BAGHDAD UNIVERSITY

Water Resources Engineering Department

Third class year 1
Elementary of Fluid Mechanics

Summary of CH-1 (Fluid properties)

Prepared by:

Assist. L. Rusul Ihsan Abdulridha

Email: [email protected]
1-1 Physical Characteristics of Fluid State
2
 Solid differ from liquids and liquids from gases in the spacing and
latitude of motion of there molecules, there variables being large in gas,
smaller in a liquid and extremely small in solid.

 The inability of fluids to resist shearing stress gives them there

characteristic ability to change there shape or to flow.

 No shearing stress in fluid = no motion, fluid at rest .

 Pressure stress is the only stress in fluid at rest

 A pressure at a point in a fluid at rest has the same magnitude in all

directions Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
 dimensions SI unit
3
Length (L) Meter (m)
Mass (M) Kilogram (Kg)
Time (t) Second (s)
Thermodynamic temperature (T) Kelvin (K)

 T °C = TK – 273.15
 The normal freezing and boiling points of water are (0 °C, 100 °C),
respectively

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

 In the SI system, the above units are known as base units. There are also a number
of other units that are derivable from base units and that have special names, for 4
example :
Quantity SI unit
Frequency (f) Hertz (HZ = 𝑠 −1 )
Force (F) kg.m
Newton (N = )
s2
Energy (E) Joule ( J=N . m)
Work (W)
Quantity of heat (Q)
Power (P) J N.m kg.m2
Watt (W = = = 3 )
S s s
Pressure (p) N kg.m
Pascal (Pa = 2 = 2 )
m s
Stress (𝜏)
Temperature (T) Degree Celsius (°C) Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
1-2 Density, Weight Density, Specific Volume, Relative Density
5
1- density (𝝆) -for liquids

Mass kg gm
ρ= ( , )
volume m3 cm3

kg g𝑚
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1000 ,1
m3 cm3

slug
For English unit: 𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.94
ft3
Weight = mass* acceleration
m
1N=1 kg *
s𝑒𝑐 2

ft
Ib = slug * 32.2
s𝑒𝑐 2 Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
2-Weight density 𝜸-for liquids

weight KN 6
γ= ( )
volume m3

k𝑁 𝑁
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 9.81 , 9810
m3 m3

𝐼𝑏
For English unit :𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 62.4 ( for temperature 32℉ – 50℉ )
𝑓𝑡 3
𝐼𝑏
𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 61 ( for temperature 160℉ )
𝑓𝑡 3
𝑁ൗ
𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝛾 𝑚3 𝑁 ∗𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 kg
Dimension of ρ = = 𝑚 = =
𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔 ൗ𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝑚4 m3

𝛾 = ρ𝑔 (1.1)
𝑚 𝑓𝑡
g : gravity acceleration = 9.81 or 32.2
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
3- Specific Volume and Relative Density 7
1 m3
specific volume = ( )
ρ kg
𝜌𝑠 𝛾𝑠
Relative density (r.d), r . d = = (1.2)
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝛾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

4- density (𝝆) ,Weight density 𝜸 -for gases

 Boyle’s and Charle’s laws (Equation of state)
p 𝑔𝑛 𝑝
ρ= ,𝛾 = (1.3)
RT 𝑅𝑇

Where:
p:absolute pressure (pa).
T:temperature (°K). Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
 J
R: engineering gas constant (
kg.°K
). (table1, VENNARD) 8
p1 p2
R1 = , R2=
ρ1 T ρ2 T

 Avogardo’s law
Application of Avogardo’s law, “all gases at the same pressure and
temperature have the same number molecules per unit volume”, allows the
calculation of a universal gas constant. Consider two gases having, R1 and
R 2 , densities ρ1 and ρ2 , and existing at the same pressure and temperature, p
and T. dividing the equations of state,
p1
ൗρ1 T=R1 R1 ρ2
p2 → =
ൗρ2 T=R2 R2 ρ1
Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
Now, the density is the mass per unit volume, according to Avogardo’s law, 9
the number of molecules per unit volume in each gas must be the same,
because the temperature and pressure are the same in each gas.
ρ2 M2
=
ρ1 M1

M1 and M2 : molar mass, the molecular mass is numerically equal to the

molar mass.
ℛ = m1 R1 = m2 R 2 (1.4)
m1 and m1 molecular mass.
J
ℛ : universal gas constant, for air = m R= 8313 ( ).
kg.°K
Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
1-3 Compressibility, Elasticity
10
All fluid can be compressed by the application of pressure, elastic energy
being stored in the process, assuming perfect energy conversions, such
compressed volume of fluid will expand to their original volumes when the
applied pressure is released. the modulus of elasticity of the fluid (at any point
on the curve) is defined as the slope of the curve:

dp
E = - dV (1.5)
ൗV
1

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

- Compressibility for gases
11
A compression and expansion gases take place according to various laws of
thermodynamics
 isothermale (A constant temperature)
p p
= constant, = constant (1.6)
γ 𝜌

 Isentropic (whereas frictionless process in which no heat exchange)

p p
= constant, = constant (1.7)
γk ρk

cp
k= (adiabatic exponent)
cv

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

cp: specific heat at constant pressure. 12
cv: specific heat at constant volume.

d d
E = dγP = dρP (1.8)
ൗγ ൗρ

p = c. γ , dP = c. dγ

c.dγ
E = dγ = c.𝛾 = 𝑃
ൗγ

E=p isothermal
E=kP isentropic

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

-Sonic velocity
13
Sonic velocity or a coustic velocity because sound, a small pressure
disturbance, travels at this velocity.

dP E
a= = for liquids (1.9)
dρ ρ

- For gases
kP
a= (1.10)
ρ

P
𝜌=
RT

ρkRT
a= = k RT (1.11)
ρ
Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
1-4 Viscosity
14
Is a property o fluid which determine its resistance to shearing stresses.

 An ideal fluid has no viscosity.

 The fluids with very little viscosity sometimes considered ideal.

 Viscosity results fundamentally from cohesion and molecular momentum

exchange between fluid layers and, as flow occurs, these effects appear as
tangential or shearing stresses between the moving layers.

 When temperature increase the viscosity decrease in liquid while in gases

the viscosity and shear stress increase with temperature increase.
Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
 When various real fluid motions are observed carefully two fundamentally 15
different types of motion are seen
1. laminar flow: is smooth in which fluid elements or particles appear to
slip over each other in layer or laminae.
2. turbulent flow: eddies of a wide range of size are seen.

The laminar motion of a real fluid along a solid boundary is sketched in

Fig.1.4, which the velocity profile indicates relative motion between any two
adjacent layers:
-Two such layers are shown having thickness 𝑑𝑦 .
-the lower layer moving with velocity V, the upper with velocity 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉 .
Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
 17
-two particles 1 and 2, starting on the same vertical line, move different
distances 𝑑1 = 𝑉 𝑑𝑡 and 𝑑2 = 𝑉 + 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑡 in an infinitesimal time 𝑑𝑡 .

𝑑2 −𝑑1 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑉
-The relative displacement or strain here is = = 𝑑𝑡 .
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦

However, a fluid flows under the slightest stress, and the result of the
continual application of a constant stress is an infinite strain. In fact, in

fluid flow problems, the stress is related to the rate of strain equal to 𝑑𝑉ൗ𝑑𝑦

here rather than to total strain.

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

The frictional or shearing force 18
that must exist between fluid
layers can be expressed as a
shearing or frictional stress per
unit of contact area and is
designated by 𝜏.

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

For laminar motion (in which viscosity plays a predominant role), 𝜏
18
𝑑𝑉
observed to be proportional to the rate of relative strain ൗ𝑑𝑦, with a

constant of proportionality, 𝜇, defined as the coefficient of viscosity, that

𝑑𝑉
𝜏= 𝜇 (1.12)
𝑑𝑦

N mΤ N.sec. kg.m kg N.sec.

sec
=μ →μ= , but N = → μ= =
m2 m m2 sec2 m.sec m2

τ : shear stress (pa)

kg N.sec.
μ: dynamic viscosity ( = = pa. sec)
m.sec m2

μ m2
𝓥 ∶ kenmatic viscosity = ( ) (1.13)
ρ sec
Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
 Any shear stress, however small, causes flow since it cause
dV
.
19
dy

dV
 =0,τ=0.
dy

 The velocity profile cannot be tangent to a solid boundary because 𝑑𝑦 =

0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑉 = ∞.

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

Equation 1.12 visualized on the plot of Fig. 1.5 on which:
20
- 𝜇 is the slope of a straight line passing through the origin.
𝑑𝑉
- ൗ𝑑𝑦 is the time rate of strain.

- Because of Newton's suggestion, which led to equation 1.12, fluids that follow
this law are commonly known as Newton's fluids.
- Plastics, blood, suspensions, paints, and foods, which flow but whose
resistance is not characterized by equation 1.12.
- for two typical plastics, the essential mechanical differences between fluid
and plastic is seen to the shear,𝜏1 , which must be overcome before flow
can begin.
Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
- Another pair of examples shown in Fig.1.5 are non-Newtonian, shear- 21
affected fluids that include some suspensions and polymer solutions. The
shear versus strain-rate equations corresponding to equation 1.12 are then,

𝑑𝑉
𝜏 − 𝜏1 = 𝜇 𝜏 > 𝜏1 : Bingham plastic (oil paint, toothpaste)
𝑑𝑦

𝑛
𝑑𝑉
𝜏=𝑘 𝑛 > 1 : Shear-thickening fluid (con starch)
𝑑𝑦

n < 1:Shear-thinning fluid (honey, shampoo)

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

 20

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

 1-5 Surface tension (𝝈), Capillarity
23
 Surface tension: is the force in the liquid surface normal to a line of unit
N
length drawn in the surface, thus it will have dimensions .
m

 The apparent tension effects that occur on the surface of liquids, when the
surface are in contact with another fluid or a solid, depend on the relative
sizes of intermolecular cohesive and adhesive forces.

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

 Such forces are negligible in many engineering problems, they may 24
be predominate in some, such:

1- the capillary rise of liquids in narrow spaces.

2- the mechanics of bubble formation.

3-the breakup of liquid jets.

4-The formation of liquid drop.

5- the interpretation of results obtained on small models of large prototypes.

 The surface tension is directly dependent on intermolecular cohesive

forces, its magnitude will decrease as temperature increase.
Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
Consider now (Fig. 1.8) the general case of a small element 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 of a
25
surface of double curvature radii 𝑅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅2 . The pressure difference
𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝0 must accompany the surface tension for static equilibrium of the
element. A relation between the pressure difference and the surface tension
may be derived from this equilibrium by taking σ 𝐹 = 0 for the force
components normal to the element:
𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝜎𝑑𝑦 sin 𝛼 + 2𝜎𝑑𝑥 sin 𝛽
In which 𝛼 and 𝛽 are small angles. From the geometry of the element,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
sin 𝛼 = ൗ2𝑅1 and sin 𝛽 = ൗ2𝑅2 ,
1 1
𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝0 = 𝜎 + (1.15)
𝑅1 𝑅2
Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
 26

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

-Capillary tube
27
For the rise of liquids in capillary spaces, for a spherical
droplet, 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 : for a cylindrical jet, one R is infinite
and the other is the radius of the jet. For the cylindrical
capillary tube on Fig. 1.9 (assuming the liquid surface to
be a section of a sphere) 𝑝0 = −𝛾ℎ, 𝑝𝑖 = 0
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑖 − 𝑝0 = 𝛾ℎ; also 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅 and 𝑟Τ𝑅 = cos 𝜃.
Substituting these in equation 1.15 yields
2σ cos θ
h= (1.16)
γr

Above equation give good experimental results for tube radius <2.5 mm
Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
The angle 𝜃 is known as the angle of contact, and it results from surface
28
tension phenomena. Fig. 1.10 describes the situation when mercury and
water surface contact a vertical glass surface. The mercury molecules
posses a greater affinity for each other (cohesion) than for the glass
(adhesion), whereas the opposite condition obtains for the water and glass.

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

1-6 Vapor pressure 29
 All liquids posses a tendency to vaporize, that is, to change from the
liquid to the gaseous phase.

 Because of increase of molecular activity with temperature, vapor

pressure increase with temperature.

 Boiling point (formation of vapor bubbles through the fluid mass) will
occur (whatever the temperature) when the external absolute pressure
imposed on the liquid is equal or less than the vapor pressure of liquid.

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

 30
 The boiling point of a liquid is dependent on the imposed pressure as well
as on the temperature.
 The law vapor pressure of mercury along with high density makes this
liquid well suited for use in barometers and other pressure measuring
devices.
 Water boils at 100°𝐶 when exposed to an atmospheric pressure 101.3 kPa,
absolute, but will boil at 60 °𝐶 when atmospheric pressure 19.92 kPa,
absolute. See appendix 2

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

 31

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

 32

Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha

Example: a vertical cylinder 300 mm in diameter is fitted (at the top) with a 33
tight but frictionless piston and is completely filled with water at 70℃. The
outside of the piston is exposed to an atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa.
Calculate the minimum force applied to the piston that will cause the water to
boil.
Given data
𝑑0 = 300 𝑚𝑚 = 0.3𝑚, 𝑝𝑎 = 100 𝑘𝑃𝑎 , T=70℃
Solution: as noted above, when the piston is slowly withdrawn, the water
will boil. The pressure on the piston will then be 9Appendix 2, for 70℃)31.2
0.32
kPa and the force on the piston (100-31.2)*𝜋 = 4.86 𝐾𝑁 Assist. L. Rusul I. Abdulridha
4