to data second opinion would be relevant.
analysis in case studies and in the on-farm research
manuals listed at the end of the chapter. G-5 Determine the next steps
One simple approach to interpreting outcomes is to use On-farm problem solving is nearly always a cyclical
observations combined with historical knowledge of process that requires fine-tuning solutions over time
trends in key indicators (e.g., yields, farming expenses, through trial and error and adapting management
and net income). At the other end of the spectrum, some practices based on information gleaned from these
farmers use spreadsheets to organize data, carry out cycles of testing and fine-tuning. Outcomes that can
basic statistics, and graph results. Best practices for result from testing and evaluating improvements tend to
interpreting results are listed in Box 5-5. fall into three general categories:
1. You may discover a viable solution and incorporate it
G-3 Reassess risks and rewards into your farming operation. This does not prevent
During the planning process, you anticipated risks and further improvements as you gain more experience
rewards based on knowledge you had before carrying with continued fine-tuning in order to adapt it to field
out the trial. Now, with the results in hand, you can and weather variation.

53
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
2. You may find that the improvement works but isn’t Recommended resources
feasible for adoption due to ripple effects or conflicts
with other parts of your system. This outcome will On-farm research
send you back to the drawing board to find and
For farmers
evaluate another potential solution that will avoid the
drawbacks of the first solution tested. • Baldwin, K. R. (2004). A Field Guide for On-Farm
Research Experiments. Greensboro, NC: Cooperative
3. You may conclude the test was a complete failure. If
Extension Program at North Carolina A&T State
the change fails to rectify the problem, rethink your
University.
assumptions and confirm that you started with a
correct diagnosis. On the other hand, if the modifica- • Hilshey, B., Boswoth, S., & Gilker, R. (2013). A Practical
tion solves the problem you started with but creates Guide to On-farm Pasture Research. The University of
another, more serious problem, it may be preferable to Vermont.
live with the original problem. • Kansas State University (2016). Agricultural Mobile
Apps: A review and update of scouting apps.
However, in the real world, problem solving and innova-
Manhattan, KS.
tion tend to take twisting and turning paths to reach a
viable solution. Therefore, the process of determining next • Madsen, B. S. (2016). Statistics for non-statisticians.
steps may not fall neatly into these three categories. For New York, NY: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
example, Chaw Chang (Stick and Stone Farm, Case Study • Nielson, R. L. (2008). A Practical Guide to On-Farm
#8) ultimately decided that it wasn’t worth the effort and Research. Lafayette, IN: Purdue Univ.
cost of purchasing additional new equipment to continue • Rempel, S. (2002). On Farm Research Guide. The
improving his raised bed vegetable crop system. Another Garden Institute of Alberta.
farmer might have decided that this was something he • Sooby, J. (2001). On-Farm Research Guide. Organic
wanted to pursue, and Chaw may have agreed if the Farming Research Foundation.
potential solutions were cheaper to implement.
• Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education
Program. (2017). How to Conduct Research on Your
G-6 Share results Farm or Ranch.
Sharing what you learn from experimentation helps build
the general body of agricultural knowledge. Thor For extension agents and researchers
Oechsner (Oechsner Farms) pointed out that if you have • Drinkwater, L. E. (2002). Cropping Systems Research:
a problem, odds are that someone else is having the Reconsidering Agricultural Experimental Approaches.
same issue. Helping other farmers avoid these pitfalls HortTechnology, 12(3).
and problems allows them to focus their efforts on
• Drinkwater, L.E. (2016). Systems Research for
further improving and refining new solutions, which they
Agriculture: Innovative Solutions to Complex
can then communicate to others in turn. Furthermore, by
Challenges.
sharing results, you can receive feedback about possible
improvements or tweaks you can try on your farm. • Richard, Thompson S (1990). The on-farm research
Conferences, farmer meetings, and extension research program of Practical Farmers of Iowa. American
reports all provide great outlets to share your findings. Journal of Alternative Agriculture 5:163.
• Rzewnicki PE, Thompson R, Lesoing GW, et al (1988).
On-farm experiment designs and implications for
locating research sites. American Journal of Alternative
Agriculture 3:168.
• Sumberg J, Okali C (1988). Farmers, On-farm Research
and the Development of New Technology.
Experimental Agriculture 24:333.
• Zandstra H, International Development Research
Centre (Canada) (1986). A Methodology for On-farm
Cropping Systems Research. International
Development Research Centre, Ottawa.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Comparing risks and rewards
• Brouwers, J., Prins, E., & Salverda, M. (2010). Social
Return on Investment: A practical guide for the devel-
opment cooperation sector. Utrecht: international
cooperation, Utrecht.
• Ray, A. (1990). Cost-Benefit Analysis: Issues and
Methodologies (No. 11597). Baltimore, MD: The World
Bank.
• Turpin, N., Laplana, R., Strauss, P., Kalijonen, M., Zahm,
F., & Begue, V. (2005). Assessing the cost, effective-
ness, and acceptability of best management farming
practices: a pluridisciplinary approach. Rennes cedex,
France: INRA.
• Zhou, X., Helmers, M. J., Al-Kaisi, M., & Hanna, H. M.
(2009). Cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis of
conservation management practices for sediment
reduction in an Iowa agricultural watershed. Journal of
Soil and Water Conservation, 64(5), 314–323. https://
doi.org/10.2489/jswc.64.5.314
 

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
6 Example experimental designs

In this chapter, we present several possible experimen- Trials repeated over time without a control or
tal designs, starting with the simplest and ending with replication
the most complex. We discuss the strengths and
Farmers commonly use an iterative process to modify
limitations of each and provide detailed examples of
their farming system and achieve a desired goal. While
how plots could be arranged. There is no such thing as
testing a management change without comparing it to
a universal design that is right for every attempt at
your current practices has drawbacks, there are
on-farm problem solving and innovation. We will use a
instances when having a control treatment may not be
hypothetical organic vegetable farm as an example,
focusing on 11 fields (Figure 6-1). Fields are managed in
an intensive rotation of vegetables and annual cover
crops. A soil type transition runs diagonally across the An iterative process uses a repeated cycle
farm, with a loamy well-drained soil in the western of operations to achieve a desired result.
fields shifting to a heavier clay loam in the northeast.
The more times you perform the cycle, the
These fields have areas with poor drainage (E1, C1, and
W1) and, as a result, the farmers grow a different mix of better the result should become.
crops in these fields.

56
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 6-1: Map of the farm we use for experimental design examples. Fields are labelled E, C, and
W for east, center and west and numbered from north (lower numbers) to south (higher numbers).
The dotted white line is the soil type transition.

useful. In these instances, farmers find it more effective through four rounds of experimentation before he settled
to concentrate their efforts on making the system or on a reasonably satisfactory solution to his weed problem.
practice work on their farm. Lastly, farmers commonly use an iterative process when
For example, if you decide to transition to a completely the desired management change is a priority regardless
different management system that is already being used of how it affects yield or income. Karma and Michael
by farmers in your area (e.g., no-till or organic farming), Glos (Case Study #8) were set on breeding organic
you may not be interested in comparing the new system chickens from organically raised chicks. They didn’t
to your current management. This was the case when bother with a control because of their dedication to
Adam and Courtney Squire (Case Study #10) decided to making the change work regardless of any hiccups they
fully transition their farm to no-till. They didn’t do any would encounter along the way; they weren’t going to
controlled tests to compare their then-current produc- abandon their efforts just because it did not maximize
tion system to no-till, in part because they had many profit or didn’t immediately succeed.
examples of farmers who had successfully made the Although iterative trials have their place in on-farm
switch. Adam and Courtney relied heavily on those problem solving and innovation given how easy they are
individuals for assistance and guidance. to do, there are pitfalls that can outweigh their simplicity.
Low risk/low cost modifications with limited impact on One drawback of iterative trials is that when problems
crop yields are commonly developed using this informal arise, it can take several cycles to diagnose and correct
process. The focus on repeated cycles can be particularly them. For example, differences in soil or weed popula-
effective for management-intensive improvements that tions across a farm combined with differences in the
require lots of tweaking through trial and error. For weather may cause year-to-year changes in the perfor-
example, Chaw Chang (Case Study #9) had to go mance of the trial. Without a control plot, it may be

57
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 6-2: Experimental design for a sequential, unreplicated, uncontrolled variety trial. The exper-
imental plots are highlighted and numbered for each year they were planted.

difficult to determine the cause of year-to-year variation. other framers in the area who are growing the crop and
In the early stages of trying a new system or introducing a can provide guidance or share which variety works for
them. Alternatively, it is easy enough to include two to
new practice or crop, a quick trial just to get experience
three varieties in a single plot to determine which
with new management activities is perfectly fine. Later in
varieties work best on their farm.
the process, when you are optimizing the system/
practice, side-by-side trials that compare adjustments to a To increase their chances of success, our farmers decide
control (as described below) provide more definitive to plant three varieties in field W3 for their first trial
feedback that will allow you to better diagnose problems (Figure 6-2). They decide against collecting quantitative
and make appropriate adjustments across your farm. Also, data, instead choosing to focus on differences they can
if there are two different possibilities that you want to observe. They choose their first experimental plot
consider (i.e., two different varieties or two different cover location because it is close to their buildings and easy to
crops), iterative trials of one and then the other could lead monitor, in addition to having more uniform soils. In this
to faulty conclusions if there are differences in environ- first growing season, they find that variety #2 has
mental conditions from one year to the next. noticeably greater yields and is preferred by customers.

In the case of our example farm, assume the farmers In year two, they rotate the trial to field W5 and improved
want to introduce a new vegetable crop that their their weed management based on their experience from
customers have been raving about. Because these the first season. As a result, all three varieties’ yields
farmers don’t have any experience growing this kind of increase, but #2 continues to stand out in terms of
crop, there’s no point in having a control; they don’t have productivity and customer preference.
a crop they’re currently growing that could be a point of The following year, they plant all the trial varieties again,
comparison. They could plant a single variety of the crop this time in field C4. Several hot spells seem to trigger a
in the trial, and this is fine if they are able to talk with pest outbreak. Although all three varieties suffer, the

58
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
previous frontrunner (variety #2) appears to be the most
susceptible of the bunch. FIGURE 6-3: Detailed view of the experimental
layout for the first side-by-side trial with a
Ultimately, the farmers decide that the series of trials has
control treatment (year 1).
allowed them to perfect their mangement of the new
crop; however, it did not reveal a consistent, clear-cut
best variety. At this point, their decision about whether
they want to invest more time in improving the perfor-
mace of this crop through variety trials would depend on
their priorities (i.e., yield or customer preference) and
management options, (i.e., opportunities for controlling
the pest problem that emerged in year three).

Unreplicated side-by-side comparisons with

a control treatment, repeated over time
Side-by-side comparisons that include a control require
slightly more investment of time and resources, but the
extra effort up front can save time in the end and help to
avoid misguided conclusions. A “control” or “check” is
simply the treatment without the change you are
interested in evaluating. For example, if the goal is to test
a different soil mixture for starting seedlings, your control
would be flats containing your standard mixture, and the
experimental treatment is the new mixture. To compare
these, the control and experimental treatment must be Let’s return to our example farm, where the farmers have
compared in the same period, and all other conditions decided to continue testing variety #2 in order to resolve
between the two must be the same, including the seeds the pest problem that they observed in the third year.
used, environmental conditions, watering, and any other
After talking with other farmers, they learn that using
management practices.
row covers during establishment can help control the
Side-by-side trials are really the only way to reliably test pest. To test this, they set up a side-by-side trial (Figure
a new purchased product to determine if it actually 6-3) with a control (no row cover) and an adjacent
works. For example, when trying a new worm treatment experimental treatment (row covers after transplanting).
for livestock, you must compare animals with and
They decide to hedge their bets by continuing to grow
without the medication and keep everything else the
more than one variety, but they limit the trial to the best
same (e.g., feed, supplements). If you want to try a
two varieties from the first three rounds (varieties #2 and
microbial inoculant that claims to enhance root growth,
#3). In addition, because using the row covers requires
you must compare the same crop with and without the
more work, they decide it will be worthwhile to collect
additive in side-by-side plots, under identical
management. yield data to make sure the change is worth the labor
costs. To make this manageable, they carefully weigh
and record yields from the first and last harvests. They
find that variety #2 again had higher yields compared to
#3, but there was no difference in yields or quality
between the control and row cover treatment. They
To compare these, the control and experi- attribute this to the fact that they did not observe the
mental treatment must be compared in the pest on the crop this year.
same period, and all other conditions They conduct the same trial for a second year (Figure
between the two must be the same. 6-4), this time rotating it into field W5 where the trial is
planted after the same crop as in year 1. They keep all
practices as similar to year 1 as possible (i.e.,

59
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 6-4: Whole farm view of locations for both side-by-side trials.

transplanting date, spacing) to minimize year-to-year seasonal variation or environmental variation across
differences. They also use the same management/data fields, you may need to replicate trials within the same
collection in both treatments. This year, the workers growing season in order to answer your question.
notice the pest during the first harvest. Yield data reveal Frequently, two replications are adequate, but, depend-
that, under row cover, yields of variety #2 were higher ing on your question, you may want to establish replicate
than variety #3. The crops under the row cover pro- trials in more than two fields.
duced more yields than those in the uncovered plots. In Let’s return to our farmers to illustrate this experimental
the control plots, without row covers variety #3 yields design. The row covers help them successfully grow the
were higher than variety #2, which had the lowest yields crop when the pest was present, but it is a costly change
of all. From these results, the farmers conclude that row both in terms of time and money. What’s more, they still
covers are beneficial for both varieties of this crop, but aren’t sure why the pest outbreak occurred in the second
they are most beneficial for the higher-yielding, tastier year of the row cover experiment when the weather
variety (#2). If the farmers hadn’t repeated the trial a conditions were similar to those of the year before because
second time, they would have come to the wrong there were no unusual hot spells this time. Something else
conclusion! has to have been causing their pest problems.
The farmers notice that the pests seemed only to occur
Side-by-side comparisons with a control in the southernmost fields. The farmers had initially
treatment, replicated in multiple fields thought the pest outbreak was due to weather condi-
Having a control is necessary to identify whether a tions, but maybe it was due to something specific to that
change actually has a meaningful effect, or whether it area? During their next farm walk, they search the
was due to something other than the management border of their southern fields and the neighboring
change in question. In many situations, using side-by- alfalfa crop for the pest. They find evidence of a small
side comparisons with a control and replicating it over number of these insects. After looking at the past
time is sufficient for making management decisions. performance of the new crop since they first began
However, if the management practice is affected by growing it on their farm, they develop a hypothesis: that

60
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 6-5: Controlled, side-by-side trial with (orange) and without (green) row covers with two
replications, one in field W2, the other in Field C4.

W2-without row covers

W2-with row covers

C4-without row covers

C4-with row covers

their neighbor’s field is serving as a source of the pest. quicker and easier to assess while also giving them the
To test this, they perform controlled side-by-side com- data they need to assess their pest problem.
parisons replicated in different fields. Just as they expected, they see the pest in field C4 early
They plant side-by-side trials in two of their fields, one in the season, and when it comes time to harvest, the
far from the southern border (W2), and the other very plants in the control plot have significant damage, while
close to the neighbor’s alfalfa field (C4, Figure 6-5). the ones under the row cover are in good condition.
These two fields are on the same soil type, and they However, they find something quite different in W2.
place the plots in areas within each field that had been There, both the covered and uncovered crops are more
in the same crop in the previous growing season. By or less unscathed, demonstrating that the pest damage
running the trial at two locations in the same growing was a result of the proximity to the neighbor’s farm. It
season, they can test their idea that proximity to the also indicates that they might not have to use row
neighbor’s field was the source of this pest. This design covers to control the pest across all of their fields,
ensures that they can directly compare the fields at instead only doing so when they plant that crop on the
different locations and rule out other causes of differ- southern part of their farm.
ences in pest pressure such as variation in weather or
other chance events that might differ between years. Side-by-side comparisons with a control
Having settled on which cultivar works best for them, treatment replicated in a single field
they exclusively plant variety #2. To ensure that they At its core, replication is a way of accounting for variabil-
have a market for the increased production of this crop, ity over space and separating these effects from sea-
they expand their marketing to local restaurants and sonal differences such as weather or pest populations. If
land a couple of contracts to supply the crop to these you are concerned about whether a solution to a
businesses. Just as before, the control is left uncovered problem will work across the entirety of your farm, it is
while the treatment plot is covered to exclude the pest. necessary to replicate in multiple fields, as we described
However, rather than quantitatively measure yields, they above. However, replication within a field is helpful when
decide to qualitatively gauge pest damage. This is much you’re trying to fine-tune practices so they are optimized

61
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 6-6. Controlled, replicated side-by-side trial within a single field. The insert shows the
detailed layout of the controls (green) and row cover treatments (blue). Poorly drained areas noticed
by the farmers in previous years are indicated by white areas in field E1.

for all your fields that have similar environments. This in multiple fields, they decide to do so in a single field with
can be particularly useful if you have rented fields that known areas of poor drainage. They choose an area in E1
are distant from your main farm. Replicating within a that had been used to raise the same crop the previous
single field closer to home can help you to fine-tune season, followed by the same overwintering cover crop.
management practices that can then be applied to Once again, they decide to hedge their bets by evaluat-
similar, more distant fields. Another situation where ing more than one variety. At a recent winter meeting
replication within the field is the most effective approach with other farmers, they learned about another variety of
is in problem fields with variable soil or weed conditions the crop in question. This cultivar is better adapted to the
across the field. conditions of the Northeastern United States. A couple of
Take, for instance, our farmers who have steadily farmers had tried growing the new crop variety and report
improved their management of a new crop over the that it seemed to be more tolerant of wet conditions.
course of six growing seasons. They have perfected their Based on this new information, the farmers think it would
production techniques and expanded their market for be a good idea to evaluate this cultivar at the same time
the crop. At this point, they are interested in determining they test the performance of variety #2, their favored
if they can introduce the crop to their more problematic cultivar. They design a trial aimed at answering two
fields that have heavier, more variable soils (W1, C1, and questions. First, could this crop be grown in their fields
E1). Some of their vegetables do not perform well in with variable, poorly drained soils? Furthermore, could the
these fields, particularly in the areas with poor drainage, new variety improve performance in poorly drained soils
so their rotation options in these fields are more limited compared to variety #2?
compared to fields on loamy soils. Since the field is far enough from the southern border,
They decide to conduct a controlled, replicated experi- they do not expect to need row covers. They establish
ment to evaluate whether this crop can do well in these three replications, with side-by-side treatments of variety
soils with varying drainage. This time, rather than replicate #2 (control) and the new variety (variety #4, Figure 6-6).

62
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 FIGURE 6-7: Example map of randomized, complete block design.
Block 1 Block 2 Block 3 Block 4
Treatment 1 Treatment 3 Control Control
Treatment 3 Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 1
Control Treatment 2 Treatment 3 Treatment 3
Treatment 2 Control Treatment 1 Treatment 2

They arrange the plots so that the western end is on the Randomized, complete block designs
loamy soils, while the eastern end of the plots is on the
The randomized, complete block design (RCBD) is the
heavier soils for all three replicates. Sections of Rep 1
most common experimental design used by agricultural
and 2 have spots known to have poorer drainage
researchers. This formal experimental approach always
compared to the rest of field E1. To evaluate crop perfor-
includes a control and commonly involves more than one
mance in the different soils, they observe crop growth
experimental treatment. The entire experimental site is
and take photos of the east and west ends of each plot
divided into several blocks, which are then further
during the growing season. At harvest, they measure
subdivided into plots. Each treatment is applied randomly
yields for two 10-foot row lengths in each plot.
to a plot so that each block contains all treatments and a
They find that yields of both varieties are greater in the control (Figure 6-7). Several resources offer additional
western end of the plots compared to the east where the details on the use of RCBDs in farm systems (Box 6-1).
soils are heavier and poorly drained. The differences
RCBDs can require considerable time and resources to
between east and west are greater for variety #2
implement and monitor. Farmers do not typically use this
because variety #4 performed better in the eastern
design unless they have support from scientists or
section of the plots. In the loamy soils, variety #2 was
extension educators. For instance, Klaas Martens worked
still the best performer.
with Cornell University’s George Abawi (Case Study #5)
Now, after seven growing seasons, they have increased to perform an RCBD to find the cause of his root rot and
their ability to grow this crop across their entire farm, test potential solutions. Practical Farmers of Iowa’s
adding a new opportunity to diversify rotations on their website offers technical reports that detail several
problematic fields and developing a new, lucrative examples of farmers implementing this design (e.g., Scott
market for a crop that they can dependably produce. Shriver testing different soybean row widths and seeding
The result of each experiment informed what they did dates, or Jack Boyer and Tim Sieren evaluating different
the following year. Based on these repeated experi- cover crop termination treatments), but most involve
ments, they were able to find a new crop that their collaborations with extension educators or researchers.
customers love and that performs well on their farm, to
find a solution to a pest that threatened one of their
most profitable enterprises, and to fine-tune it to maxi-
mize their profitability.

BOX 6-1: Selected extension resources detailing the use of RCBDs in farm systems.
• Davis, R. F., Harris, G. H., Roberts, P. M., & MacDonald, G. E. (2017). Designing Research and Demonstration
Tests for Farmer’s Fields. Fort Valley, GA: University of Georgia Extension.
• Kyveryga, P., Mueller, T., Paul, N., Arp, A., & Reeg, P. (2015). Guide to On-Farm Replicated Strip Trials. (A. Arp, Ed.)
Guide to On-Farm Replicated Strip Trials. Ankeny, IA: Iowa Soybean Association.
• Marini, R. (2016). On Farm Research. State College, PA: PennState Extension.
• Rzewnicki, P. (1992). On-farm Trials for Farmers Using the Randomized Complete Block Design. Lincoln, NE:
Nebraska Cooperative Extension.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
7 Case studies

The following case studies are real-world examples of For each case study, we present some background about
farmer experimentation. As demonstrated in these case the farmers and their farms, the problems they attempted
studies, the path to problem solving and innovation is to solve, their methods for doing so, and the results of
often non-linear and rarely progresses neatly through their efforts. We also summarize some general lessons
the steps and tasks we presented in this manual. The that can be gleaned from the case. Although we have
farmer-innovators we interviewed tend to follow the attempted to tie these narratives explicitly to the Problem
general process described in this manual, but many Solving and Innovation Framework, our primary goal is to
skipped steps or implemented them out of order in share the farmers’ stories. The farmers often highlighted
response to the particular problems they were target- particular aspects of the process they used to solve a
ing. This flexibility is a key characteristic of on-farm problem or to carry out the more ambitious undertaking
problem solving, and the ability to tweak the cycle of of developing an entire cropping system. As a result, each
experimentation increases with experience. case study does not provide detailed coverage of all steps
and tasks outlined in the Framework.

64
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
CASE STUDY 1
Setting goals and determining quality of life requirements
(Anton Burkett, Early Morning Farm)

Farmer Profile: Anton founded Early Morning Farm in 1999. Since then, it has grown to one of the largest
organic CSA farms in the Northeast. The farm mission is to provide food that is grown in a socially, economi-
cally, and environmentally sustainable way. Early Morning Farm subsidizes some CSA shares for low-income
families, making healthy, local food accessible, particularly in underserved neighborhoods that generally
cannot obtain it.

Everything originates with defining a farm vision

(Task A3: page 17) FIGURE 7-1: Anton at his Ithaca Farmers’ Market
One of Anton’s early goals was to increase his farm’s net stand.
income. He initially tried to meet this goal by expanding
his farm and increasing the number of CSA shares he
offered; this expansion required him to hire additional
workers. However, having made these changes, he
found that the increased scale of his farm operations
required him to take a more managerial role, which he
didn’t enjoy.

Use resource inventories to identify waste

(Task B2: page 21)
Anton remained steadfast to his goal of improving the
profitability of his farm. However, he knew that he could
not continue to achieve it by continuing to increase the
size of the CSA. Instead, he shifted his goals away from
increasing gross income to focus on increasing the
efficiency of his farm operations and business. He
started to downsize by renting less land, laying off
workers, and selling unnecessary equipment.

Analyze records
(Tasks D2-3: page 35)
Keeping records of labor hours dedicated to different
farm operations allowed Anton to identify which ones
offered the highest returns with the least amount of
work. Based on this information, he decided to shift his
market strategy such that he sent fewer workers to staff
less-profitable farmers’ markets. Finally, he cultivated
more high-value crops that were profitable and popular
based on his financial records and customer feedback,
respectively. That said, he also needed to ensure the
resilience of his farm system and customer satisfaction
by maintaining crop diversity. Balancing these tradeoffs Photo courtesy of Karen Whetzel and Anton Burkett.
“is a continuous process,” he noted.

65
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Insights: You, too, can become an innovator/expert waste, it is also important to consider intangible
problem solver! outcomes, such as your enjoyment of the work. Quality
of life is crucial for sustainable farm management;
• Be clear about your farm vision: Anton ran into
otherwise, it is easy to burn out. Anton knew some-
problems when he pursued his farm vision (i.e., being
thing needed to change once he stopped enjoying
actively engaged in maintaining a profitable farm). His
working on the farm. As he told us, “If it’s not fun, it
initial decision to increase production to enhance
doesn’t matter.”
profitability conflicted with his desire to remain
• Analyze your financials to minimize waste:
engaged in day-to-day farm operations. As a result, he
Analyzing your financials is important to determine
needed to find new goals (reducing waste and ineffi-
whether or not you have the resources to tackle a
ciencies) that would allow him to fulfill his vision problem. However, it can also be useful to identify
without negatively affecting his quality of life. costly expenditures and unprofitable operations that
• Intangible goals matter, too: While farm goals are you could cut down on to reduce financial leaks and
often focused on benefits like yields, income, and wasteful spending.

66
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
CASE STUDY 2
Observing patterns
(Jean-Paul Courtens and Jody Bolluyt, Roxbury Farm)

Farmer Profile: Jean-Paul bought the first five acres of what is now Roxbury Farm in 1990. Over the past three
decades, the farm moved to Kinderhook, NY, and grew to 400 acres. He and Jody cultivate 30 acres of vegetables
that support their CSA. They also cultivate hay and pasture on half of their acreage, which goes to feed their
cows, sheep, and pigs. All their farm products are certified organic, and the Northeast Organic Farming
Association of New York honored them with the Farmers of the Year award in 2018 for their efforts. They have
partnered with the Open Space Institute and Equity Trust to ensure that the farm is protected for sustainable
agriculture. Jean-Paul and Jody encourage community members to visit their farm by hosting social gatherings,
dinners, and school field trips. They also invited researchers from Cornell University to study the effects of their
bell bean management. This collaboration helped both groups better understand how to manage agroecosys-
tems sustainably.

Serendipitous observations while walking the farm However, they noticed that broccoli was extraordinarily
(Tasks C1-3: page 28) productive when it was grown in the fields where fava
Fifteen years ago, Jean-Paul and Jody wanted to offer beans were previously cultivated. The beans seemed to
some new early season vegetables to their CSA mem- boost yields more than any other cover crops they had
bers, so they tried cultivating an acre of fava beans. They used in the past (e.g., chickling vetch and peas). Jean-
ultimately decided against growing these beans in Paul and Jody believed this to be partially a function of
subsequent years because customers didn’t particularly the beans’ nitrogen fixation, which was a limiting
care for them, and the seed was expensive. nutrient in their soils, but they weren’t sure whether this

FIGURE 7-2: Jean-Paul noticed that broccoli grown after beans seemed extraordinarily vigorous!

Photo courtesy of Johannes Courtens.

67
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
was the only reason for the effect on broccoli yields. Fine-tune actions
Regardless, they decided to find an alternative low- (Task F7: page 50)
er-cost leguminous cover crop that could cultivate in the Jean-Paul and Jody first exclusively planted bell beans,
early spring and would offer similar yield and quality but the lack of ground cover early in the season allowed
improvements for subsequent crops, including broccoli. weeds to become a problem, so they tried adding field
peas and oats in the next growing season. This helped
Consult experts and investigate the subject reduce weed populations to some extent, but the oats
(Tasks D8, E1: pages 37 and 40) tended to go to seed before they could terminate their
Knowing that there is a large body of research regarding cover crops and grew as weeds themselves. Jean-Paul
green manures, Jean-Paul consulted old texts, including and Jody now use a mix of field peas and bell bean seed,
Organic Principles and Practices by Adrian Pieters, which meets their objective of increasing ground cover
which explained that bell and fava beans were different to prevent erosion and weed control.
cultivars of the same species and would likely function
similarly to one another, even if the bell beans weren’t as Insights: You, too, can become an innovator/expert
marketable. Bell bean seeds were also smaller than fava problem solver!
bean seeds, so it would be cheaper to cultivate the • Luck has a lot to do with it, but only if you are
former on a per-acre basis. Jean-Paul learned that observant: Although it was pure chance that they first
California farmers often use bell beans as winter cover tried to plant fava beans, Jean-Paul and Jody may have
crop, so he suspected they could be cultivated during simply abandoned the idea altogether if they hadn’t
the spring in New York. Seed dealers, however, advised been observant enough to notice the effect of planting
him against the experiment because bell beans weren’t beans before broccoli.
widely cultivated in the Northeastern United States.
• The experts aren’t always right: Jean-Paul chose to
Unheeded, Jean-Paul planted five acres of bell beans.
rely upon his own experience as opposed to heeding
“We already planted fava beans at a smaller scale,” he
the advice of seed dealers. It’s not that consulting with
said, “and the effect was so significant that we figured
experts is a waste of time; in fact, it is a good idea to
we could jump right to large-scale implementation with
do so. However, just be aware that their knowledge is
the bell beans.”
typically drawn from generalized experimental
research as opposed to the experiences of unique
FIGURE 7-3: Jean-Paul and Jody’s bell bean-field individuals. Don’t be afraid to trust your own anecdotal
pea seed mix. evidence. That said, just because it worked for another
farmer doesn’t mean it will work for you. It’s tricky to
strike a balance between being open to novel, untested
ideas and relying on tried-and-true approaches.
• Adaptive management is a repetitive process:
Jean-Paul and Jody evaluated several combinations of
cover crops alongside bell beans before settling on a
final mix rather than changing their criteria for success.
• Constraints from values can force creative innova-
tions: “Everything we do is aimed at reducing inputs,”
Jean-Paul said. This curtails both the fiscal and envi-
ronmental costs of farm management. The soils on
their farms had high concentrations of potassium and
phosphorus, so nitrogen was the limiting factor.
Cultivating bell bean before broccoli, spinach, and
arugula eliminated their need for nitrogen fertilizer,
which also reduced their production costs.

Photo courtesy of Johannes Courtens.

68
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
CASE STUDY 3
Developing a cropping system and a unique market niche
(Thor Oechsner, Oechsner Farms)

Farmer Profile: Thor began pursuing his passion for farming as a child by raising vegetables in his parent’s
suburban yard. In 1991, he bought a 15-acre farm in Newfield, NY and started commercially growing organic
grains. He initially supplemented his farm income by working as a car mechanic and teaching at a local
BOCES. However, by 2003, he expanded his farm to 1,200 acres and transitioned to farming full-time. He
cultivates a variety of grains, primarily for human consumption, including wheat, rye, and corn, which he then
either mills himself or sells to flour mills, bakeries, distilleries, and breweries. He also helped finance, con-
struct, maintain, and manage a farmer-owned grain mill. Thor offers tours of his farm and regularly helps
Cornell researchers.

Identify your farm vision and target market FIGURE 7-4: Thor seeding his organic grain fields.
(Tasks A4-5: Page 18)
Thor began his farming career by growing primarily
animal feed crops. However, he soon realized that
growing higher-value crops for a unique market niche
could be a good strategy for improving net profits above
those generated from animal feed production. He settled
on growing food-grade small grains, including high-pro-
tein wheat for bread baking. Thor knew that most wheat
used for flour is grown in the central United States
because of the region’s relatively hot and dry weather. At
the time, very few people were trying to cultivate it in the
Northeast because the wet weather conditions during
harvesting can cause Fusarium seed head blight, making
the grain unsuitable for human consumption. He knew
he would need to find wheat cultivars that were adapted
Photo courtesy of Rachel Lodder.
to the climatic conditions of the region.

Background investigations and resistance to the Fusarium head blight that affects
(Tasks B4 and E1: pages 25 and 40) small grains) for choosing promising wheat varieties to
grow on his farm. He then performed field trials of
Unheeded by the uncertainties involved in this project,
different varieties and rotations to determine the most
Thor used extension organizations—such as the Organic
productive grains and management strategies. Thor also
Grain Research and Information Network, Cornell
University Agricultural Extension, and the University of knew that he needed to find grains that his end users
Vermont Extension—to investigate how to grow wheat would want to buy. To assess this, he sent flour samples
for the bread baking market. Based on this research and made from the most agronomically successful cultivars
consultations with wheat farmers in Quebec and to bread bakers in New York City. They helped him
Vermont, he identified several varieties of promising identify varieties that would be desirable for their baking
wheat cultivars suitable for Finger Lakes region. qualities and taste, in addition to their productivity.

Design actions: Two-step assessment of wheat Determine next steps

varieties (Task G5: page 53)
(Tasks E5 and G4, pages 43 and 53) After identifying the most productive, tastiest varieties,
Thor established primary criteria (namely protein content Thor carried out a multi-year process of testing a variety

69
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 7-5: Thor teaching Cornell University students about crop rotations and cover cropping.

Photo courtesy of Tomasz Falkowski.

of management strategies that would maintain grain His deep knowledge of the property helps him under-
quality and minimize post-harvest losses (e.g., harvest stand where to focus his attention. Organized record
time, drying techniques, testing for moisture in order to keeping is particularly crucial to identify long-term
determine how the harvested grain needed to be impacts of changing farm management over multiple
handled). years.
• The farmer is a jack-of-all-trades: Having diverse
Insights: You, too, can become an innovator/expert perspectives facilitates finding novel solutions to
problem solver! complex problems on the farm by integrating disparate
• Remember the end user: Finding productive, ideas. Thor’s background as an auto mechanic helped
Fusarium-resistant wheat varieties wouldn’t have been him deal with simple, mechanical issues on his farm so
particularly useful if they weren’t desirable for the he could focus on other, more complex problems.
bakers and brewers who would be buying and using
Thor’s flour. It is often a good idea to monitor several Notes in Hindsight
criteria for success (including measures of both To succeed in this complex endeavor, Thor
quantity and quality) to determine which solution is the developed record keeping and data analysis
most appropriate for your farm system. skills that enabled him to track outcomes and
• Long-term documentation is important: The large interpret results. He recorded yields and losses
size of Oechsner Farms makes monitoring a challenge to spoilage due to Fusarium every year to
for Thor. Every year, he fills a notebook with a wide evaluate how his grain drying and storage
range of details about his farm, including weather, impacted his farm’s productivity and profitability.
financial records, seed lists, and general observations.

70
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
CASE STUDY 4
Adapting to climate change through innovative management
(Lou and Merby Lego, Elderberry Pond Farm)

Farmer Profile: Lou and Merby Lego have been farming near Auburn, NY, for 35 years. They have about 100
acres, including vegetables, pasture, forest, herbs, cut flowers, and apple trees. They raise heritage pigs and
chickens. Elderberry Pond Farm’s most unique feature is not a crop, however—it’s their restaurant! Their son
Christopher trained as a chef and came back to the farm to start a now-beloved farm-to-table restaurant that
features meat and vegetables produced on-site. Running a restaurant changed the way Lou farms—because
the food is needed so often and for so long, succession planting is essential. Approximately 70% of the food
produced on the farm goes to the restaurant! Lou has shared this discovery at conferences, at SARE work-
shops, and with farmers coming to visit the farm and see his setup. He is also working with researchers at
Cornell University to conduct formal scientific research at his farm.

Observe patterns from the records potatoes. Inspired by this, he attempted to address the
(Tasks C2-C5, page 28) flooding problem by hilling his crops. This helped during
Lou noticed that precipitation patterns have become wet periods but created another problem; the hilled soil
increasingly erratic, with large rainstorms that flooded dried out quickly in drought conditions. After this trial
his flat fields and washed out seeds, followed by hot, dry failed, he needed to find another solution.
spells that hardened the soil. He verified his observations Lou considered installing an irrigation system, but this
by examining data from the United States National would have been expensive. He encountered a journal
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National article about using “wicking hills” in developing coun-
Climatic Data Center. tries. The technique relied on hills made from wicking
He made several attempts to address the flooding in his materials covered with soil that would draw up water
fields; he cleaned and expanded his drain tile system during dry periods. The article was largely theoretical,
and tried using different mulches. Neither of these and the technology hadn’t been fully evaluated, but
approaches fully solved his problem; the only crops that based on his engineering background, Lou hypothesized
were growing well in these conditions were hilled that the method would work in his fields. He decided to
test it out.

FIGURE 7-6: Evidence of some of the drainage Design a trial and review the results
problems Lou faced in the summer of 2018. (Tasks E5-F6: page 43)
To rapidly evaluate the effectiveness of the wicking hill
technology, Lou initially used oat straw as a wicking
material in several rows, and covered it with soil to form
hills into which he planted crops. The wicking material
effectively drew water closer to crops during dry periods,
and the hills shed water into the cover crop strips
between the rows during wet periods.
Based on the success of this initial trial, Lou applied for
and received a SARE grant to further test this technol-
ogy. He designed and implemented a replicated experi-
ment. He laid down oat straw in several 200-foot-long
rows (the length of the field in which he carried out his
experiment) and covered them with soil to create
wicking hills.
Photo courtesy of Lou Lego.

71
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 table ornamentation in his farm restaurant. The crops
Notes in Hindsight grown in sunflower wicking hills fared far better than
Lou found he could use a rotary plow to push soil crops grown in flat ground without wicking materials
into hills, but his rocky soils made using the tool a (Figure 7-8). He took photos of the sunflower-based hills,
challenge. It would buck every time he hit a large noting that he could see wet patches where the sunflower
stone. While he was able to make it work, he stalks had been left. Lou is now preparing another
warns that this may not be an ideal tool for rocky rigorous experiment to conclusively demonstrate the
soils. This goes to show that what works for one benefits of his sunflower wicking hills and fine-tune his
farmer may not work for you. The trick is adapting approach before applying the technique to all of his fields.
solutions to the unique limitations and opportuni-
ties that your farm offers. That is precisely what Insights: You, too, can become an innovator/expert
the problem-solving process is all about. problem solver!
• Read widely: You never know where inspiration can
come from. In this case, Lou found an idea in a schol-
He also covered several rows on flat ground (no hills)
arly journal article that explicitly mentioned a technolo-
with straw mulch, hilled rows without any wicking
gy’s applicability in developing countries. His knowl-
materials, and maintained un-hilled flat ground without
edge of his farm allowed him to consider how it could
wicking materials (control). Each of these rows were
fit into a very different kind of system. Innovation often
separated by flat strips of clover. He collected quantita-
is not necessarily developing a new technology, but
tive soil data by sending samples away for laboratory
using it in a novel location or manner.
analysis and measured moisture using a handheld
moisture meter in each of the experimental rows.
In the end, his data indicated that the rows with wicking FIGURE 7-7: Lou using his rotary plow to make
materials increased soil moisture during drought condi- his wicking hills.
tions, and hilled rows had lower moisture levels during
rain events, despite all of the rows having similar mineral
soil characteristics. The wicking hills also tended to
display higher degrees of soil microbial activity, as
measured by a soil respiration test conducted at the
Cornell University Soil Health Laboratory. As a result, the
crops planted in wicking hills had significantly higher
yields compared to the crops planted in flat fields.

Fine-tune actions
(Task F7: page 50)
Lou did not like using oat straw because it was difficult
and time-consuming to lay out. Fortunately, observing
the sunflowers he grew on his farm gave him another
idea. Normally, he cuts down the sunflowers at the end
of the growing season, leaving the stalks in the soil. He
wondered whether the root systems and dried stalks
could serve as a wicking material the following year.
He fired up the rotary plow again and covered the stalks
with soil to perform a small-scale test comparing the
sunflowers and oat straw. Sure enough, using the
sunflowers as the wicking material worked well. As an
added bonus, they served several functions simultane-
ously, including attracting cucumber beetles away from
his squash and cucumber plants, as well as providing
Photo courtesy of Lou Lego.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
• Leverage natural ecosystem processes: Although it
may have been simple to install an irrigation system,
FIGURES 7-8 AND 7-9: Carrots grown on flat
Lou harnessed natural processes to do the work for
fields (left) and wicking hills (right).
him. Furthermore, rather than finding solutions that
only offer a single benefit, Lou developed an approach
that provided several ecosystem services.
• Again, observing the farm system is the root of
problem solving: Lou’s approach of using mowed
sunflower stalks as wicking materials depended on
him closely, systematically, and deliberately observing
his normal farm operations. In some cases, doing so
can detect problems, while in others, it can identify
solutions.
• Quantitative and qualitative data complement one
another: Quantitative data make it very easy to
compare treatments directly, while qualitative data
help contextualize that information in a more holistic
way. Don’t feel obligated to limit yourself to one or the
other. Both provided Lou with valuable insights and
can be used to communicate your findings to others.

FIGURE 7-10: Elderberry Pond.

Photo courtesy of Lou Lego.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
CASE STUDY 5
Background investigation
(Klaas and Mary-Howell Martens, Lakeview Organic Grain)

Farmer Profile: Klaas and Mary-Howell Martens have cultivated grain crops and raised livestock on their
1,400 acre farm in Penn Yann, NY for over twenty years. Klaas is a third generation farmer who used to
conventionally cultivate corn and other grains in large-scale monocultures until 1994 when he converted to
organic production. They now grow organic grain corn, as well as soy, spelt, barley, wheat, triticale, oats,
rye, red kidney beans, cabbage, and hay, which they sell to food wholesalers, restaurants, and organic
dairies for feed.

Observe patterns from records and investigate reading the limited primary literature on the subject,
your problem Klaas approached Dr. George Abawi at Cornell
(Tasks C2-5: page 28) University, who had researched root rot and found that
cultivating yellow mustard and buckwheat could reduce
Several years ago, Klaas observed that his bean yields
soil populations of the pathogenic organisms and
had declined. Not one to believe in coincidences, he
nematodes that cause root rot in beans.
knew that something had to have changed but wasn’t
sure what it was. Could it have been his introduction of a
new bean variety? He went to Carol McNeil, the regional
Design a trial and allocate necessary time
vegetable specialist extension agent, who pointed out
for implementation
that root rot had infested his beans. He brought this up (Tasks E5 and F2, pages 43 and 49)
at a New York Certified Organic meeting he was attend- George and Carol helped Klaas design an experiment
ing, and many other farmers noted similar issues. After comparing the ability of different cropping systems to

FIGURE 7-11: Klaas Martens (left) and his mustard cover crop (right).

Photos courtesy of Mary-Howell Martens.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
minimize root rot damage relative to a control. George cash crops he needed to plant and then determined
established a randomized complete block experiment in which cover crops could fit into the sequence, ultimately
a heavily-infested field and applied treatments of deciding to frost seed mustard before planting beans
different cover crops, including barley, buckwheat, and later planting a mix of winter barley and buckwheat
mustard, alfalfa, and clover, to the replicated plots. after the beans were harvested.
Based on this experiment, George and Klaas identified
that planting either mustard or buckwheat before beans Determine your next steps based on results
significantly reduced root damage, confirming that that and your whole farm plan
cover crop mixture reduced the populations of organ- (Tasks F8, G1, and G5: pages 51 - 53)
isms causing root rot. Sure enough, bean yields also Furthermore, although Klaas normally planted alfalfa
increased. Additionally, Klaas was able to harvest and and clover at the end of every rotation to increase the
sell the buckwheat (he didn’t harvest the mustard available nitrogen in his soils, George had informed him
because he terminated it before it went to seed), so this that these legumes were co-hosts that sustained the
solution provided multiple benefits. root rot pathogens. To address this and further lower
root rot prevalence, Klaas decided to sow clover directly
Fine-tune actions before corn, which did not seem to be affected by the
(Task F7: page 50) root rot. He followed the corn with mustard to ensure the
Klaas ran into the issue of fine-tuning the timing of the root rot fungus was eliminated from the soil before
new cropping sequence, which deviated from his planting beans. In addition, by alternating between this
previous management system. He reverse-engineered new rotation and his original one, he was able to disrupt
his rotations to identify open windows that would allow root rot fungus populations while also sufficiently
him to plant these new cover crops. He started with the boosting soil nitrogen levels.

FIGURE 7-12: Klaas seeding pinto beans in the summer sunset.

Photo courtesy of Mary-Howell Martens.

75
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 Notes in Hindsight
Canadian thistle is an invasive weed that is extremely aggressive and difficult to eradicate. It is particularly
prevalent in low-lying, moist areas. Completely by chance, while Klaas was experimenting with crop
rotations to minimize bean root damage, he noted that Canadian thistle was much less pervasive in fields
where buckwheat had previously been cultivated. The buckwheat quickly formed a closed canopy that
suppressed the thistle germination and growth. This demonstrated the utility of this crop in addressing
both weeds and diseases.

Insights: You, too, can become an innovator/expert Mary-Howell Martens has repeatedly mentioned that
problem solver! the health of their crops is contingent upon the health
• Extension can be valuable if used correctly: Klaas of their soils; one cannot fix the former without
believes that farmers are not effectively collaborating addressing the latter. By focusing on ultimate causes,
with extension agents. Many farmers go to extension you can find appropriate solutions to pervasive prob-
agents for quick-fix solutions to problems rather than lems rather than fixing individual surface-level symp-
using extension as a resource that contributes to toms. This may also help reduce inputs, as well,
attempts at problem solving that are integrated into particularly on organic farms that often cannot simply
farming operations. rely on external inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides,
and herbicides.
• Learning how to observe: “You need to observe
[mindfully]. To get the right answer, you need to ask • Different strokes for different folks: Klaas tends to
the right question,” noted Klaas. Integrate detailed rely on his memory to keep note of observations on his
observations of several interacting factors to properly farm because he is a visual learner and has a detailed
identify problems and diagnose their causes. knowledge of his farm. This approach may not be
useful for everyone; there are many ways of keeping
• Use the Socratic Method: Constantly ask yourself
records, which we describe on page 29; Box 4-1.
“Why?” to get at the root cause of problems.
 

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
CASE STUDY 6
Experimental Design
(Lou and Merby Lego, Elderberry Pond Farm)

Identify problems and changes as they Design a trial based on your expertise and
relate to your goals background research
(Tasks A3 and D9: pages 17 and 38) (Tasks E2 and E5, pages 41 and 43)
Elderberry Pond Farm (see Case Study #4 for back- Downy mildew spreads by airborne spores, so Lou tried
ground) had been growing cucumbers for years with using row covers. This delayed infection by a few days,
small amounts of downy mildew, but they were always but the cucumber plants still died. Lou did further
able to harvest the crop. Things changed in 2008, when research on the spores to get to the bottom of things. He
the parasite seemed to be particularly aggressive, killing discovered they were 1.3 microns in diameter, and he
the plants so quickly the entire crop was lost. began to think, “I wonder if there is a filter that can
Lou did some research online and discovered that North capture them?” Indeed, he found that there are hypoal-
Carolina State University was investigating a new strain lergenic filters for furnaces that are affordable.
of downy mildew that was devastating crops in the
South. He initially was ready to stop cultivating cucum- Fine-tune and scale up your trials
bers until Merby, his wife and co-farm manager, pointed (Task F7: page 50)
out that they were necessary for the farm restaurant. Lou wrote and received a SARE grant to test his idea
Lou skipped all the way to the “Design Actions” step. that furnace filters could be used to capture the spores if
When you have a failing crop that is essential to your the cucumbers were grown under cover. He built a low
farming operation, the problem is obvious! tunnel with furnace filters to exclude downy mildew

FIGURE 7-13: In his spore-excluding high tunnel

Photo courtesy of Lou Lego.

77
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 spores from the air intake. There were covered (experi-
FIGURE 7-14: Lou installing filters in his high mental) and uncovered (control) beds. The low tunnel
tunnel. worked perfectly. He didn’t lose any experimental plants
to downy mildew. The adjacent beds, both uncovered
and covered with row cover, were killed by downy
mildew infestation.

Determine your next course of action

(Task F7: page 50)
Getting into the low tunnel to harvest was difficult, and
Lou was concerned about temperature getting too hot.
Lou wanted a larger solution but was concerned about
the possibility of contamination. Could a high tunnel
work? What about opening the doors—would spores
get in? Based on his previous work in clean rooms, he
knew that he could create positive air pressure inside
a room, so that when a door was open, air flowed out
rather than in.

Adaptive management as a cycle of inquiry

(Task G5: page 54)
Lou built a 100 ft x 25 ft high tunnel funded by a larger
SARE grant he had written. All air intake passed through
15 furnace filters at one end of the structure. Positive
pressure was maintained so that people entering the
high tunnel did not introduce outside air into the tunnel.
They planted both cucumbers and tomatoes inside, and

FIGURE 7-15: Lou’s high tunnel for cucumbers and tomatoes.

Photo courtesy of Lou Lego.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 Notes in Hindsight
Unlike the previous example in which Lou performed a replicated experiment, this time he did not. Put
simply, replicating treatments is frequently not practical on a working farm. The cost and large-scale nature
of the solution, prevented him from using replicated plots. However, both approaches involved controls to
distinguish the effect of the proposed solutions from natural environmental variability.

the filters had the additional benefit of preventing pre-farming life that gave him the idea to use positive
tomato late blight. This system works well, and Lou air pressure. Innovation is born from combining
continues using it today! disparate ideas.
• Be prepared for other domino effects: In this case,
Insights: You, too, can become an innovator/expert because so many plants were under tunnels, there was
problem solver! an increased need for irrigation. It’s helpful to consider
• Baby steps: Lou strongly believes in small-scale your farm as a system that influences and is influenced
experimentation before implementing a potential by external factors.
solution or improvement on his farm. It’s always better • Grants are helpful: Lou funded this work through
to measure twice and cut once to minimize risks external grants. They offer the financial resources to
associated with changes. make changes, as well as the validation that an idea is
• Bring in knowledge from other life/work experi- worthwhile and perhaps useful to a broader audience.
ences: It was Lou’s work in clean rooms in his

79
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
CASE STUDY 7
Success criteria
(Karma and Michael Glos, Kingbird Farm)

Farmer Profile: Karma, Michael, and Rosemary Glos own and operate Kingbird Farm in Berkshire, NY. They
have been certified organic since they began farming commercially twenty years ago. While they sell house-
plants, herbs, and vegetables that they grow in a one-acre market garden and greenhouses, about half of their
sales are meat and eggs from their grass-fed Scottish Highland Red Angus beef cattle, pigs, chickens, and
ducks. In addition to these animals, the Glos family also has two draft horses that help with tilling fields,
spreading compost, logging, and all the heavy pulling on the farm. In addition to the crops and livestock, they
harvest wild foods, such as ramps, mushrooms, and fiddlehead ferns, from the 80 acres of forest that cover a
majority of their property. They sell all of these farm products at the Ithaca Farmers Market, a local coopera-
tive grocery, and a 24-hour self-serve farm store on their property. Karma has shared her work at a Northeast
Organic Farming Association (NOFA) conference and written articles for the NOFA newsletter.

Having a concrete farm vision can help identify Despite an extensive search, they could only find birds
and solve problems raised on non-GMO feed. Although organic chickens
(Task A4: page 18) and ducks are not required to be raised from organic
When they started farming, Karma and Michael knew chicks, the Gloses did not want to give up on their vision
they wanted to raise all organic livestock in a self-suffi- for the farm and had to find another solution that
cient manner. Because they bred their own pigs and wouldn’t be prohibitively expensive. They decided to
cows, these would not be a problem, but organic chicks breed their own organic chicks and ducklings.
and ducklings were not available for purchase at the time.

FIGURE 7-16: The Glos’ organic chicken flock.

Photo courtesy of Karma Glos.

80
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 so fast and big that they were unable to breed at sexual
FIGURE 7-17: Karma Glos maturity. The farmers’ reward was a red broiler-type
chicken that matured in 10–12 weeks but could still
breed for one season.

Success criteria are in the eye of the beholder

(Task F8: page 51)
Raising their own organic chicks costs Kingbird Farm
about $4.50/bird, which is more expensive and
time-consuming than simply buying chicks and raising
them organically. Regardless, Karma sees this additional
cost as worthwhile. “In the end, I am producing some-
Photo courtesy of Karma Glos. thing that doesn’t exist. There’s nothing to compare it to.
Is that success? It doesn’t maximize profits, but is it
more sustainable? Probably.” She also appreciates the
Identify challenges & opportunities autonomy of having things fully in her control.
(Task D9: page 38)
Insights: You, too, can become an innovator/expert
They first had to identify breeds that would suit the
problem solver!
needs of their farm. They were able to easily purchase
pure-bred Pekin ducks from a hatchery, raise them • Having a strong vision for your farm can help clarify
organically, and breed them within the flock. Chickens, which solution is acceptable: Given that Karma and
however, presented a more complicated challenge. Michael had a farm vision focused on avoiding conven-
Karma considered using heritage dual-purpose birds, tional agricultural crops/products, they decided to go
but they developed too slowly to be financially viable. ahead with dehybridizing their chicken breeding stock,
Most commercially available meat birds were hybrids despite it being a costly and difficult task.
bred to be terminal stock. As a result, they were too big • Evaluating the results of your efforts as successful
to breed. Karma was concerned that the roosters would or not depends on your goals: Every decision has
be too big and might hurt the hens. Even if they man- costs and benefits, but their importance (or even
aged to breed, they weren’t sure whether the hens whether they are considered costs or benefits) varies
would lay fertilized eggs or produce viable offspring. from person to person. The Gloses see the high costs
of raising organic chicken breeding stock as being
Fine-tune the next course of action and worth the additional effort and reduced profits.
continuous adaptation • While it can sometimes be helpful to have an
(Tasks F7 and G5: pages 50 and 53) established and systematic plan to evaluate partic-
Given these constraints, the Gloses tried to dehybridize ular management strategies, in many circum-
a free-range meat breed. They purchased chicks and stances this is neither practical nor necessary: Feel
selected birds that grew slower than the average broiler free to experiment with management by changing
and could walk well at maturity. They then bred these things as you go along—just make sure to have some
birds within their own flock over several generations. way of documenting your decisions and how you
“There was quite a learning curve to figure out hatching,” evaluate their outcomes.
Karma recalls. They had to fine-tune their management • Diversity is valuable: Kingbird Farm has many
practices to balance tradeoffs between egg production streams of income, so Karma and Michael can make
and meat quality. After several seasons of selective up for any additional costs associated with raising their
breeding, they managed to establish a “breed” that grew own chicks organically by reducing other costs or
fast and big enough to be economically viable, but not increasing production. 

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
CASE STUDY 8
Evaluating results
(Chaw Chang and Lucy Garrison, Stick & Stone Farm)

Farmer Profile: Chaw began renting a few acres in Ithaca, NY, back in 1996, but Stick & Stone Farm has
grown to 72 acres in the subsequent twenty years. Chaw and Lucy Garrison‒his partner in both life and
farming‒devote about half of their property to growing a wide variety of certified organic vegetables and
fruits, including several types of Asian produce such as kohlrabi, Asian greens, and daikon. They sell a
majority of their produce wholesale to local groceries and restaurants, as well as through a community-sup-
ported agriculture program.

Identify the problem and convert it into an opportunity

FIGURE 7-18: Chaw, getting ready to seed his
(Task D9: page 38)
vegetables in the spring.
Chaw had never been fully satisfied with the way he
managed the aisles between the raised beds he used to
grow organic vegetables. The beds were not perma-
nent, so the spacing between them varied. He had
some success removing weeds with a spider cultivator,
but found it left bare ground that contributed to soil
erosion, so he sought out an alternative that wouldn’t
leave behind bare ground.

Fine-tune actions and continuous adaptation

(Task F7: page 50)
After discussions with other farmers, Chaw tried to use a
living mulch to minimize erosion after removing weeds
between his raised beds. At first, he tried hand-broad-
casting rye seed after tilling, but this was time-intensive.
Although it reduced erosion and suppressed weeds, the Photo courtesy of Sue Henninger/Tompkins Weekly.

seed also spread into the beds where it competed with

vegetable and fruit crops.
To streamline the process and focus the seed distribu- problems Chaw had not initially foreseen. The rye
tion in the aisles, Chaw mounted a broadcast spreader needed to be mowed, requiring him to purchase a
to the spider cultivator, allowing him to remove weeds mower, which needed to be repaired several times. Only
and sow rye in one pass. However, this solution was after buying the mower did he realize just how much
also unsatisfactory. The spider cultivator did not effec- mowing living mulches encouraged the establishment of
tively cultivate the wheel tracks, and the broadcast annual grassy weeds. Chaw found it difficult to set aside
spreader did not spread the seeds over the entirety of a sufficient amount of time to mow frequently enough to
the aisle. To address this, Chaw purchased replace- prevent the grasses from going to seed.
ments: a hillside cultivator and two Gandy boxes.
Determine the next course of action by reassessing
Review success criteria when solutions becomes costs and benefits
problems (Tasks G3 and G5: page 53)
(Task F8: page 51) Chaw realized that mowing living mulches was a far
While using rye as a living mulch suppressed weeds and more labor-intensive process than using a tractor
minimized erosion in his aisles, it created a new set of cultivation, but he could change when he planted his

82
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
mulch to reduce this time commitment. Instead of positive results may only come after long time-lags or
establishing a living mulch early in the growing season, initial failures that help you better understand the
Chaw tries to cultivate his tractor tire tracks two-to-three nature of the problem and the farm function. Clearly
times prior to planting a mulch, and then plants a cover establishing a farm vision can help you know when to
crop on the last cultivation. This eliminates weed stop sinking time and resources into addressing
pressure in the tractor’s tire tracks and reduces the problems that aren’t critical.
number of times the row tracks need mowing. • Establish clear metrics of success: Chaw identified
Alternatively, he also uses hay and straw mulch in the several variables that he used to evaluate whether
aisles between his raised vegetable beds. While mulch- different management strategies improved upon past
ing by tractor is more time consuming than cultivating, it attempts, including harvest time and yield. Establish
offers benefits, including the addition of organic matter these at the onset of your efforts so different treat-
to the soil, and it only needs to be done once a year. ments can be compared consistently.
Furthermore, using hay/straw mulch is better for longer • Listen to your employees: Chaw’s farm crew records
season crops such as fruiting annuals, particularly what they do on a daily basis to complement his
cucurbits and nightshades, and where row covers are observations of the farm. Having more eyes is particu-
used. Introducing weeds along with the mulch can be a larly helpful in managing larger areas, and the individu-
potential problem, but Chaw feels that these downsides als directly managing a particular location often have
can be limited by purchasing hay that was cut at the the best understanding of potential problems and
proper time and using older hay to reduce weed seed solutions.
viability. • Get to know your farm: Chaw and Lucy walk the farm
on a weekly basis, occasionally with their workers.
Insights: You, too, can become an innovator/expert This facilitates communication between members of
problem solver! the team and can open one’s eyes to alternate per-
• Know when enough is enough: Many complex spectives while also helping develop a deep and
problems will reveal new challenges. On-farm problem detailed understanding of the functions and character-
solving and research is a repetitive process, and istics of the farm. 

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
CASE STUDY 9
Invite feedback from collaborators
(Harold Schrock, Berry Hill Farm)

Farmer Profile: As a teenager, Harold was given charge of his father’s farm back in southcentral Indiana. He
learned how to run the farm through a combination of trial and error, short courses on regenerative agricul-
ture, and help from other farmers. His family later sold this farm and purchased over 200 acres in Central
New York, where Harold raises a combination of grass-fed beef, long-term perennial forage, and short-term
organic row cash crops. This farm business is focused on wholesale beef marketing and raising cash crops
for organic dairies.

Network with farmers and consult with experts Design a trial and collect resources
(Tasks A1 and D8: pages 16 and 37) (Tasks E5 and F1: pages 43 and 49)
Harold participated in a project organized by a seed Harold evaluated 10 cover crops (eight of which were
company, which approached him to evaluate the effects commercial mixtures provided by the seed company)
of several of their cover crop mixes. Although Harold and a control. Although the company determined which
was satisfied with the cover crop mixture he had been mixtures he would be testing, he decided on the loca-
using, he was always on the lookout for ways to improve tion, layout, and management of the field trials.
his soil health and lower input costs, including alterna- Conveniently, Harold had a whole field that had been
tive cover crop mixes appropriate for his farm.

FIGURE 7-19: Harold’s cover crop test strips.

Photo courtesy of Harold Schrock.

84
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 Notes in Hindsight
Each of the farmers in this study managed a single replication with a control. This collaboration allowed
them to evaluate how the different cover crop mixtures performed across different growing conditions.
However, more within-farm replications would be necessary to evaluate how the mixtures would perform
under the varying conditions across any individual farmer’s fields.

previously planted with small grains and was due for Insights: You, too, can become an innovator/expert
cover cropping, so he decided to use it for the experi- problem solver!
ment. He also chose this site because it was close to a • Divide and conquer: Especially if several of your
road for easy access. The size of the field allowed him to neighbors are having the same problem, it may be
plant different treatments in 20 x 300-foot strips that beneficial to collaborate with them in developing a
corresponded with the width of his equipment. solution. This will reduce your individual effort, and
you’ll need to allocate less space to the experiment.
Execute a plan and observe results • Find resources wherever you can: Harold received
(Tasks F4 and G1: pages 49 and 52) funding for this effort from industry. However, you can
Harold planted the cover crops in the early fall and also receive grants from extension agencies and
spring before using a speed disc to till them under. Next, universities. Writing an application may be time-con-
he planted corn and measured its yields in the fall to suming, but this can actually help with the experiment
compare the effects of the different cover crop mixtures. itself, as it forces you to have a clearly defined experi-
mental procedure.
Consult and collaborate with others • Multiple measures or single indicators: In this case,
(Task F3: page 50) Harold and the other farmers were most interested in
The seed company that organized this study also the effects of these cover crop combinations on grain
replicated the trial by collaborating with several other production. This is an indirect proxy indicator for other
farmers in New York and Pennsylvania. Most of the other factors, like weed populations and soil quality. While
farmers only planted small plots and evaluated cover yield is an important consideration, it may be more
crop vigor, but they were able to collectively evaluate the appropriate to measure several variables directly. This
cover crop mixtures’ performance in a wide range of depends on the resources available to you and your
environmental conditions. intentions.
 

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
CASE STUDY 10
Reinventing a whole farm system
(Adam and Courtney Squire, Unbound Glory Homestead)

Farmer Profile: Adam and Courtney Squire farm a diverse mix of heirloom vegetables in their 15.4-acre
market garden. They offer a farm share/CSA and also sell their farm products at a number of local farmers’
markets. Being a smaller farm, they recognized the need to provide additional value to their customers, which
they accomplished by maintaining an email listserv for communicating what produce future CSA shares will
contain and offering meal ideas. Adam and Courtney also steward a small apiary for the honey and pollina-
tion services the bees provide.

Identify your farm vision and values with the help

of experts FIGURE 7-20: Adam inspecting his cover crop
performance.
(Tasks A3-4: page 17)
Adam and Courtney had wanted to manage an organic
farm and contribute towards building a sustainable food
system for many years, so they purchased a piece of
land that had been previously managed as part of a
conventional dairy farm. At first, their goals were to
reduce inputs and environmental impacts, but they
quickly realized that they didn’t want to just be “less
bad”; they wanted to become “more good” by restoring
their farm’s ecological function as an integral part of the
landscape.

Review your production systems

(Task B4: page 25)
Adam and Courtney had their work cut out for them. The
property had a long history of continuous corn and hay
cultivation, which resulted in soil compaction, high
phosphorus from manuring, and low micronutrient levels.
They reached out to the Natural Resource Conservation
Service (NRCS), who sent a conservation specialist to
audit the farm and establish a conservation plan. He
pointed out several areas where sheet and rill erosion
were washing away soil, dug a soil pit to demonstrate the
soil crusting and compaction, and noted the low earth-
worm populations to illustrate the lack of soil biota. The
NRCS specialist suggested they focus on developing soil Photo courtesy of Courtney Squire.
health by transitioning towards no-till production.
on YouTube, and extension manuals. Adam cites other
Research solutions and talk to experts no-till farmers, like Bryan O’Hara at Tobacco Hill Farm,
(Task D8: page 37) as sources of inspiration and information. As a result of
The Squires spent the following winter educating their research, the Squires identified several practices
themselves about soil health, regenerative agriculture, they expected would help improve their farm’s soil
and no-till farming. They used a range of resources, health, including cultivating cover crops and applying
including books, extension workshops, online lectures carbonaceous mulches.

86
PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Plan and execute a trial
(Task F4: page 49) Notes in Hindsight
That spring, Adam and Courtney tilled their field one last Although the Squires performed some trials, they
time and added compost to inoculate the soils with a dove right into applying other management
diverse microbiome. They then tried planting a variety of strategies on their entire farm, in part because
cover crop blends that Adam mixed himself. This granted they could rely on the income from Courtney’s
him a greater degree of control over the species compo- day job at Whole Foods to make up for any
sition, which he manipulated to meet his criteria for financial losses, but also because they felt that
success: establishing diversity, increasing density, and the small size of their farm prevented them from
providing multiple stacked functions (e.g., legumes for devoting much area to testing multiple solutions.
nitrogen fixation, grasses to increase soil carbon, and Although this is a valid concern, other small
brassicas that broke up compacted soils). They planted farmers may not have the benefit of alternate
each of these different cover crop mixes in different beds sources of income, making it all the more import-
within a single field. They also experimented with ant that they establish small-scale trials that
different carbonaceous mulches, including aged wood- evaluate changes relative to a control before
chips, rye straw, and leaves during that first year. Again, trying any of the changes at the whole farm level.
they applied these treatments to different beds in the Furthermore, increasing resilience by maintaining
same field, minimizing background environmental diversity within and among production systems
variability and allowing for easy comparison. At the end can increase your resilience to failures, which are
of the season, they measured and compared the cover always a possibility when overhauling your whole
crops’ and mulches’ effects on soil fertility using soil farm management plan.
tests, compaction using a penetrometer, and soil
respiration using a Solvita test.

Fine-tune actions in response to lessons learned However, be knowledgeable about the key ecological
during experimentation tenants and interactions upon which your farm func-
(Task F7: page 50) tions to understand these messages. For example, the
Although only two years have gone by, the Squires have presence of certain weeds could be a function of soil
observed noticeable changes in their soil health. In some nutrient deficiency, which may, in turn, be caused by an
cases, the vigor of the soil ecosystem bounced back so imbalance in the soil microbiota community.
quickly and drastically that they are adjusting their • Holistic solutions to wicked problems: Wicked
practices to slow down decomposition and nutrient problems are not easily solved. Many times, solutions
cycling. For instance, they noticed that rye mulch breaks to initial problems cause additional, unforeseen issues.
down too quickly, leaving exposed soil, so they are These offshoot, superficial problems are often symp-
replacing it with sorghum sudangrass mulch, which has tomatic of deeper issues. In the case of Unbound Glory
a higher carbon-to-nitrogen ratio. Homestead, improving soil function was fundamental
to addressing the other production problems the
Insights: You, too, can become an innovator/expert Squires faced. They shifted their focus from the health
problem solver! of their crops to the health of the system as a whole by
• Working is observing: Adam is always actively encouraging diversity, intermediate disturbance, and
making observations while he is working in his fields vitality.
and generally depends on his memory to keep track of • Sometimes that which matters most is invisible to
them. This works well for him, in part given the small the eye: Adam distinctly remembers that one indicator
size of his farm, but keeping written records becomes he used to assess soil health was smell; initially his
increasingly relevant as the size of your operation soils had no odor, but now they emit the rich earthy
increases. aroma of geosmin, a volatile compound released by
• Listen to what your farm is trying to say: Adam certain bacteria. Quantifiable measures of success are
reminded us that weeds and pests are often the farm important for meeting goals, but don’t discount
system trying to communicate that something is amiss. qualitative or aesthetic variables.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
CASE STUDY 11
Developing an innovative farming system
(Steve Groff, Cedar Meadow Farm)

Farmer Profile: Steve Groff has always wanted to become a farmer like his father and grandfather before him.
Early in his career as a farmer, Steve recognized the value of cover crops, which he integrated into his farm
system in the mid-90s. He and his family currently farm 305 acres. Most of his cultivated farm area is devoted
to cash grain crops like corn, soybeans, and small grains, but he also grows several acres of pumpkins and
high tunnel tomatoes, as well. He has always been excited to try out new ideas and has translated that into
several innovations, two of which are described here.

Galvanized by the massive gully erosion he observed in collect and analyze data for a wide variety of variables,
his fields, Steve Groff converted to no-till farming in the including soil organic matter, aggregate stability, nutrient
1980s and never looked back. Since then, he has been levels, crop yields, microbial biomass, and weed popula-
consistently fine-tuning his farm system to improve soil tions. This would have been difficult if he had attempted
health and reduce herbicide inputs over decades of to tackle a project of this magnitude alone. Furthermore,
repetitive problem-solving cycles and developing innova- Ray taught Steve the experimental methods he still uses
tions when no readily available solutions could be found. to this day. Before their work together, Steve knew little
about the experimental designs that have become so
Benefits of collaboration central to his problem-solving process. Finally, Ray
(Task D8: page 37) introduced Steve to a number of new technologies and
Steve collaborated with Dr. Ray Weil at the University of management strategies to which he may not have been
Maryland for over 12 years to assess effects of his farm otherwise exposed. For example, they tested and
management on soil health over time. This fruitful developed the tillage radish together, which Steve
research relationship began in 1996, when they collabo- wound up marketing as a multifunctional cover crop.
rated to evaluate soil health in different farming systems.
Working with a researcher and his team helped Steve Identify opportunities
(Task D9: page 38)
FIGURE 7-21: Steve and his tillage radish. Steve is always seeking out opportunities to improve his
farm system. “I’m looking for surprises. I can wake up
every morning wondering what I’ll discover today,” he
remarked. Sometimes he uncovers these surprises
through his background research. He consistently reads
books, academic research articles, and extension
reports. He also gets ideas from other farmers; he’s
always excited to discuss the problems others are
having, as well as the solutions they’re trying. For
instance, he was inspired to develop his roller-crimper
as a result of Brazilian research he heard about at the
National No-Till Conference.

Prioritize innovation
(Task D9: page 38)
Of course, when you’re bombarded with new ideas
every day and have limited resources to evaluate them, it
is important to have a way of prioritizing your focus.
Steve begins by asking himself how the change would
affect the health of his farm overall. Being preoccupied
Photo courtesy of Jan Murphy of PennLive.com.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 7-22: Steve and his roller-crimper in action.

Photo courtesy of Steve Groff.

with superficial symptoms as opposed to addressing pursuing. Steve urges farmers interested in evaluating
ultimate drivers of a process has limited benefit. He also innovative changes to their farm system to begin at a
considers the logistical challenges involved in conducting manageable scale, gain experience, and then fine-tune
a trial. How much time, money, and effort will need to go and scale up their tests.
into conducting a trial, and how does that compare with
the benefit it provides? Although this is partially a finan- Scale up experimental approaches
cial cost–benefit question, other qualitative factors fit into (Task E5: page 43)
the equation too. Steve is also concerned whether and If the side-by-side trial shows promise, Steve scales up
how his experimentation will benefit other farmers. his experiment and conducts a more rigorous study. The
Finally, although proactive innovation is a worthwhile specific methods he uses depends on the nature of the
pursuit, one can be too forward-thinking. Steve asks innovation he is testing, as well as the resources he has
himself whether the change or innovation will be available, but these experiments tend to be randomized,
realistically adopted. For example, Steve tried cultivating replicated, and controlled. He will divide up a field and
hemp in the late 90s, but there wasn’t a market for the apply treatments to different experimental units (usually
product. Now, however, hemp has become increasingly a row to ease management). However, Steve isn’t
popular, so he is ready to give it another go. All of these satisfied with a single year’s worth of data. He tries to
factors inform his decision to pursue a project. repeat the experiment for two or three years to ensure
that his results are consistent and not a fluke.
Initial small-scale trials
(Task E2: page 41) Collect resources and delegate tasks
If a particular product or management change appears (Task F1: page 49)
relevant, timely, and beneficial, Steve will evaluate it To facilitate his systematic process of experimentation,
using a side-by-side trial. This involves an unreplicated, Steve often delegates tasks to his workers. As a result,
uncontrolled test of different variants of the same he tends to adopt a managerial role of developing ideas,
approach, allowing him to determine whether this is deciding what to tackle next, assigning duties, and
something he wants to devote further resources to disseminating results. Steve is also a proponent of using

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
FIGURE 7-23: One of Steve’s many replicated cover crop trials.

Photo courtesy of Steve Groff.

technology to collect and organize data. His equipment when evaluating a new practice. Innovators need to be
can monitor a wide array of variables, including yields, adaptive and recognize that failure is also a learning
fertilizer application, and seeding rates, among others, opportunity.
and he uses Excel spreadsheets to keep track of all of • Start small and work your way up: Steve cautions
these data over multiple years and multiple cycles of farmers against being cavalier, even if they do their
innovation. homework. When applying new farming methods, limit
your initial attempts to the number of acres you can
Insights: You, too, can become an innovator/expert afford to lose. Assume the worst, and keep your
problem solver!
mistakes small. It’s better to gradually scale up your
• Know your goals to find a solution: Steve under- experimentation over several years than pursue an
scored the need to pair concrete objectives with
untested solution down a blind alley that may very well
specific methods for achieving them. You need to be
be a dead end.
strategic rather than just making random changes in
the hopes one of them might work. This requires you • Commit and devote resources to experimentation:
to also understand the ecological processes and Natural processes take time. Steve urges farmers to
principles at play, at least to some degree. Having a keep trying and stick to their experiments even if they
technical advisor can help in that regard. aren’t getting the results they want. As a rule of thumb,
• Plans are useless, but planning is essential: Steve Steve devotes 10% of his time to experimentation. He
sketches out his farm management plan, including his also reminded us that while the general principles of
innovations and experimentation, about 12 months in good farm management are applicable around the world,
advance. This gives him time to prepare equipment, the details need to be worked out at the local level.
acquire the necessary resources, and do his back- What works on other farms may not work on your farm,
ground research. However, Steve also notes that there or even in different fields within your farm. To ensure he
is no formula for success. There will always be unantic- stays on the cutting edge, Steve devotes a certain
ipated pitfalls that need to be addressed on the fly acreage of his farm to experimentation every year.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
8 Appendices

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Appendix I: Established farmer networks and agricultural organizations
Name Description
Conferences and Other Organizations

Northeast Organic Farming A group organizing regional and state meetings to promote the production of
Association local organic food and farming systems

Pennsylvania Association A community of farmers focused on education and research regarding

of Sustainable Agriculture agriculture in Pennsylvania and the Middle Atlantic States

Sustainable Agriculture An extension organization focused on promoting productive and sustainable

Research & Education American agriculture

The Grassfed Exchange A conference for regenerative and sustainable food producers

Organic Produce Summit A network with organic growers, distributors, processors, and retailers

Farming for the Future A conference featuring workshops, presentations, and discussions for farmers,
Conference educators, and professionals

An organization facilitating the development of ecologically and socioeco-

Ecological Farming
nomically sustainable food systems through education, networking, and
Association
advocacy

Farmer-to-Farmer Networks

Southern Sustainable A partnership of farmers across 13 southern states striving to develop a

Agriculture Working Group sustainable farming and food system

Appalachian Sustainable An organization focused on connecting farmers and markets to build healthy
Agriculture Partnership communities tied together by food

A network of farmers who have been operating for fewer than 10 years in the
Northeast Beginning
Northeastern United States to facilitate sharing events, information, and
Farmer Learning Network
professional development opportunities

A network connecting all farmers to facilitate cooperation and collaboration to

Young Farmer Network
improve the resilience of local food systems and economies

Sustainable Farming An organization dedicated to facilitating communication, programs, and

Association Farmer-to- events among farmers focused on improving the sustainability of agricultural
farmer Network practices

A network encouraging women to develop an ecologically sound and socio-

Women Food & Ag
economically just agricultural and food system through programs and
Network
resource sharing

National Young Farmers A political advocacy organization that represents and organizes young
Coalition farmers and provides them with resources for success

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Appendix II: Sample resource inventory worksheet1
Soil Resources
Soil Type Percent pH Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Magnesium Calcium Cation
Organic exchange
Matter capacity

Land Resources
Land cover/use Value ($) Acres Own/rent

Water Resources
Water source Value/avoided irrigation Quality Quantity (flow/volume)
costs ($)

Equipment Resources
Item Cost ($) Quantity Condition Own/rent

Infrastructure Resources
Item Value ($) Quantity Condition Own/rent

Human Resources
Name Jobs/services performed Skills Time available

Financial Resources
Liquid capital Asset:debt Solvency Equity:asset Debt:equity Investment Current Mature
ratio ratio ratio Quantity quantity

1
Adapted from Huelsman, M. F. (2008). Organic Whole Farm Planning Workbook. Ohio Agricultural Research and
Development Center of The Ohio State University.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Appendix III: Grants for farmer experimentation
How-to guides
• Doye D, Siems S Funding for Small-Scale Farms: Tips for Grant and Loan Proposals. Oklahoma Cooperative
Extension Services, Stillwater, OK.
• Krome M, Reistad G (2014). Building Sustainable Farms, Ranches, and Communities: A Guide to Federal Programs
for Sustainable Agriculture, Forestry, Entrepreneurship, Conservation, Food Systems, and Community Development.
United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
• USDA (2015) Organic Resource Guide: Your guide to organic and organic related USDA programs. United States
Department of Agriculture, Washington D.C.
• USDA (2017) Growing Opportunity: A guide to USDA sustainable farming programs. National Sustainable
Agriculture Coalition, Washington D.C.
• NE SARE (2018) Farmer Grant Application Instructions. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program,
South Burlington, VT.
• NE SARE (2018) Guide for Northeast SARE Farmer Grant Technical Advisors. Sustainable Agriculture Research and
Education Program, South Burlington, VT.

Available grants
United States Department for Agriculture (USDA)
• Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) Farmer/Rancher Grant Program: Funds farmers’ efforts to
develop and disseminate new products and practices through field trials, demonstrations, and other experimental
designs
• Federal State Marketing Improvement Program (FSMIP): Provides matching funding to help farmers explore and
exploit new markets for agricultural products
• Specialty Crop Block Grant Program (SCBGP): Offers funding to improve specialty crop productivity and quality

Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS)

• Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP): Provides agricultural producers with the financial resources and
support needed to meet their production goals, address challenges, and pursue best practices that support conser-
vation efforts
• Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP): Helps land managers develop a conservation plan that is tailored to their
property. Aims to increase crop yields and improve grazing conditions while simultaneously ensuring ecosystem
health and wildlife habitat
• Agricultural Management Assistance (AMA) Program: Provides financial and technical assistance to farmers for
reducing environmental impacts such as runoff contamination, water use, and erosion

Search engines and listings

• Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program
• BeginningFarmers.org
• Grants.gov
• National Institute of Food and Agriculture

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
Appendix IV: Personal weather stations
As personal weather stations have become increasingly • Expandability: You may outgrow a beginner basic
affordable and accurate, you no longer, “need a weather- station and want to measure additional or different
man to know which way the wind blows.”  Personal variables. Some stations can’t be upgraded, which will
weather stations offer more detailed, up-to-date infor- require you to buy a whole new station. Others allow
mation about local weather conditions to complement you to purchase cheaper monitors that measure
regional forecasts, thereby informing experimental individual variables so you can pick and choose which
management and helping to contextualize results. There you want.
are several factors to consider when deciding on which • Durability: Weather stations have to weather the
personal weather station to purchase: weather. Choose stations that are made of rugged
• Type of data: Basic models will collect air temperature, materials and have a casing for sensors and gaskets to
precipitation, humidity, and wind speed, but more prevent moisture from entering the equipment. User
advanced stations can also monitor a range of variables reviews can also be informative.
for specialized purposes, including soil moisture and • Internet/Wunderground connectivity: If you select a
temperature, UV incidence, and many more.  Be sure to sufficiently precise wireless model that can forward
identify a station that will collect the data you need. data to your computer and mobile device, you can also
• Connection type: Weather stations transmit data from choose to contribute data to Wunderground and
the station to your computer via cables or a wireless improve the precision of their local forecasts.
Wi-Fi connection.  While wireless stations are conve-
nient and easier to install, their signals can sometimes Installing your personal weather station
be finicky and unreliable. It’s also important to evaluate We won’t go so far as recommend specific models, as
whether the maximum transmission distance (which there are too many that may very well be outdated
ranges from 330 to 1,000 ft.) is long enough to reach within a few years. However, Davis, Ambient, AcuRite,
your home. and La Crosse are well-regarded brands.
• Power source: Weather stations can be AC-, solar-, or
Once you select which model is right for you, be careful
battery-powered.  Each of these power sources have
about where you install it. Wunderground offers several
their strengths and weaknesses.  AC is generally the
guidelines for installing your personal weather station,
most reliable but most difficult to install; solar- and
which we summarize below:
battery-powered units require little in the way of setup
but can sporadically lose power. • Locate your station at least five feet away from any
• Accuracy: Although it isn’t a hard-and-fast rule, the trees or overhanging roofs, which can influence
accuracy of readings is often related to cost; the precipitation readings.
cheaper the unit, the less accurate it is.  • Don’t place your station in poorly ventilated alleyways
• Update frequency/data density: Many stations collect or walled-off areas, which will influence wind speed
updated measurements at regular intervals.  Although and temperature readings.
getting more data can help you draw more accurate • Keep sensors at least 50 feet from paved surfaces,
conclusions about trends, it can be difficult to manage trees, or water bodies to ensure the accuracy of
large amounts of data.  One or two data points per day temperature and humidity measurements.
is sufficient for most agricultural applications. Try to find • Locate the station away from tall objects at a distance
a model that allows you to edit the frequency of data four times their height to ensure the station isn’t in
collection or, better yet, presents averages over the their shadow.
entire day. • Use a radiation shield to protect your temperature
• Data management: The more automated the data sensor from direct sunlight.
collection process is, the easier it is to collect informa- • Make sure your temperature sensors are at least five
tion and the more likely you are to use it.  Cheaper feet above the ground and your wind sensor is 7–30
models will require you to manually record the obser- feet above the ground. Flagpoles and fence posts are
vations, so it may be worth the cost to purchase a often good sites.
model that allows you to wirelessly download the data
• Find a location that is close enough to your house that
to your computer.
the station can transmit data wirelessly.

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PROBLEM SOLVING AND INNOVATION ON THE FARM: A HOW TO MANUAL
 Problem solving and innovation on the farm
A how-to manual

T
his manual will help you improve your farm by combining problem solving and experimentation with
day-to-day farm management. The step-by-step process outlined here is based on the know-how of expe-
rienced farmers who have developed innovative approaches for adapting their farms to changes. By
explaining the techniques these farmer innovators use, this manual will teach you how to successfully identify
research questions, test alternative solutions, and collect data for yourself.

About the Authors

Laurie Drinkwater is a professor in the School of “[This] is a valuable tool for new and
Integrative Plant Science at Cornell University. Her experienced farmers to explore the decision
research focuses how soil nutrient cycles are con- making processes of a variety of farms.”
trolled by plants and soil microbes in agroecosys- ‒Karma Glos (Kingbird Farm, Berkshire, NY)
tems. She carries out extension and outreach activi-
ties in addition to research that actively involves “I believe the manual will be valuable for
farmer participation. new farmers starting out facing new
problems like climate change. I wish we
Tomasz Falkowski is a postdoctoral researcher had had something like this when we
focused on documenting farmer-driven forms of started.”
‒Lou Lego (Elderberry Pond Farm, Auburn, NY)
inquiry and problem solving. His graduate work
involved interdisciplinary and international collabo-
rations with scientists, NGOs, and smallholder farm- “Forty years ago, these ideas in this
ers in Mexico to identify how agroecology could be document would have been invaluable to
integrated into restoration projects. me as I designed and developed my farm.”
‒Mike Kane (Shamrock Hill Farm, Port Crane, NY)

DACUM panel participants

Jody Bolluyt Chaw Chang Karma Glos Lou Lego

(photo courtesy of (photo courtesy of (photo courtesy of (photo courtesy of Lou Lego)
John Carl D’Annibale / Sue Henninger / Rosemary Glos)
Times Union) Tompkins Weekly)

Nicolas Lindholm Klaas Martens Eero Rutttila Brent Welch

(photo courtesy of (photo courtesy of (photo courtesy of (photo courtesy of
Lydia Goetze) Mary-Howell Martens) Lou Mattei / Rio Grande Sun) Tompkins County Cornell
Cooperative Extension)