Computer hardware

PDP-11 CPU board

Computer hardware includes the physical,

tangible parts or components of a
computer, such as the cabinet, central
processing unit, monitor, keyboard,
computer data storage, graphic card,
sound card, speakers and motherboard.[1]
By contrast, software is instructions that
can be stored and run by hardware.
Hardware is so-termed because it is "hard"
or rigid with respect to changes or
modifications; whereas software is "soft"
because it is easy to update or change.
Intermediate between software and
hardware is "firmware", which is software
that is strongly coupled to the particular
hardware of a computer system and thus
the most difficult to change but also
among the most stable with respect to
consistency of interface. The progression
from levels of "hardness" to "softness" in
computer systems parallels a progression
of layers of abstraction in computing.

Hardware is typically directed by the

software to execute any command or
instruction. A combination of hardware
and software forms a usable computing
system, although other systems exist with
only hardware components.

Von Neumann architecture

Von Neumann architecture scheme

The template for all modern computers is
the Von Neumann architecture, detailed in
a 1945 paper by Hungarian mathematician
John von Neumann. This describes a
design architecture for an electronic digital
computer with subdivisions of a
processing unit consisting of an arithmetic
logic unit and processor registers, a
control unit containing an instruction
register and program counter, a memory to
store both data and instructions, external
mass storage, and input and output
mechanisms.[2] The meaning of the term
has evolved to mean a stored-program
computer in which an instruction fetch and
a data operation cannot occur at the same
time because they share a common bus.
This is referred to as the Von Neumann
bottleneck and often limits the
performance of the system.[3]

Types of computer systems

Personal computer

Basic hardware components of a modern personal

computer, including a monitor, a motherboard, a CPU, a
RAM, two expansion cards, a power supply, an optical
disc drive, a hard disk drive, a keyboard and a mouse
Inside a custom-built computer: power supply at the
bottom has its own cooling fan

The personal computer, also known as the

PC, is one of the most common types of
computer due to its versatility and
relatively low price. Laptops are generally
very similar, although they may use lower-
power or reduced size components, thus
lower performance.

Case
The computer case encloses most of the
components of the system. It provides
mechanical support and protection for
internal elements such as the
motherboard, disk drives, and power
supplies, and controls and directs the flow
of cooling air over internal components.
The case is also part of the system to
control electromagnetic interference
radiated by the computer, and protects
internal parts from electrostatic discharge.
Large tower cases provide extra internal
space for multiple disk drives or other
peripherals and usually stand on the floor,
while desktop cases provide less
expansion room. All-in-one style designs
from Apple, namely the iMac, and similar
types, include a video display built into the
same case. Portable and laptop
computers require cases that provide
impact protection for the unit. A current
development in laptop computers is a
detachable keyboard, which allows the
system to be configured as a touch-screen
tablet. Hobbyists may decorate the cases
with colored lights, paint, or other features,
in an activity called case modding.

Power supply
A power supply unit (PSU) converts
alternating current (AC) electric power to
low-voltage DC power for the internal
components of the computer. Laptops are
capable of running from a built-in battery,
normally for a period of hours.[4]

Motherboard

The motherboard is the main component

of a computer. It is a board with integrated
circuitry that connects the other parts of
the computer including the CPU, the RAM,
the disk drives (CD, DVD, hard disk, or any
others) as well as any peripherals
connected via the ports or the expansion
slots.

Components directly attached to or to part

of the motherboard include:

The CPU (central processing unit), which

performs most of the calculations which
enable a computer to function, and is
sometimes referred to as the brain of
the computer. It is usually cooled by a
heatsink and fan, or water-cooling
system. Most newer CPUs include an
on-die graphics processing unit (GPU).
The clock speed of CPUs governs how
fast it executes instructions, and is
measured in GHz; typical values lie
between 1 GHz and 5 GHz. Many
modern computers have the option to
overclock the CPU which enhances
performance at the expense of greater
thermal output and thus a need for
improved cooling.
The chipset, which includes the north
bridge, mediates communication
between the CPU and the other
components of the system, including
main memory.
Random-access memory (RAM), which
stores the code and data that are being
actively accessed by the CPU. For
example, when a web browser is opened
on the computer it takes up memory;
this is stored in the RAM until the web
browser is closed. RAM usually comes
on DIMMs in the sizes 2GB, 4GB, and
8GB, but can be much larger.
Read-only memory (ROM), which stores
the BIOS that runs when the computer is
powered on or otherwise begins
execution, a process known as
Bootstrapping, or "booting" or "booting
up". The BIOS (Basic Input Output
System) includes boot firmware and
power management firmware. Newer
motherboards use Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface (UEFI) instead of
BIOS.
Buses that connect the CPU to various
internal components and to expand
cards for graphics and sound.
The CMOS battery, which powers the
memory for date and time in the BIOS
chip. This battery is generally a watch
battery.
The video card (also known as the
graphics card), which processes
computer graphics. More powerful
graphics cards are better suited to
handle strenuous tasks, such as playing
intensive video games.
Expansion cards

An expansion card in computing is a

printed circuit board that can be inserted
into an expansion slot of a computer
motherboard or backplane to add
functionality to a computer system via the
expansion bus. Expansions cards can be
used to obtain or expand on features not
offered by the motherboard.

Storage devices

A storage device is any computing

hardware and digital media that is used for
storing, porting and extracting data files
and objects. It can hold and store
information both temporarily and
permanently, and can be internal or
external to a computer, server or any
similar computing device. Data storage is
a core function and fundamental
component of computers.

Fixed media

Data is stored by a computer using a

variety of media. Hard disk drives are
found in virtually all older computers, due
to their high capacity and low cost, but
solid-state drives are faster and more
power efficient, although currently more
expensive than hard drives in terms of
dollar per gigabyte,[5] so are often found in
personal computers built post-2007.[6]
Some systems may use a disk array
controller for greater performance or
reliability.

Removable media

To transfer data between computers, a

USB flash drive or optical disc may be
used. Their usefulness depends on being
readable by other systems; the majority of
machines have an optical disk drive, and
virtually all have at least one USB port.
Input and output peripherals

Input and output devices are typically

housed externally to the main computer
chassis. The following are either standard
or very common to many computer
systems.

Input

Input devices allow the user to enter

information into the system, or control its
operation. Most personal computers have
a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems
typically use a touchpad instead of a
mouse. Other input devices include
webcams, microphones, joysticks, and
image scanners.

Output device

Output devices display information in a

human readable form. Such devices could
include printers, speakers, monitors or a
Braille embosser.

Mainframe computer

A mainframe computer is a much larger

computer that typically fills a room and
may cost many hundreds or thousands of
times as much as a personal computer.
They are designed to perform large
numbers of calculations for governments
and large enterprises.

An IBM System z9 mainframe

Departmental computing

In the 1960s and 1970s, more and more

departments started to use cheaper and
dedicated systems for specific purposes
like process control and laboratory
automation.

Supercomputer

A supercomputer is superficially similar to

a mainframe, but is instead intended for
extremely demanding computational
tasks. As of June 2018, the fastest
supercomputer on the
TOP500supercomputer list is the Summit,
in the United States, with a LINPACK
benchmarkscore of 122.3 PFLOPS,
exceeding the previous record holder,
Sunway TaihuLight, by around 29 PFLOPS.
The term supercomputer does not refer to
a specific technology. Rather it indicates
the fastest computations available at any
given time. In mid 2011, the fastest
supercomputers boasted speeds
exceeding one petaflop, or 1 quadrillion
(10^15 or 1,000 trillion) floating point
operations per second. Supercomputers
are fast but extremely costly, so they are
generally used by large organizations to
execute computationally demanding tasks
involving large data sets. Supercomputers
typically run military and scientific
applications. Although costly, they are also
being used for commercial applications
where huge amounts of data must be
analyzed. For example, large banks
employ supercomputers to calculate the
risks and returns of various investment
strategies, and healthcare organizations
use them to analyze giant databases of
patient data to determine optimal
treatments for various diseases and
problems incurring to the country.

Hardware upgrade
When using computer hardware, an
upgrade means adding new hardware to a
computer that improves its performance,
adds capacity or new features. For
example, a user could perform a hardware
upgrade to replace the hard drive with a
SSD to get a boost in performance or
increase the amount of files that may be
stored. Also, the user could increase the
RAM so the computer may run more
smoothly. The user could add a USB 3.0
expansion card in order to fully use USB
3.0 devices, or could upgrade the GPU for
extra rendering power. Performing such
hardware upgrades may be necessary for
older computers to meet a programs'
system requirements.

Sales
For the third consecutive year, U.S.
business-to-business channel sales (sales
through distributors and commercial
resellers) increased, ending up in 2013 at
nearly 6 percent at $61.7 billion. The
growth was the fastest sales increase
since the end of the recession. Sales
growth accelerated in the second half of
the year peaking in fourth quarter with a
6.9 percent increase over the fourth
quarter of 2012.[7]

Recycling
Because computer parts contain
hazardous materials, there is a growing
movement to recycle old and outdated
parts.[8] Computer hardware contain
dangerous chemicals such as: lead,
mercury, nickel, and cadmium. According
to the EPA these e-wastes have a harmful
effect on the environment unless they are
disposed of properly. Making hardware
requires energy, and recycling parts will
reduce air pollution, water pollution, as
well as greenhouse gas emissions.[9]
Disposing unauthorized computer
equipment is in fact illegal. Legislation
makes it mandatory to recycle computers
through the government approved
facilities. Recycling a computer can be
made easier by taking out certain reusable
parts. For example, the RAM, DVD drive,
the graphics card, hard drive or SSD, and
other similar removable parts can be
reused.

Toxic computer components

The central processing unit contains many
toxic materials. It contains lead and
chromium in the metal plates. Resistors,
semi-conductors, infrared detectors,
stabilizers, cables, and wires contain
cadmium. The circuit boards in a
computer contain mercury, and
chromium.[10] When these types of
materials, and chemicals are disposed
improperly will become hazardous for the
environment.

Environmental effects

According to the United States

Environmental Protection Agency only
around 15% of the e-waste actually is
recycled. When e-waste byproducts leach
into ground water, are burned, or get
mishandled during recycling, it causes
harm. Health problems associated with
such toxins include impaired mental
development, cancer, and damage to the
lungs, liver, and kidneys.[11] That's why
even wires have to be recycled. Different
companies have different techniques to
recycle a wire. The most popular one is the
grinder that separates the copper wires
from the plastic/rubber casing. When the
processes is done there are two different
piles left; one containing the copper
powder, and the other containing
plastic/rubber pieces.[12] Computer
monitors, mice, and keyboards all have a
similar way of being recycled. For
example, first each of the parts are taken
apart then all of the inner parts get
separated and placed into its own bin.[13]

National services

Recycling a computer is made easier by a

few of the national services, such as Dell
and Apple. Both companies will take back
the computer of their make or any other
make. Otherwise a computer can be
donated to Computer Aid International
which is an organization that recycles and
refurbishes old computers for hospitals,
schools, universities, etc.[14]

See also
Computer architecture
Electronic hardware
Glossary of computer hardware terms
History of computing hardware
List of computer hardware
manufacturers
Open-source computing hardware

Sources
1. "Parts of computer" . Microsoft.
Archived from the original on 27 November
2013. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
2. von Neumann, John (1945). "First Draft of
a Report on the EDVAC" (PDF). Archived
(PDF) from the original on 9 August 2013.

3. Markgraf, Joey D. (2007). "The Von

Neumann bottleneck" . Archived from the
original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved
24 August 2011.
4. "How long should a laptop battery last?" .
Computer Hope. Archived from the original
on 21 December 2013. Retrieved
9 December 2013.
5. Domingo, Joel. "SSD vs. HDD: What's the
Difference?" . PCMag. Archived from the
original on 19 March 2017. Retrieved
24 March 2017.
6. Edwards, Benj. "Evolution of the Solid-
State Drive" . PCWorld. Archived from the
original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved
24 March 2017.
7. "US B2B Channel sales reach nearly $62
Billion in 2013, According to The NPD
Group" . NPD Group. 4 February 2014.
Archived from the original on 8 August
2014.
8. "How to recycle your old computer" .
Digital Trends. 18 December 2016.
Archived from the original on 17 April
2017. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
9. Inc, Chris Keenan - Newtech Recycling.
"Newtech Recycling Specializes in
Computer Disposal, Laptop Disposal,
Desktop Disposal Mainframe Disposal and
Server Disposal" .
www.newtechrecycling.com. Archived from
the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved
18 April 2017.
10. "The Toxic Components of Computers
and Monitors" . Archived from the original
on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
11. "What's Going On with Electronic
Waste? – Electronics TakeBack Coalition" .
Archived from the original on 27 April
2017. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
12. "Wire Recycling" . All-Recycling-
Facts.com. Archived from the original on
10 July 2017. Retrieved 5 May 2017.
13. "Computer equipment recycling –
Essential Guide" . ComputerWeekly.
Archived from the original on 21 December
2016. Retrieved 8 May 2017.
14. Schofield, Jack (19 February 2015).
"How can I safely recycle my old PCs?" .
The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077 . Archived
from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved
26 April 2017.

External links
Media related to Computer hardware at
Wikimedia Commons
 Learning materials related to
Computer hardware at Wikiversity

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