Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No.

1 (April 2021)

EFFECTS OF TEST ANXIETY, DISTANCE EDUCATION ON GENERAL ANXIETY

AND LIFE SATISFACTION OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

Abstract: The objective of this study was to investigate the Tahoon Rehab, PhD
effects of test anxiety and dimensions of distance education on Lecturer
general anxiety and life satisfaction of university students. A Department of Psychology
total of 426 university students voluntarily asked to respond on University of Sadat City
online scales of test anxiety, distance education, general Egypt
anxiety, and life satisfaction. The results revealed a strong Contact:
direct positive path from test anxiety to the general anxiety E-mail: [email protected]
(B=0.35) (p<.001). Also, test anxiety negatively influenced ORCID: 0000-0002-4819-4567
the students' life satisfaction with either a direct or indirect
way. Furthermore, the general anxiety negatively affected the
student's life satisfaction. Likely, Student autonomy directly
and negatively affected the general anxiety. Moreover, student
interaction, authentic learning, and active learning directly and
positively affected the life satisfaction of the students. Student
autonomy directly depressed the general anxiety which
indirectly improved the students' life satisfaction. Likely,
student interaction, authentic learning, and active learning
directly improved the students' life satisfaction. Further
researches required to be conducted in this research area.

Keywords: Test anxiety, distance learning, the general

anxiety, students life satisfaction

______________________________________________________________________________________
107
Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No. 1
London Academic Publishing, April 2021, pp 107– 117.
https://www.journals.lapub.co.uk/index.php/PERR
 Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No. 1 (April 2021)
INTRODUCTION
and various dimensions of distance education on
During the global Covid-19 pandemic, digital the general anxiety and quality of life of
technologies have captured the human university students. Also, the study will help the
imagination for their potential support in the fight education policymakers and political leaders to
against COVID-19. This pandemic virus was make their decisions about the future using of
forced schools and universities to shut down the online learning and distance education.
study in their campuses. Many
educators overall the world are encouraged to TEST ANXIETY AND THE GENERAL ANXIETY
shift their teaching methods to appropriate Test anxiety is a type of anxiety which the
alternative strategies such as online students feel before, during, or after examinations
education. Many universities worldwide (Lawson, 2006; Duraku, 2016). So the
approved the use of online and distance education educational system, parents' expectations, and the
as a potential application of digital technologies student's desire to enter a specific college or
against COVID-19, especially in socially isolated acceptance to some jobs depend on the
regions. Online and distance education keep the performance in the exams (Lawson, 2006).
students digitally isolated during learning, Therefore, examinations are an important part of
studying, and qualifying processes with no need students' life for transfer to the next stage or
to attend to the college campus. Some universities returning to the previous stage (Lawson, 2006;
find distance education as a great challenge or Rani, 2017).
even impossible. The success of distance Some students have a test anxiety level above the
education depends on the academic content and average, which may hurt their performance in the
the effectiveness of the communication system exams (Embse, Jester, Roy & Post, 2018). Others
used in the online learning process (Roberts, have a normal average level of anxiety which
Irani, Telg & Lundy, 2005; Areti, 2006). drives to increase academic performance
Zimmerman (2002) notes that student (Putwain, Connors, Woods & Nicholson, 2012).
independence contributes to success within Linearly, the students attained excellent grades in
distance learning environments. The their studies may appear to have higher test
independency of the student is a very important anxiety rather than those attained downgrades
factor in the success of distance education (Banks & Smyth, 2015). Besides, the students
(Lynch& Dembo, 2004; Ke & Kwak, 2013). who have a high level of test anxiety will feel
Gagne & Shepherd (2001) suggest that the much more anxious than students who are not
performance of students in a distance course worried about the test (Beide, Turner & Trager,
similar to the performance of students in a 1994). Moreover, students with a higher level of
campus course (Gagne & Shepherd, 2001). self-efficacy have lower levels of test anxiety
The university stage is a very critical transition (Mulvenson, Stegman & Ritter, 2005). High
period during which the students move from mindful students showed a low level of test
adolescence to adulthood. Linearly, Sarokhani et anxiety and vice versa (Brannon, 2010).
al. (2013) observe that college years are stressful The general anxiety divides into status anxiety
times in the student's life. and trait anxiety. Status anxiety occurs during
Distance education can increase student anxiety certain situations such as tests. So, test anxiety is
regarding the study and exams (Ajmal & Ahmad, a form of status anxiety (Hong & Karstensson,
2019). Besides, the teaching methods and teacher 2002; Huberty & Dick, 2006). The students who
evaluation are factors affecting the academic show a high level of status anxiety do not
performance and anxiety of the students (Duraku, necessarily have a high level of trait anxiety.
2016). The student's general anxiety can However, the students who have a high level of
aggravate with the rapid spread of coronavirus trait anxiety have a high level of status anxiety
pandemic and appearance of distance online (Huberty & Dick, 2006). In normal
education as a substitute for the University circumstances, some students have a high level of
campus courses. test anxiety, which may reflect on their health
These stressful factors may affect the student with appearing of some psychological and
general life badly. Therefore, the current study physical symptoms. These symptoms such as
conducted to determine the impact of test anxiety difficulty sleeping, frequent waking, nightmares,

108
 Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No. 1 (April 2021)
insomnia, and stay active until late at night. Also, anxiety negatively affects the life of the students
take sleeping pills and anti-anxiety. (Spangler, (Eller, Aluoja, Vasar & Veldi, 2006; Ferreira,
Pekrun, Kramer & Hofmann, 2002; Eller, Aluoja, Almondes, Braga, Mata, Lemos & Maia, 2009;
Vasar & Veldi, 2006). Moreover, test anxiety Çikrıkci, Erzen & Yeniçeri, 2019), may affect
reflects on attention and memory so badly many areas of life (Lufi, Okasha & Cohen, 2004),
(Birjandi & Alemi, 2010). Low and moderate test and can negatively predict changes in the
anxiety positively affects student performance cognitive and emotional component of general
(Chapell et al., 2005; Nicholson, 2009; Vitasari, wellbeing (Steinmayr & McElvany, 2016).
Wahab, Othman, Herawan & Sinnadurai, 2010;
DordiNejad et al., 2011; Singh, 2015), while the THE GENERAL ANXIETY AND LIFE SATISFACTION
high level of test anxiety negatively affects The university stage differs from the previous
student performance (Sung, Chao & Tseng, educational levels, since the distance of family
2016). and friends, making new friends, a difference in
teaching strategies, and other challenges needs
TEST ANXIETY AND LIFE SATISFACTION efforts from the student to adapt to it (Roberts &
Many students experience anxiety during and Zelenyanski, 2002). The student needs to
before the exams, as they want to obtain high improve and adjust his life to
marks. This anxiety reflects negatively on the feel satisfaction without any psychological
academic performance. Moreover, many disturbances. Some previous research shows that
physiological symptoms may exhibit on students a lower level of life satisfaction associated with a
such as increased heart rate, muscle tension, higher level of anxiety (Cook, Black, Rabins &
facial redness, and feeling panic (Karatas, Alci & German, 2000; Samaranayake & Fernando,
Aydin, 2013). Also, it causes many reactions on 2011). Students who have low anxiety have high
the student such as lack of focus, and become life satisfaction, also students who have lower
irritable (Huberty & Dick, 2006). scores on state anxiety have higher scores of life
Arbabisarjou, Zare, Shahrakipour & Ghoreishinia satisfaction, while students who have higher
(2016) state that the average level of test anxiety scores on trait anxiety have lower scores of life
can be beneficial and a catalytic and effective satisfaction (Paschali & Tsitsas, 2010). Life
factor, while the excessive level of test anxiety satisfaction is a valuable concept that is related to
can be lead to a lack of focus and low academic both psychological, emotional variables and some
performance. events of daily life. Therefore, it is an important
Causes of test anxiety are lack of time indicator of mental health (Tsitsas, Nanopoulos &
management, lack of study skills, low GPA, Paschali, 2019).
psychological distress, fear of failure, poor self-
esteem, poor self-confidence, weak psychosocial DISTANCE EDUCATION
support, and other factors (Aziz & Serafi, 2017; Today, distance education shows tremendous
Cipra & Müller-Hilke, 2019). development with new advanced technologies.
Test anxiety varies from the university stage to Nevertheless, dating more than 100 years old
another. Moreover, undergraduate students have (Birnbaum, 2001; Meyer, 2002). Distance
significantly higher levels of test anxiety education does not require physically attending,
compared to graduate students. As well as, the while it keeps the interaction between students
undergraduate students suffer from fear of failure, and teachers indirect (Tuncay & Uzunboylu,
a lack of time management skills, and a lack of 2010; Ajmal & Ahmad, 2019). The primary goal
study skills compared to masters students of distance education is to create educational
(Duraku, 2016). Likewise, the second-year chances for the students who cannot access to the
students of the Medical College, University of traditional educational institution due to social
Houston, Texas, USA showed a higher level of and economic conditions, family circumstances,
test anxiety compared to students at other physical disabilities, and geographical barriers
educational levels (Sansgiry & Kavita Sail, (Jonasson, 2001; Garg, 2018). In distance
2006). education, the classrooms will be directly in the
Test anxiety is the reason for a student's bedrooms, and study materials are on the
restlessness and fatigue, muscle contraction, and computers (Goodyear, Salmon, Spector, Steeples
abdominal pain before the test. Moreover, test & Tickner, 2001; Ní Shé et al., 2019).

109
 Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No. 1 (April 2021)
Distance education gives the students who have of 19–20 years. The psychometric sample was
no time to learn the chance to improve their composed of 38 males (M = 19.90, SD= 0.31)
qualifications. However, distance education and 71 females (M = 19.68, SD= 0.47). The basic
requires a strong motivation and a high level of sample of the study consisted of 426
focusing to complete its courses (Rovai, Ponton, undergraduate university students of 132 males
Wighting & Baker, 2007; Whiting, Liu & Rovai, (M= 19.91, SD =0.61), and 294 female students
2008). Moreover, the student in distance learning (M= 19.82, SD= 0.53).
feels lonely in the virtual classrooms (Dickey,
2004; Lorenzetti, 2005). This can be due to the MATERIALS AND PROCEDURE
lack of physical interaction between students and The Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale used
teachers (Dyrud, 2000). Additionally, some according to Spitzer, Kroenke, Williams & Lowe
private companies in the labor market and some (2006). This scale consisted of seven items to
government jobs do not rely entirely on distance evaluate the level of anxiety disorder. The
education to obtain the educational qualification, evaluation of the participant's responses followed
as they believe that distance education is still not the Likert-type format as not at all sure= 0,
a serious form of education (Nagrale, 2013). several days=1, over half the days=2, and nearly
The present study presents the following every day=3. The Cronbach’s alpha for the
hypotheses: generalized anxiety disorder scale was α= 0.79,
1. There are no significant paths from test M = 9.5, SD= 5.21.
anxiety to the general anxiety, and life Distance Education Scale built according to
satisfaction. Walker & Fraser (2005), which included 34
2. There are no significant paths from items. The evaluation of the participant's
dimensions of distance learning to the responses followed the Likert-type format from
general anxiety and life satisfaction. strongly agree=5 to strongly disagree=1. The
3. There are no significant paths from the distance education scale composed of six
general anxiety to life Satisfaction. dimensions were instructor support (α= 0.95,
M=21.32, SD= 7.94), student interaction and
METHOD collaboration (α= 0.93, M=15.752, SD= 5.4),
personal relevance (α= 0.94, M=17.29, SD=
PARTICIPANTS
6.38), authentic learning (α= 0.93, M=12.32, SD=
Second-year University students of three
4.5), active learning (α= 0.82, M=8.06, SD=
Egyptian governmental Universities (Sadat City,
2.84), and student autonomy (α= 0.91, M=13.85,
Menofia, and Bani Suef Universities) were
SD= 5.03).
invited to participate in the study. Those students
Westside Test Anxiety Scale developed by
were enrolled in an online distance education
Driscoll (2007), which consisted of (10) items.
program during the Covid-19 pandemic for the
The sample came to choose a response from five
last three months of their second term (March-
responses followed the Likert- type format, where
May, 2020). The participants are voluntarily
the responses ranged from 1- 5 score. The
asked to respond to the online study tools using
Cronbach's alpha of the Westside Test Anxiety
Google Forms (Google Inc.). The unique link of
Scale was α= 0.896, M= 36.06, SD= 7.76.
the online tools was sent to target student samples Satisfaction of Life Scale constructed by Diener,
via the Telegram internet app. The students were Emmons, Larsen & Griffin (1985). This scale
able to respond to the online tools via their composed of (5) items. The responses on this
smartphones. After complete data collection, the scale followed the five Likert-type format, where
result sheet was downloaded then the Google the total score ranged from 1- 25. The Cronbach's
Form sent to die in the Google server. alpha of Satisfaction of Life Scale was α= 0. 74,
The study was conducted on two different M= 13.31, SD= 3.41.
samples separately collected: the first is the
psychometric sample collected firstly to assess
the psychometric properties of the study tool,
whereas the second was the main study sample.
The psychometric sample was composed of 109
university students of either sex in the age group

110
 Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No. 1 (April 2021)

RESULTS

The correlation matrix among different study (p<0.01) Table (1), while test anxiety a positively
variables showed a negative correlation between correlated with the general anxiety (0.373) (p <
test anxiety and dimensions of distance education 0.01)
(p < 0.01), as well as life satisfaction (-0.278)

.
Table 1. Pearson correlation for the associations between test anxiety, dimensions of distance education,
general anxiety, and life satisfaction.
Parameters 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.Test anxiety 1
2. Instructor support -.145** 1
**
3. Student interaction -.167 .621** 1
4. Personal relevance -.213** .615** .679** 1
** ** **
5. Authentic learning -.173 .579 .560 .767** 1
** ** ** **
6. Active learning -.150 .531 .547 .740 .670** 1
** ** ** ** **
7. Student autonomy -.202 .531 .552 .700 .638 .788** 1
** ** ** ** ** **
8. Life Satisfaction -.278 .284 .354 .409 .395 .380 .371** 1
** * ** * ** **
9. General anxiety .373 -.045 -.099 -.170 -.108 -.148 -.185 -.334** 1
N=426
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Instructor support positively correlated with other as life satisfaction (0.380) (p <0.01), while active
distance learning dimensions, as well as life learning negatively correlated with the general
satisfaction (0.284) (p < 0.01). Student interaction anxiety (-0.148) (p< 0.01). Student autonomy
positively correlated with other distance learning positively correlated with other distance learning
dimensions, as well as life satisfaction (0.354) dimensions, as well as life satisfaction (0.371)
(p<0.01), but student interaction negatively (p<0.01), while student autonomy negatively
correlated with the general anxiety (-0.099) correlated with the general anxiety (-0.185)
(p<0.05). Personal relevance positively correlated (p<0.01). The general anxiety negatively
with other distance learning dimensions, as well correlated with life satisfaction (-.334) (p < 0.01).
as life satisfaction (0.409) (p < 0.01), but personal The model fit indicted for the modified path
relevance negatively correlated with the general model showed good model fit, as the value of the
anxiety (-0.170) (p<0.01). Authentic learning chi-square was 6.225 with a degree of freedom
positively correlated with other distance learning of 8 and not significant at (P<0.05). The chi-
dimensions, as well as life satisfaction (0.395) square/degree of freedom ratio was 0.778.
(p<0.01), while authentic learning negatively Linearly, the values of NFI, RFI, IFI, TLI, CFI,
correlated with the general anxiety (-0.108) GFI, and AGFI were 0.997, 0.986, 1.001, 1.004,
(p<0.05). Active learning positively correlated 1.000, 0.997, and 0.982, this evidenced efficient
with other distance learning dimensions, as well model fit. Similarly, the values of the RMSEA
and SRMR were zero and 0.01, which indicated
a good model fit (Fig. 1).

111
 Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No. 1 (April 2021)

Figure 2. Path model of the effect of the test anxiety and dimensions of distance education on the general
anxiety and life satisfaction of university students.

The path model reveals that the effect of test dimensions of distance learning do not affect the
anxiety on the general anxiety is significant with general anxiety with exception of student
a direct standardized beta load of (0.350) (p < autonomy dimension, which affects the general
0.001) (Tables 2; 3). Also, the effect of test anxiety with a direct standardized beta load of (-
anxiety on life satisfaction is significant with a 0.114) (p < 0.01). Additionally, student
direct standardized beta load of (-0.114) (p < interaction, active learning, and authentic
0.01). Moreover, the general anxiety affects the learning affect life satisfaction with a direct
life satisfaction with a direct standardized beta standardized beta load of (0.136), (0.128), and
load of (-0.239) (p < 0.001). Furthermore, all (0.186), respectively.

Table 2. Standardized beta load between test anxiety, dimensions of distance education, general anxiety,
and life satisfaction in the path model.
Structural Paths β C.R. P-Value
Student autonomy General anxiety -0.114 -2.499 0.012
Test anxiety General anxiety 0.350 7.666 ***
Student interaction Life satisfaction 0.136 2.630 0.009
Test anxiety Life satisfaction -0.114 -2.548 0.011
Active learning Life satisfaction 0.128 2.224 0.026
Authentic learning Life Satisfaction 0.186 3.193 0.001
general anxiety Life Satisfaction -0.239 -5.374 ***

112
 Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No. 1 (April 2021)
Table 3: Standardized direct, indirect, and total effects between different study variables.
Parameters Test Student Authentic Student Active General
anxiety interaction learning autonomy learning anxiety
General anxiety Direct 0.350 0.000 0.000 -0.114 0.000 0.000
Indirect 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Total 0.350 0.000 0.000 -0.114 0.000 0.000
Life satisfaction Direct -0.114 0.136 0.186 0.000 0.128 -0.239
Indirect -0.083 0.000 0.000 0.027 0.000 0.000
Total -0.197 0.136 0.186 0.027 0.128 -0.239

The indirect effect of test anxiety on life model succeeds in explaining about 0.28 from
satisfaction is -0.083. Moreover, student the total variation of life satisfaction, and 0.15
autonomy has an indirect effect on life from the variation of the general anxiety.
satisfaction with a standardized beta load of
0.027. Furthermore, all dimensions of distance DISCUSSION
education do not affect the general anxiety. The
path model shows a significant correlation The current study aims to determine the factors
among dimensions of distance education, as that may affect the life satisfaction of university
student autonomy significantly correlates with students. The casual path model between the
active learning (0.788). Also, student autonomy study variables reveals that test anxiety directly
correlates with personal relevance (0.700) and positively affects the general anxiety. This
(Figure 1). Besides, active learning significantly result agrees with the findings of (Barinder, 1985;
correlates with personal relevance (0.740). Beide, Turner & Trager, 1994; Bruehi, 2009;
Moreover, student autonomy, active learning, Sridevi, 2013), as they reported that test
authentic learning, personal relevance, student anxiety relates to the general anxiety. The
interaction, and instructor support correlate with findings reveal that the student who has high test
test anxiety with values of -0.202, -0.150, -0.173, anxiety show more general anxiety. Hence, the
-0.213, -0.167, and -0.145, respectively. The path student feels all the time worried about the results
of the exams.
Student autonomy directly and negatively affects
Test anxiety directly and negatively affects life general anxiety. This could be due to the
satisfaction. This outcome consists of (Ferreira, independence of the student contributed
Almondes, Braga, Mata, Lemos & Maia, 2009; effectively to success within distance education
Çikrıkci, Erzen & Yeniçeri, 2019). Linearly, (Lynch & Dembo, 2004; Ke & Kwak, 2013).
Çikrıkci, Erzen & Yeniçeri (2019) suggested that Walker & Fraser (2005) revealed that student
test anxiety negatively correlated with life autonomy plays an important role in the distance
satisfaction. Moreover, test anxiety may affect education system. Distance education requires the
many life domains (Steinmayr & McElvany, student is self-reliant in receiving information and
2016). The students exhibit sever levels of test strong motivation to communicate and complete
anxiety show low academic performance with a the educational process (Whiting, Liu & Rovai,
lack of focusing on studying and examination 2008). Furthermore, distance education needs a
(Keogh, Bond, French, Richards & Davis, 2004). computer, internet, and electricity all time.
Also, those students experience insomnia, fatigue, Besides, the student should have the ability and
difficulty sleeping, and waking up active all skill in dealing with such devices and modern
night. Furthermore, their life was effective in technologies. Any problem during the
general with reduced life satisfaction (Lufi, explanation or any problem relates to computer
Okasha & Cohen, 2004). Linearly, Steinmayr & will cause student frustration and anxiety
McElvany (2016) found that test anxiety may (Connolly, Jones & O’Shea, 2005).
negatively predict changes in the cognitive and
emotional component of wellbeing.

113
 Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No. 1 (April 2021)

Besides, Tuncay & Uzunboylu (2010) see during CONCLUSION

the beginning of the distance learning process, the
student feels anxiety and uneasiness about All distance education dimensions negatively
dealing with the computer, how to communicate correlated with the students test anxiety. Also,
with the teacher, the internet, the presence of test anxiety negatively influences the students'
electricity throughout the lecture period. Many life satisfaction with either a direct or indirect
questions revolve in the mind of the student raise way. Students test anxiety positively influence
concern and will affect his absorption and his general anxiety. Furthermore, Student autonomy
ability to learn. directly depressed the general anxiety which
According to, the effect of the dimensions of indirectly improved the students' life satisfaction.
distance education on life satisfaction. Student Likely, student interaction, authentic learning,
interaction, authentic learning, and active and active learning directly improved the
learning directly and positively affect life students' life satisfaction.
satisfaction. Walker & Fraser (2005) identified Acknowledgments: The author wishes to thank
student interaction, collaboration, instructor the students who agreed to answer the research
support, personal relevance, authentic learning, tools with care without getting fatigued.
student autonomy, and active learning as Availability of data and materials: Raw data
dimensions consider important in high-quality analyzed in this study are available from the
distance education environments. The student has author upon reasonable request.
the ability and skill to deal with computer and
realizing that distance education is a useful and REFERENCES
flexible way to learn, communicate, and
Ajmal, Muhammad and Saghir Ahmad. Exploration of
participate, their will enjoyment of online Anxiety Factors among Students of Distance
education and will reflect in the level of their life Learning: A Case Study of Allama Iqbal Open
satisfaction (Ozkan & Koseler, 2009; Caliskana, University. Bulletin of Education and Research,
Suzek, Ozcan, 2017). 41(2), (2019): 67- 78.
The general anxiety directly and negatively Arbabisarjou, Azizollah, Sadegh Zare, Mahnaz
Shahrakipour & Gholamreza Ghoreishinia.
affects the life satisfaction of university students. Analyzing test anxiety among medical sciences
This result agrees with (Boa, Pan, Shi & Ji, 2013; students of Zahedanin 2015. Int J Med Res Health
Warnecke, Baum, Peer & Goreczny, 2014; Sci, 5(7), (2016): 334–337.
Lucas-Carrasco, Sastre-Garriga, Galan, Den Areti, Valasidou. Satisfying distance education students of
Oudsten, & Power, 2014; Tsitsas, Nanopoulos & the Hellenic Open University. E-mentor, 2 (14),
(2006): 1-12.
Paschali, 2019). Where the anxiety negatively Aziz, Nusrat, and Abdulhalim salim Serafi,. Increasing
correlates with life satisfaction. In this stage, Levels of Test Anxiety and Psychological Distress
university students go through an important with Advancing Years of Medical Education. British
period of change (Sarokhani et al, 2013). J Med Health Res, 4(3), (2017): 40-2.
Moreover, students who experience a lot of Banks, Joanne & Emer Smyth. Your whole life depends on
it: Academic stress and high-stakes testing in
psychological and social stressors will experience Ireland. Journal of youth studies, 18(5), (2015): 598-
a higher of the anxiety (Farrer, Gulliver, Bennett, 616.
Fassnacht & Griffiths, 2016). Student's life will Barinder, Saini. A study of general anxiety and test anxiety
affect because of the anxiety. Also, the anxiety with reference to the environmental factors and
inhibits the enjoyment of various life fields. extraversion- introversion of Delhi students. Ph.D.
Edu., Del. U, (1985).
Students have higher anxiety in their life have a Beidel, Deborah, Marquette W. Turner& Karen N. Trager.
low level of life satisfaction. Bukhari & Saba Test anxiety and childhood anxiety disorders in
(2017) report that students who face less distress African American and White school children.
have a higher level of life satisfaction. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 8, (1994): 169-179.
Birjandi, Parviz and Minoo Alemi. The impact of test
anxiety on test performance among Iranian EFL
learners" BRAIN. Broad Research in Artificial
Intelligence and Neuroscience, 1(4), (2010): 44 –
58.

114
 Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No. 1 (April 2021)

Birnbaum, Barry . Foundations and practices in the use of DordiNejad, Farhad Ghorban, Hamideh Hakimi,
distance education. Mellen Studies in Education, 66, Maryam Ashouri, Maryam Dehghani,
1-174. Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, (2001). Zhaleh Zeinali, Maryam Sadegh Daghighi abd
Boa, Xuhui, Weigang Pang, Mei Shi & Ming Ji. Life Naghmeh Bahrami. On the relationship between test
Satisfaction and Mental Health in Chinese Adults. anxiety and academic performance. Procedia Social
Social Behavior and Personality, 41, (2013): 1597- and Behavioral Sciences, 15, (2011): 3774–3778.
1604. Driscoll, Richard. Westside Test Anxiety Scale Validation.
https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2013.41.10.1597 Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED495968,
Brannon, Jamey. Mindfulness and test anxiety in college 2007.
students. Master Theses. Graduate Faculty. Fort Duraku, Zamira Hyseni. Factors Influencing Test Anxiety
Hays State University, (2010). among University Students. The European Journal
Bruehi, Anne Larmore. General anxiety and academic of Social and Behavioural Sciences EJSBS, Volume
indicators as predictors of test anxiety in XVIII, (eISSN: 2301-2218), (2016), 2326- 2334.
adolescents. Doctor's Theses, University of Florida, http://dx.doi.org/10.15405/ejsbs.206
(2009). Dyrud, Marilyn. The third wave: a position paper. Business
Bukhari, Syeda Razia & Farhana Saba. Depression, Communication Quarterly, 63(3), (2000): 81-93.
anxiety, and stress as negative predictors of life https://doi.org/10.1177/108056990006300310
satisfaction in university students. Rawal Medical Eller, Triin, Anu Aluoja, Veiko Vasar and Marlit Veldi.
Journal, 42(2), (2017): 255- 257. Symptoms of anxiety and depression in Estonian
Caliskana, Semih, Sibel Suzek and Deniz Ozcan. medical students with sleep problems. Depress
Determining student satisfaction in distance Anxiety, 23(4), (2006): 250–256.
education courses. 9th International Conference on Embse, Nathaniel, Dane Jester, Devlina Roy & James Post.
Theory and Application of Soft Computing, Test anxiety effects, predictors, and correlates: A
Computing with Words and Perception, ICSCCW 30-year meta-analytic review. Journal of Affective
2017, Budapest, Hungary, Procedia Computer Disorders, 227, (2018): 483-493.
Science, 120, (2017): 529–538. Farrer, Louise, Amelia Gulliver, Kylie Bennett, Daniel
Chapell, Mark, Z. Benjamin Blanding, Michael E. Fassnacht and Kathleen Griffiths. Demographic and
Silverstein, Masami Takahashi, Brian Newman, psychosocial predictors of major depression and
Aaron Gubi., et al. Test anxiety and academic generalized anxiety disorder in Australian university
performance in undergraduate and graduate students. students. BMC Psychiatry, 15, (2016): 16- 241.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(2), (2005): DOI: 10.1186/s12888-016-0961-z.
268–274. Ferreira, Camomila Lira, Katie Moraes de Almondes,
Çikrıkci, Özkan, Evren Erzen and İlknur Akistanbullu Liliane Pereira Braga, Ádala Mata, Caroline Araújo
Yeniçeri. Self-Esteem and Optimism as Mediators in Lemos and Eulália Maria Chaves Maia. Evaluation
the Relationship Between Test Anxiety and Life of trait and state anxiety in first-year students. Cien
Satisfaction Among a School-Based Sample of Saude Colet, 14(3), (2009): 973-81.
Adolescents. Journal of Psychologists and Gagne, Margaret and Morgan Shepherd. Distance learning
Counsellors in Schools, 29, (2019): 39–53. in accounting: A comparison between distance and
DOI:10.1017/jgc.2018.10 traditional graduate accounting class. T.H.E.
Cipra, Christine and Brigitte Müller-Hilke. Testing anxiety Journal, 28(9), (2001): 58-60.
in undergraduate medical students and its correlation https://www.learntechlib.org/p/94130/
with different learning approaches. PLoS One, Garg, Mamta. Student satisfaction as determinant of
14(3), (2019), e0210130. academic success of distance learning: a study
Connolly, Michael, Norah Jones & John O’Shea. Quality across distance learning courses. The Online Journal
assurance and e-learning: Reflections from the front of Distance Education and e-Learning, 6(3), (2018):
line. Quality in Higher Education, 11 (1), 30- 43.
(2005): 59-67. Goodyear, Peter, Gilly Salmon, Michael Spector, Christine
Cook, Joan, Betty Smith Black, Peter Rabins & Pearl Steeples& Sue Tickner. Competences for online
German. Life Satisfaction and Symptoms of Mental teaching: A special report. Educational Technology
Disorder among Older African American Public Research and Development, 49(1), (2001): 65–72.
Housing Residents. Journal of Clinical https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02504508
Geropsychology, 6, (2000): 1-14. Hong, Eunsook and Lewis Karstensson. Antecedents of
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009541822048 state test anxiety. Contemporary Educational
Dickey, Michele. The impact of web-logs (blogs) on Psychology, 27(2), (2002): 348-367.
student perceptions of isolation and alienation in a Huberty, Jennifer and Van Dick. Performance and test
web based distance-learning environment. Open anxiety. In G. G. Bear;
Learning, 19(3), (2004): 279-291. K. M. Minke (Eds.), Children's needs III:
Diener, ED, Robert Emmons, Randy Larsen & Sharon Development, prevention, and
Griffin. The Satisfaction with Life Scale. Journal of intervention (pp. 459-472). Washington, DC:
Personality Assessment, 49, (1985): 71-75.

115
 Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No. 1 (April 2021)

National Association of School Ní Shé, Caitriona, Orna Farrell, James Brunton, Eamon
Psychologists, 2006. Costello, Enda Donlon, Samantha Trevaski and
Jonasson, Jon. Online distance education a feasible choice Sinead Eccles. Teaching online is different: critical
in teacher education in Iceland? Unpublished perspectives from the literature. Dublin: Dublin City
master’s thesis. University Strathclyde, Glasgow, U. University, (2019). ISBN: 978-1-873769-98-0. Doi:
K. Retrieved from 10.5281/zenodo.3479402
https://notendur.hi.is/jonjonas/skrif/mphil/thesis.pdf, Nicholson, A. Effects of test anxiety on student
2001. achievement (ACT) for college-bound students.
Karatas, Hakan, Bulent Alci and Hasan Aydin. Correlation Diss. Abstr. Int. 70: 2400, 2009.
among high school senior students' test anxiety, Ozkan, Sevgi and Refika Koseler. Multi-dimensional
academic performance, and points of university students’ evaluation of e-learning systems in the
entrance exam. Educ Res Rev, 8(13), (2013): 919- higher education context: An empirical
926. investigation. Computers & Education, 53(4),
Ke, Fengfeng and Dean Kwak. Constructs of student- (2009): 1285-1296.
centered online learning on learning satisfaction of a https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.06.011
diverse online student body: A structural equation Paschali, Antonia and George Tsitsas. Stress and life
modeling approach. Journal of Educational satisfaction among university students-a pilot study.
Computing Research, 48(1), (2013): 97-122. DOI: Paschali and Tsitsas Annals of General Psychiatry,
10.2190/EC.48.1.e 9, (2010): 19-22. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-
Keogh, Edmund, Frank W. Bond, Christopher French, 859X-9-S1-S96
Anne Richards & Robert Davis. Test anxiety, Putwain, Dave, Liz Connors, Kevin Woods & Laura J.
susceptibility to distraction, and examination Nicholson . Stress and anxiety surrounding
performance. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 17, forthcoming Standard Assessment Tests in English
(2004): 241-252. schoolchildren. Pastoral Care in Education, 30(4),
Lawson, Darla Jane. Test Anxiety: A Test of Attentional (2012):289-302.
Bias. Doctor thesis. The graduate school. The Rani, Rashmi. Test anxiety among school students.
University of Maine, 2006. International Journal of Advanced Education and
Lorenzetti, J. Lessons learned about student issues in on- Research, 2(4), (2017): 151- 154. ISSN: 2455-5746
line learning. Distance Education Report, 9 (6): 3-4, Roberts, Ron and Christiane Zelenyanski. Degrees of Debt.
2005. In N. Stankley, and J. Manthorpe
Lucas-Carrasco, Ramona, Jaume Sastre-Garriga, Ingrid (Eds.), Students’ Mental Health Needs Problems and
Galan, Brenda Den Oudsten, B and Michael Power. Responses. London: Jessica Kinsley, 2002.
Preliminary validation study of the Spanish version Roberts, Grady , Tracy Irani, Ricky Telg& Lisa Lundy.
of the satisfaction with life scale in persons with The development of an instrument to evaluate
multiple sclerosis. Disability and Rehabilitation, 36, distance education courses using student attitudes.
(2014): 1001-1005. The American Journal of Distance Education, 19
https://doi.org/10.3109/09638288.2013.825650 (1), (2005): 51-64.
Lufi, Dubi, Susan Okasha and Arie Cohen. Test anxiety and Rovai, Alfred P, Michael K. Ponton, Mervyn J. Wighting
its effect on the personality of students with learning and Jason D. Baker . A comparative analysis of
disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 27, student motivation in traditional classroom and e-
(2004): 176–184. DOI:10.2307/1593667 learning courses. International Journal on E-
Lynch, Richard and Myron Dembo. The relationship Learning, 6(3), (2007):413- 432.
between self-regulation and online learning in a Samaranayake, Chinthaka B and Antonio T Fernando.
blended learning context. The International Review Satisfaction with life and depression among medical
of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 5(2), students in Auckland, New Zealand. N Z Med J,
(2004). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v5i2.189 124(1341), (2011): 12–
Meyer, Katrina. Quality in distance education: focus on 7.http://journal.nzma.org.nz/journal/124-
online learning. In A.J. Kezar (Ed.), ASHE-ERIC 1341/4838/content.pdf
Higher Education Report, 29, (2002): 1-34. Jossey – Sansgiry, Sujit S & Kavita Sail. Effect of Student’s
Bass. perceptions of course loads on test anxiety.
Mulvenson, Sean, Charles Stegman and Gary Ritter. Test American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 70
anxiety: A multifaceted study on the perceptions of (2), (2006): 1-6.
teachers, principals, counselors, students, and Sarokhani, Diana, Ali Delpisheh, Yousef
parents. International Journal of Testing, 5(1), Veisani, Mohamad Taher Sarokhani, Rohollah
(2005): 37-61. Esmaeli Manesh& Kourosh Sayehmiri. Prevalence
Nagrale, Priyanka. Advantages and disadvantages of of depression among university students: A
distance education, 2013. systematic review and meta-analysis study. Depress
https://surejob.in/advantages-anddisadvantages-of- Res Treat. (373857), 1–7, 2013.
distance-education.html Sarokhani, Diana, Ali Delpisheh, Yousef
Veisani, Mohamad Taher Sarokhani, Rohollah

116
 Psycho-Educational Research Reviews | Vol. 10, No. 1 (April 2021)

Esmaeli Manesh& Kourosh Sayehmiri. Prevalence Vitasari, Prima, Muhammad Nubli AbdulWahab, Ahmad
of Depression among University Students: A Othman, Tutut Herawan and Suriya Kumar
Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Study. Sinnadurai. The relationship between study anxiety
Depression Research and Treatment, (2013), and academic performance among engineering
ID 373857, https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/373857 students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,
Singh, Kamlesh. Anxiety, stress, depression, and 8, (2010): 490–497.
psychosocial functioning of Indian adolescents. Walker, Scott L. and Barry J. Fraser. Development and
Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 57(4), (2015): 367- validation of an instrument for assessing distance
374. education learning environments in higher
Spangler, Gottfried, Reinhard Pekrun, Klaudia Kramer & education: the distance education learning
Hubert Hofmann. Students' Emotions, Physiological environments survey (DELES). Learning
Reactions, and Coping in Academic Exams. Environments Research, 8, (2005): 289–308. DOI:
Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 15(4), (2002): 413–432. 10.1007/s10984-005-1568-3.
Spitzer, Robert L, Kurt Kroenke, Janet B W Williams& Warnecke, Ashlee J, Caitlyn A Baum, Jennifer R Peer, &
Bernd Löwe. A brief measure for assessing Anthony J Goreczny. Intercorrelations between
generalized anxiety disorder. Arch Intern Med, 166, Individual Personality Factors and Anxiety. College
(2006): 1092-1097. Student Journal, 48, (2014): 23-33.
Sridevi, K. V. A study of relationship among general Whiting, Mervyn J, J. Liu & A. P. Rovai. Distinguishing
anxiety, test anxiety and academic achievement of sense of community and motivation characteristics
higher secondary students. Journal of Education and between online and traditional college students. The
Practice, 4(1), (2013): 122- 130. ISSN 2222-1735 Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 9(3),
Steinmayr, Ricarda and Nele McElvany. Subjective well- (2008): 285-295.
being, test anxiety, academic achievement: testing Zimmerman, Barry. Becoming a self-regulated learner: An
for reciprocal effects. J Medical Health Welfare, 10, overview. Theory into Practice, 41(2), (2002): 64–
(2016): 338-348. 70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4102_2
Sung, Yao-Ting, Tzu-Yang Chao & Fen-Lan Tseng.
Reexamining the relationship between test anxiety
and learning achievement: An individual differences
perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology,
46, (2016): 241–252. DOI:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.
07.001
Tsitsas, George, Panagiotis Nanopoulos and Antonia
Paschali. Life satisfaction and anxiety levels among
university students. Creative Education, 10, (2019):
947-961. http://www.scirp.org/journal/ce,
DOI:10.4236/ce.2019.105071
Tuncay, Nazime & Hüseyin Uzunboylu. Anxiety and
resistance in distance learning. Cypriot Journal of
Educational Sciences, 5(2), (2010): 142-150.

117