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 Creating stored procedures and triggers, which is effectively server-side coding to imple-
ment business rules.
 Optimizing the database for performance.
Supporting search engines is another specific issue of site migration which is significant
where companies migrate their content to a new domain name or they are using a different
Deployment plan CMS or commerce server which uses different document names. There is a risk that the
A schedule which defines
all the tasks that need to
search engine will lose the history of previous ranking based on backlinks to the site and its
occur in order for pages. To manage this a mapping can be provided to redirect from the old to the new pages
changeover to occur known as a ‘301 redirect’ on Apache servers.
successfully. This
includes putting in place
all the infrastructure such
as cabling and hardware. Deployment planning
Systems integrator
A deployment plan is needed to put in place the hardware and software infrastructure in
A company that
organizes the time for user acceptance testing. This is not a trivial task since often a range of equipment
procurement and will be required from a variety of manufacturers. Although the project manager is ultimately
installation of hardware
and software needed for responsible for deployment planning, many companies employ systems integrators to
implementation. coordinate these activities, particularly where there is a national rollout.

Content management and maintenance

Sell-side e-commerce sites are continuously under development, even when they become
live. The sites need to be dynamic to deal with errors reported by customers and in response
to innovations by competitors. Additionally the content, such as information about different
events or new product launches and price promotions, will need to be updated if the site is
to generate repeat visits from customers.
Buy-side e-commerce sites are less dynamic and are more akin to traditional business infor-
mation systems, so in this section we will focus on maintenance of e-commerce sites, although
this description will also apply to e-business implementations of intranets and extranets.
What are the management issues involved with maintenance? We will review the following:
 Deciding on the frequency and scope of content updating
 Processes for managing maintenance of the site and responsibilities for updating
 Selection of content management system
 Testing and communicating changes made
 Integration with monitoring and measurement systems
 Managing content in the global organization.

Frequency and scope of content updating

The moment an e-commerce system is live it will require updates to the content and ser-
vices. Different types of content updating can be identified, and a different approach will be
required for each. We can apply the fault taxonomy of Jorgensen (1995) to an e-commerce
site to decide on the timing of the action required according to the type of problem. We can
see that the approach is quite different from that for a traditional information system or
packaged software that is distributed to thousands of customers. For example, with a mild
problem such as a spelling mistake within software, it would be too costly to update and
redistribute the software. With the e-commerce site, a spelling mistake, although trivial, can
be updated immediately by correcting it on the web page or in the database or content man-
agement system where it is stored. Indeed, minor problems need to be corrected because
they reduce the credibility of the site.
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For more major errors, it is essential to fix the problems as soon as possible since revenue
will be lost, both from customers who are unable to complete their current purchases and
from users who will be unprepared to use the site in future because of their bad experience.
Data from transactional e-commerce sites show that very few have continuous availability.
Problems can occur from bugs in the e-commerce software or problems with the web-server
hardware and software. Some are as bad as 90 per cent. If the site revenue for a 24-hours, 7-
days-a-week site is £10 million per week then if availability falls to 95 per cent this is the
equivalent of losing £500,000 before the loss of future revenues from disgruntled customers
is taken into account. A modular or component-based approach to e-commerce systems
should enable the location of the problem module or cartridge to be identified rapidly and
the problem in the module to be fixed, or possibly to revert to the previous version.

Table 12.3 Fault taxonomy described in Jorgensen (1995) applied to an e-commerce site

Category Example Action – traditional BIS Action – e-commerce site

or packaged software

1 Mild Misspelt word Ignore or fix when next major Fix immediately
release occurs
2 Moderate Misleading or redundant Ignore or defer to next major Fix immediately
information. Problem with font release
readability
3 Annoying Truncated text, failed Defer to next major release Fix immediately
JavaScript, but site still usable
4 Disturbing Some transactions not Defer to next maintenance Urgent patch required for module
processed correctly, intermittent release
crashes in one module
5 Serious Lost transactions Defer to next maintenance Urgent patch required for module
release. May need immediate
fix and release
6 Very serious Crash occurs regularly in one Immediate solution needed Urgent patch required for module,
module revert to previous version
7 Extreme Frequent very serious errors Immediate solution needed Urgent patch required for
module, revert to previous
version
8 Intolerable Database corruption Immediate solution needed Urgent patch required for
module, revert to previous
version
9 Catastrophic System crashes, cannot be Immediate solution needed Urgent patch required for module,
restarted – system unusable revert to previous version
10 Infectious Catastrophic problem also Immediate solution needed Revert to previous version
causes failure of other systems

Source: Copyright © 1995 from Software Testing: A Craftsman’s Approach by Paul C. Jorgensen. Reproduced by permission of
Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

As well as fixing the problems shown in Table 12.3 companies will also wish to update the
functionality of the e-commerce system in response to customer demands, sales promotions
or competitor innovations. Again, a component-based approach can enable self-contained,
discrete, new modules or cartridges to be plugged into the system which are designed to pro-
vide new functionality with only minimal changes to existing modules. For each such update,
a small-scale prototyping process involving analysis, design and testing will need to occur.
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Maintenance process and responsibilities

Debate 12.1
For efficient updating of an e-commerce system, it is vital to have a clearly
Control of web content defined process for content and service changes. Different processes will
‘Web-site content organization and apply depending on the scope of the change, as described in the previous
standards for page design and copy section. We can identify two different types of changes – routine content
must be centrally controlled to achieve
consistency across any organization,
changes such as updates to documents on the site or new documents and
regardless of size.’ major changes where we make changes to the structure, navigation or
services on the site.

Process for routine content changes

The process for routine content changes should be communicated to all staff providing con-
tent to the site, with responsibilities clearly identified in their job descriptions. The main
stages involved in producing an updated web page are to design it, write it, test it and pub-
lish it. A more detailed process is indicated here which distinguishes between review of the
content and technical testing of the completed web page.
According to Chaffey et al. (2009), the different tasks involved in the maintenance process
for new copy are as follows:
1 Write. This stage involves writing copy and, if necessary, designing the layout of copy and
associated images.
2 Review. An independent review of the copy is necessary to check for errors before a docu-
ment is published. Depending on the size of organization, review may be necessary by one
person or several people covering different aspects of site quality such as corporate image,
marketing copy, branding and legality.
3 Correct. This stage is straightforward and involves updates necessary as a result of stage 2.
4 Publish (to test environment). The publication stage involves putting the corrected copy on
a web page which can be checked further. This will be in a test environment that can only
be viewed from inside the company.
5 Test. Before the completed web page is made available over the World Wide Web a final test
will be required for technical issues such as whether the page loads successfully on
different browsers.
6 Publish (to live environment). Once the material has been reviewed and tested and is signed
off as satisfactory it will be published to the main web site and will be accessible by customers.
The difficulty is that all these stages are required for quality control, but if different people are
involved, then rapid, responsive publication is not possible. Activity 12.4 illustrates a typical
problem of content maintenance, involving the six stages described above and assesses
changes that could be made to improve the situation.

Activity 12.4 Optimizing the content review process at a B2C company

Purpose
Assess how quality control and efficiency can be balanced for revisions to web content.

Activity
The extract below and Figure 12.3 illustrate a problem of updating encountered by a
B2C company. How can they solve this problem?
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700 Part 3 Implementation

Brand manager Web manager Marketing manager

writes copy (1) reviews copy (2) reviews copy (2)

Legal dept Copy implemented Brand manager

reviews copy (2) on test site (3,4) reviews test site (5)

Web manager Copy updated New copy

reviews test site (5) on test site (6) live (6)

Figure 12.3 A content update review process

Problem description
From when the brand manager identifies a need to update copy for their product, the
update might happen as follows: brand manager writes copy ( –21 day), one day later the
web manager reviews copy, three days later the marketing manager checks the copy,
seven days later the legal department checks the copy, two days later the revised copy
is implemented on the test site, two days later the brand manager reviews the test site,
the next day the web manager reviews the web site followed by updating and final
review before the copy is added to the live site two days later and over a fortnight from
when a relatively minor change to the site was identified!
Answers to activities can be found at www.pearsoned.co.uk/chaffey

Frequency of content updates

Since the web is perceived as a dynamic medium, customers expect new information to be
posted to a site straightaway. If material is inaccurate or ‘stale’ then the customer may not
return to the site.
As information on a web page becomes outdated and will need to be updated, it is impor-
tant to have a mechanism defining what triggers this update process. Trigger procedures
should be developed such that when price changes, PR release or product specifications are
updated in promotional leaflets or catalogues, these changes are also reflected on the web
site. Without procedures of this type, it is easy for there to be mismatches between online
and offline content.
As part of defining a web-site update process and standards, a company may want to
issue guidelines which suggest how often content is updated. This may specify that content is
updated as follows:
 within two days of a factual error being identified;
 a new ‘news’ item is added at least once a month;
 when product information has been static for two months.
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Web committee
chaired by
Marketing

Content
publisher Gatekeeper Webmaster User reps? Architect
for each brand

(a)
Function Role

Information
User Business role
access

Information Content
Business role
creation publisher

Information Gatekeeper Business / technical role

quality

Maintenance / Webmaster /
Technical role
service quality maintainer

Analysis / design Intranet architect Technical role

(b)

Figure 12.4 Typical structures of an e-commerce site steering group

Process for major changes

For major changes to a web site, such as changing the menu structure, adding a new section
of content or changing the services for users, a different process is required. Such changes
will involve a larger investment and there will be limited funds for investment, so priorities
for these major changes must be agreed. To achieve this the approach that is usually used is
to set up a steering committee to ratify proposed changes. Such a decision usually needs an
independent chair such as the e-commerce manager or marketing manager to make the final
decision. The typical structure of such a committee is shown in Figure 12.4(a). It is made up
of both technical and business staff and is useful for encouraging integration between these
roles. Typical roles of some members of the committee who may also be involved in update
of the site are shown in Figure 12.4(b). Figure 12.4(a), which could apply to Internet,
extranet or intranet content, shows how a pyramid arrangement is used to ensure content
quality on the site.
The committee will typically have a range of responsibilities such as:
 Defining agreed update process and responsibilities for different types of changes
 Specifying site standards for structure, navigation and look and feel (Table 12.4)
 Specifying the tools that are used to update and manage content
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 Assessing proposals for major changes to site standards, content and services
 Reviewing quality of service in terms of customer service and security
 Specifying online promotion methods for the site (e.g. search engine registration) and
evaluating the business contribution delivered via the site
 Managing the budget for the site.

Table 12.4 Web-site standards

Standard Details Applies to

Site structure Will specify the main areas of the site, e.g. Content developers
products, customer service, press releases,
how to place content and who is responsible
for each area.
Navigation May specify, for instance, that the main Web site designer/webmaster usually achieves
menu must always be on the left of the these through site templates
screen with nested (sub)menus at the foot
of the screen. The home button should be
accessible from every screen at the top-left
corner of the screen.
Copy style General guidelines, for example, reminding Individual content developers
those writing copy that copy for the web
needs to be briefer than its paper equivalent.
Where detail is required, perhaps with
product specifications, it should be broken
up into chunks that are digestible on screen.
Testing standards Check site functions for: Web site designer/webmaster
• different browser types and versions
• plug-ins and invalid links
• speed of download of graphics
• spellchecking each page.
Corporate branding Specifies the appearance of company logos Web site designer/webmaster
and graphic design and the colours and typefaces used to
convey the brand message.
Process The sequence of events for publishing a new All
web page or updating an existing page.
Who is responsible for reviewing and
updating?
Performance Availability and download speed figures. Webmaster and designers

Initiatives to keep content fresh

It is often said that up-to-date content is crucial to site ‘stickiness’, but fresh content will not
happen by accident, so companies have to consider approaches that can be used to control
the quality of documents and in particular to keep them up-to-date and relevant. Generic
approaches that I have seen which can work well are:
 Assign responsibility for particular content types or site sections to individuals.
 Make the quality of web content produced part of employees’ performance appraisal.
 Produce a target schedule for publication of content.
 Identify events which trigger the publication of new content, e.g. a new product launch,
price change or press release.
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 Identify stages and responsibilities in updating – who specifies, who creates, who reviews,
who checks, who publishes.
 Measure the usage of content through web analytics or get feedback from site users.
 Publish a league table of content to highlight when content is out-of-date.
 Audit and publish content to show which is up-to-date.

Managing content for a global site

The issues in developing content management policies that are described above are compli-
cated for a large organization with many lines of business and particularly for a multinational
company. Centralization can give economies of scale and can achieve consistency in the way
brand values are communicated nationally and internationally. However, content will need to
be developed locally for regional audiences and this may require variations from central
guidelines. Some regional autonomy needs to be allowed to enable buy-in from the different
regions. It can be suggested that the following are required at an international level:
1 Technology platform. A common software system (CMS) will reduce costs of purchase,
update and training. Integration with common software for customer relationship manage-
ment (Chapter 9) and evaluation and measurement systems (see later in this chapter) will
also be most efficient.
2 System architecture. A consistent architecture will avoid ‘reinventing the wheel’ in each
country and will enable staff, partners and customers who need to access the CMS in
different countries to be immediately familiar with it. Standards include:
 Common page layout and navigation through templates
 Common directory structures and consistent URL structure
 Programming standard and languages and version control systems.
3 Process/standards. Update procedures for review of content for marketing, data protection
and legal reasons as described in previous sections. Backup and archiving policies will also
be required.

Focus on Measuring and improving performance of e-business systems

We review measuring the effectiveness of e-commerce system in detail since it is a key part
of managing an e-commerce initiative. Often a large investment will have been made in the
site and senior managers will want to ensure that the investment is delivering its objectives.
They will also want to find and rectify problems with the site or exploit approaches that are
working well. We focus on measurement of sell-side e-commerce, since the approach is most
advanced for this sector, but the principles and practice can be readily applied to other types
of e-business system such as intranets and extranets.
Companies that have a successful approach to e-commerce often seem to share a common
characteristic. They attach great importance and devote resources to monitoring the success of
their online marketing and putting in place the processes to continuously improve the per-
formance of their digital channels. This culture of measurement is visible in the UK bank
Alliance and Leicester, which in 2004 reported that they spent over 20% of their £80 million
marketing communications budget on online marketing. Stephen Leonard, head of
e-commerce, described their process as ‘Test, Learn, Refine’ (Revolution, 2004). Graeme Findlay,
senior manager, customer acquisition of e-commerce at A&L, explains further: ‘Our online
approach is integrated with our offline brand and creative strategy, with a focus on direct, straight-
forward presentation of strong, value-led messages. Everything we do online, including creative, is
driven by an extensive and dynamic testing process.’ Seth Romanow, Director of Customer
Knowledge at Hewlett-Packard, speaking at the 2004 E-metrics summit, described their process
as ‘Measure, Report, Analyse, Optimize’. Amazon refers to its approach as ‘The Culture of Met-