Session 2: Numeral Systems and

Data Storage
 Content
 Bits and their Storage
 Bits, Gates, Flip-Flop
 Main Memory
 Representing Information as Bit Patterns
 Text, number, images, sound
 Binary System
 Storing Integers
 Storing Fractions
 Mass Storage
 Question

 How computers store data?

 Number, text, image, sound, video

 How computers can mapping data to the

real world?
 Bits and their storage

 Bits
 Gates
 Flip-flop
 Bits

 Binary uses two digits: 0 and 1.

 bit (Binary Digit): smallest unit storing
information.
 Can be stored in memory (cell) or register.
 Register 1 byte (8 bit) or 1 word (16 bit),
etc.

5
 Bits

 Why using 2 digits 0 and 1 to encode

data?

 Electronic implementation
0 1 0

1.1V
0.9V

0.2V
0.0V

Nguồn: Computer System – A Programmer’s Perspective, 3e

 Bits

 Easily to encode:
 Numeric value : 1 & 0
 Boolean value : true & false
 Voltage : high & low
 Punched card : punched & not punched

 Data → encode using binary system to

store in computers
 Bits – Boolean Operations
 An operation that manipulates one or more
true/false values
 Bit 0 ~ False
 Bit 1 ~ True

 Specific operations : AND, OR, XOR, NOT

 Why Boolean operations?

 Computers are built by small components
 These components can process Boolean
operations quite fast

8
Bits – Boolean Operations

Source: Computer Science - An Overview, 12e

9
 Gates
 A device that computes a Boolean operation
 Often implemented as (small) electronic circuits:
 Including: resistor (điện trở), transistor (bòng bán
dẫn), Capacitor (tụ điện), diot (điốt), …
 0 & 1 ~ voltage

Nguồn: Wikipedia

10
A pictorial representation of
gates

Nguồn: Computer Science - An Overview, 12e

11
Example – Simple circuit

Source Chun-Jen Tsai, ics12, National Chiao Tung University

12
 Quiz

 What are the names of these gates?

 Quiz

 What input bit patterns will cause the

following circuit to produce output of 1?
 Flip-Flop
 A circuit built from gates that can store one
bit
 A circuit producing output (or “preserved”) 0
or 1, but remain constant until the pulse from
another circuit makes it change to another
value
 One input line is used to set
its stored value to 1 (output is 1)
 One input line is used to set
its stored value to 0 (output is 0)
 While both input lines are 0, the
most recently stored value is preserved
source: Computer Science - An Overview, 12e

15
A simple flip-flop circuit
 Flip-Flop

 Setting the output of a flip-flop to 1

Source: Computer Science - An Overview, 12e

17
 Flip-Flop

 Setting the output of a flip-flop to 0

Nguồn: Computer Science - An Overview, 12e

18
 Quiz - Flip-Flop?
• If upper input is 1 and lower input is 0,
what is the output?

Source: Computer Science - An Overview, 12e

19
Quiz- Flip-Flop?

Source：wikipedia

20
Flip-flop - Activity
 Hexadecimal Notation

 Hexadecimal notation: A shorthand

notation for long bit patterns
 Divides a pattern into groups of four bits each
 Represents each group by a single symbol

 Example: 10100011 becomes A3

The hexadecimal coding system
Bit pattern Hexadecimal
representation
0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 A
1011 B
1100 C
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F
 Quiz

 What bit patterns are represented by the

following hexadecimal patterns?
 5FD97
 610A
 ABCD
 0100
MAIN MEMORY
 Introduction

 We know
 How machines encode information into chain
of bits
 Basic storage devices

 So
 To store data, machines need to have a
million of circuits (a circuit stores 1 bit)
→ Place containing these bits is called Main
Memory

26
 Introduction
 In additional to Flip-flops, machines have
other storage devices (called external
memory)
 Magnetic, optical, flash deices

 Storage devices
 Volatile memory (bộ nhớ khả biến)
 Requires power to maintain the stored information
 Non-volatile memory (bộ nhớ bất khả biến)
 Can retrieve stored information even after having
been power cycled

27
 Main memory cells
 Cell: A unit of main memory (typically 8 bits
which is one byte)
 Most significant bit: the bit at the left (high-order) end
of the conceptual row of bits in a memory cell
 Least significant bit: the bit at the right (low-order)
end of the conceptual row of bits in a memory cell
 Organization of a byte-size memory cell
 Size 8 bits (1 byte)
 Sequence of bits

28
 Main memory address

 Address: A “name” that uniquely identifies

one cell in the computer’s main memory
 “Names” are actually
numbers

 These numbers are

assigned consecutively
starting at zero

 Numbering the cells in this

manner associates an order
to the memory cells
Source: Computer Science - An Overview, 12e

29
 Terminology

 Random Access Memory (RAM)

 Memory in which individual cells can be
easily accessed in any order

 Dynamic Memory (DRAM)

 RAM composed of volatile memory

30
 Measuring memory capacity

0
1 bit 2

1 0
2 bit 22

2 1 0
3 bit 23

n-1 5 4 3 2 1 0
n bit … 2n

0…000 → 1…111 = 2n – 1 31
 Measuring memory capacity

Capacity Value
Byte B 8 bit
KiloByte KB 210 B = 1024 Byte
MegaByte MB 210 KB = 220 Byte
GigaByte GB 210 MB = 230 Byte
TeraByte TB 210 GB = 240 Byte
Peta PB 210 TB = 250 Byte
Exabyte EB 210 PB= 260 Byte
32
REPRESENTING INFORMATION
AS BIT PATTERNS
 Representing Text

 Each character (letter, punctuation, etc.)

is assigned a unique bit pattern
 ASCII: Uses patterns of 7-bits to represent
most symbols used in written English text
 ISO developed a number of 8 bit extensions
to ASCII, each designed to accommodate a
major language group
 Unicode: Uses patterns of 16-bits to
represent the major symbols used in
languages world wide (UTF-8, UTF-16,…)
The message “Hello.” in ASCII
 Storage - Represent

 Storage and processing: bit

 Display/represent: character
 Need to have a map table between the
two, do the mapping between numerical
values and character values.

 ASCII and Unicode.

36
 ASCII
 American Standard Code for Information
Interchange.

 First edition was published in 1963.

 Based on the English alphabet (‘a’– ‘z’, ‘A’ – ‘Z’).

 ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into

seven-bit integers (digits 0 to 9, lowercase letters
a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, and punctuation
symbols).
37
 ASCII – Characters
 Printing characters
 ‘ ’ (blank): 32 (0x20)
 ‘0’ -> ‘9’: 48 (0x30) -> 57 (0x39)
 ‘A’ -> ‘Z’: 65 (0x41) -> 90 (0x5A)
 ‘a’ -> ‘z’: 97 (0x61) -> 122 (0x7A)

 Non-printing/control characters
 null: 0
 ‘ ’ (tab): 9
 enter/ line feed: 10
 carriage return: 13

38
 ASCII

 ASCII extent: 256 characters.

 128 as the first edition.
 128 extent to characters including: Greece
(‘α’, ‘β’, ‘π’, …), currency (‘£’, ‘¥’, …), …

 ASCII cannot represent characters in

other languages such as Vietnamese,
Russian, Japanese, Arabic, etc.

39
 Unicode

 Unicode is a computing industry standard

for the consistent encoding,
representation, and handling of text
expressed in most of the world's writing
systems.
 Containing 1.114.112 code points, divived
into 17 regions, each has 65535 (216)
code points.

40
 Unicode

 There are different in using the Unicode,

depending on the storage size of code
point

 UTF – 8: storage size from 1 -> 4 Bytes.

 UTF – 16: storage size 2 Bytes.
 UTF – 32: storage size 4 Bytes.

41
 Unicode and Vietnamese

 Unicode contains Vietnamese code points

is at:

 http://vietunicode.sourceforge.net/charset/
v3.htm

42
 Unicode - Font

 Each Unicode set has different ways to be represented.

 Unicode is implemented as a digital data file containing

a set of graphically related glyphs, characters, or
symbols.

 Fonts support Unicode (with Vietnamese) :

 Times New Roman,
 Arial,
 Tahoma,
 …

43
 Representing Numeric Values

 Binary notation: uses bits to represent a

number in base two
 Limitations of computer representations of
numeric values
 Overflow: occurs when a value is too big to
be represented
 Underflow: occurs when a value is too small
to be represented
 Truncation: occurs when a value cannot be
represented accurately
 Representing Images

 Bit map techniques

 Pixel: short for “picture element”
 Encoding
 RGB
 Luminance (cường độ sáng) and chrominance (độ
đậm/nhạt của màu)
 Vector: can zoom in/out → not affected to
the quality
 Scalable
 TrueType and PostScript
 Representing Sound
 Sampling techniques: get the amplitude of the sound
wave at regular intervals and store the series of values
 Used for high quality recordings
 Records actual audio
 Sampling rate (Hertz – Hz)
 Telephone: 8,000 samples/second – 8 KHz
 Music: 44,100 samples/second – 44,1 KHz
 High definition: 16 bits/sample
 Stereo: 32 bits/sample
 Quiz

 Suppose a stereo recording of one hour

of music is encoded using a sample rate
of 44,100 samples per second as
discussed.
 What is the size of the encoded version?
BINARY SYSTEM
 Binary system

 The traditional decimal system is based

on powers of ten.
 The Binary system is based on powers of
two
 The base 10 and the binary system
Decoding the binary representing
100101
Base 10 to binary
 Binary additional facts

 Additional table
+ 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 10
Decoding the binary representation
(Binary to base 10)

1010.112 = 1*23+0*22+1*21+0*20+1*2-1+1*2-2
1010.112 = 8+0+2+0+0.5+0.25 = 10.7510
 Quiz

 Convert each of the following base 10

representations to its equivalent binary
form:
 32
 15
 27
 53
 Quiz

 Convert each of the following binary

representations to its equivalent base 10
form:
 11.01
 101.111
 10.1
 110.011
 0.101
 Quiz

 Express the following values in binary

notation:
 Quiz

 Binary to base 10
 21.12510
STORING INTEGERS
 Unsigned Integers

 Representations of quantities are always

positive
 Ex: height, weight, ASCII code, etc.
 All bits are used for value
 Max value of 1 unsigned byte:
 1111 11112 = 28 – 1 = 25510
 Max value of 1 unsigned word (2 bytes):
 1111 1111 1111 11112 = 216 – 1 = 6553510
 Signed Integers

 Storing/representing of negative and

positive integers
 The leftmost bit is used to represent the
sign
 Ex:
 0 positive: 0101 0011
 1 negative: 1101 0011
 Negative integers stored in machine as
two’s complement or excess notation
 Two’s complement notation
systems
 Leftmost bit: sign bit

 One’s complement :
 Changing all the 0s to 1s, all the 1s to 0s.
 Ex: 0110 and 1001 are complements

 Two’s complement: add 1 to the one’s

complement
 Ex: 1001 + 0001 = 1010
 One’s and two’s complements

5 (1 byte) 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
One’s complement of 5 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

+ 1

Two’s complement of 5 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
+ 5 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

Result 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 Coding the value -6 in two’s
complement notation using 4 bits
Two’s complement notation
systems
Addition problems converted to
two’s complement notation
 Quiz

 Convert each of the following two’s

complement representations to its
equivalence base 10 form:
 00011
 01111
 11100
 11010
 00000
 10000
 Quiz

 Convert to two’s complement form using

patterns of 8 bits:
6
 -6
 -17
 13
 -1
0
 Quiz

 What are the largest and smallest

numbers that can be stored if the machine
uses bit patterns of the following lengths?
 A. four
 B. six
 C. eight
 Min and max of signed integers

N bits minimum maximum

8 -27 = -128 27 - 1 = +127
16 -215 = -32,768 215 - 1 = +32,767
32 -231 = -2,147,483,648 231 - 1 = +2,147,483,647

64 -263 = - 263-1 =
9,223,372,036,854,775,808 +9,223,372,036,854,775,807
 Min and max of unsigned integers

n Minimum Maximum
8 0 28 - 1 = 255
16 0 216 - 1 = 65,535
32 0 232 -1 = 4,294,967,295
64 0 264 - 1 = 18,446,744,073,709,551,615
 Excess (K-bias)
 Choose K (a positive integer) to allows
operations on the biased numbers to be the
same as for unsigned integers, but represents
both positive and negative values
 The remaining n bits represents the biased
value (n is the length of bit pattern)
 Excess representations are now primarily used
for the exponent of floating-point numbers
 Excess (K-bias)
Ex: Suppose that n =8, K=128, how to represent a
number in binary
Positive number: N = 25 (decimal)
N+K = 25 + 128 = 153
The bit binary pattern is  10011001
Negative number: N = -25 (decimal)
N+K = -25 + 128 = 103
The bit binary pattern is  01100111
 Excess

Two’s complement Excess

 Excess
Two’s complement Excess
STORING FRACTIONS
 Fractions

 Floating-points:
 Consisting of a sign bit, a mantissa field, and
an exponent field.
 Radix point: used to separate integer part
and the fraction part of a number
 Mantissa: also fraction/significant
 Example 1

 01101011
 Signed bit: 0
 Exponent: 110
 Mantissa: 1011

 .1011
 110 = 2 (excess with 3-bit)
 10.11 = 2 ¾
 Example 2

 00111100
 Signed bit: 0
 Exponent: 011
 Mantissa: 1100

 .1100
 011 = -1 (excess with 3-bit)
 .01100 = 3/8
 Example 3

 Encode 1⅛
 Convert to binary 1.001
 Mantissa: _ _ _ _ 1 0 0 1
 From left to right, start with leftmost bit 1
 Radix point: from .1001 to 1.001
 → Exponent: +1 = 101 (excess 3-bit)
 Signed bit: 0

 1 ⅛ = 01011001
 Encoding the value 2 5⁄8
→ Truncation error

0 110 1010

21/2

21/2 + 1/8 + 1/8 = ?

 Floating points
 Single precision floating point (32 bits)
 1 bit (sign) + 8 bits (exponent) + 23 bits (mantissa)
 Value: from 10-37 to 1038
 Precision: 7 decimal fraction

 Double precision floating point (64 bits)

 15 decimal fraction
 Fractions

 Single-precision : 32 bits
s exp frac
1 8-bits 23-bits

 Double-precision : 64 bits
s exp frac
1 11-bits 52-bits

 Extend-precision : 80 bits (Intel only)

s exp frac
1 15-bits 63 or 64-bits
 IEEE-754 32-bit Single-Precision
Floating-Point Numbers
 IEEE-754:
N = (-1)^S x 1.F x 2^(E-127)

 S: Sign bit
 F: Fraction part
 E: Exponent part
 127 = 2 8-1 (excess 8-bit)
 Example 1

 0 10000000 110 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000

Sign bit S = 0 ⇒ positive number

E = 1000 0000B = 128D
Fraction is 1.11B (with an implicit
leading 1) = 1 + 1×2^-1 + 1×2^-2 = 1.75D

The number is +1.75 × 2^(128-127) = +3.5D

 Example 2
 1 01111110 100 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000

Sign bit S = 1 ⇒ negative number

E = 0111 1110B = 126D
Fraction is 1.1B (with an implicit leading 1) =
1 + 2^-1 = 1.5D

The number is -1.5 × 2^(126-127)=-0.75D

 IEEE-754 64-bit Double-Precision
Floating-Point Numbers
 Exponent: excess – 1023
 Fraction: implicit leading bit (before radix
point).
 N = (-1)^S x 1.F x 2^(E-1023)
 Min and Max of Floating-Point
Numbers

Precision Min Max

Single 1.1754 x 10-38 3.40282 x 1038
Double 2.2250 x 10-308 1.7976 x 10308
COMMUNICATION ERRORS
 Communication error
 Happening when:
 Data transferred between components in computer
 Storing data
 Bits received are not the same with originals
 Reasons:
 Dirt on disc surface
 Broken circuit makes reading / writing inaccurate
 Data transmission line broken
 Radiation changes the sequence of bits on main
memory
 Techniques

 Parity bits (even vs odd)

 Checkbytes
 Error correcting codes
 Parity bits

 Error detection is based on: odd-number

of bits 1 and even-number of bits 1 is
found → there must be an error.
 Checkbyte

 Set of parity bits

 Each parity bit is scattered in the bit
patterns
 For example, a parity bit is associated with
every eighth bit in the bit patterns

 Checksum
 Error-correcting code

 Hamming distance (of two bit patterns):

 Number of bits in which the patterns differ.

 Example:
 Hamming(000000, 001111) = 4
 Hamming(10101100, 01100100) = 3
Error-correcting code
 Error-correcting code

D is the answer because it has smallest distance

 Quiz

 The following bytes were originally

encoded using odd parity. In which of
them do you know that an error has
occurred?
 Quiz

 Using the error-correcting code presented

before, decode the following messages:
 Quiz

 Construct a code for the characters A, B,

C, D using bit patterns of length five so
that the Hamming distance between any
two patterns is at least three.
MASS STORAGE
 Mass Storage

 On-line versus off-line

 Typically larger than main memory
 Typically less volatile than main memory
 Typically slower than main memory
 Typically lower cost than main memory
 Mass Storage Systems

 Magnetic Systems
 Disk
 Tape
 Optical Systems
 CD
 DVD
 Flash Technology
 Flash Drives
 Secure Digital (SD) Memory Card
Magnetic disk storage system
 Magnetic disk storage system

 Seek time
 Time needed to position the read/write head
over the correct track
 Latency
 Time for the beginning of the desired sector
to rotate under the read/write head
 Transfer time
 Time for the entire sector to pass under the
read/write head and have its contents read
into or written from memory
 Magnetic disk storage system
 Given:
 Rotation speed = 7,200 rev/min=120 rev/sec = 8.33 msec/rev
 Arm movement time = 0.02 msec to move to an adjacent track
 On average, the read/write head must move about 300 tracks
 Number of tracks/surface = 1,000
 Number of sectors/track = 64
 Number of bytes/sector = 1,024
 Seek time
 Best case = 0 msec;
 Worst case = 999*0.02=19.98 msec
 Average case = 300*0.02 = 6 msec
 Magnetic disk storage system
 Given:
 Rotation speed = 7,200 rev/min=120 rev/sec = 8.33 msec/rev
 Arm movement time = 0.02 msec to move to an adjacent track
 On average, the read/write head must move about 300 tracks
 Number of tracks/surface = 1,000
 Number of sectors/track = 64
 Number of bytes/sector = 1,024
 Latency
 Best case = 0 msec;
 Worst case = 8.33 msec
 Average case = 4.17 msec
 Magnetic disk storage system
 Given:
 Rotation speed = 7,200 rev/min=120 rev/sec = 8.33 msec/rev
 Arm movement time = 0.02 msec to move to an adjacent track
 On average, the read/write head must move about 300 tracks
 Number of tracks/surface = 1,000
 Number of sectors/track = 64
 Number of bytes/sector = 1,024
 Transfer time
 1/64 * 8.33 msec = 4.17 msec
Magnetic tape storage