PRPM110L NOTES

MODULE 3 LESSON 1: Plant Cells

Introduction and ILOs - Plant Cells and Tissues The following are examples of structures and
organelles that can be found in typical plant cells:
Plant cells are eukaryotic cells or cells with a
membrane-bound nucleus. Unlike prokaryotic cells,
the DNA in a plant cell is housed within nucleus
(Links to an external site.) that is enveloped by a
membrane. In addition to having a nucleus, plant
cells also contain other membrane-bound
organelles (tiny cellular structures) that carry out
specific functions necessary for normal cellular
operation. Organelles have a wide range of
responsibilities that include everything from
producing hormones and enzymes to providing
energy for a plant cell.  Cell (Plasma) Membrane: This thin, semi-
permeable membrane surrounds the cytoplasm
Plant cells are similar to animal cells in that
of a cell, enclosing its contents.
they are both eukaryotic cells and have similar
 Cell Wall (Links to an external site.): This
organelles. However, there are a number of
rigid outer covering of the cell protects the plant
differences between plant and animal cells. Plant
cell and gives it shape.
cells are generally larger than animal cells. While
animal cells come in various sizes and tend to have
irregular shapes, plant cells are more similar in size
and are typically rectangular or cube shaped. A
plant cell also contains structures not found in an
animal cell. Some of these include a cell wall, a
large vacuole, and plastids. Plastids, such as
chloroplasts, assist in storing and harvesting  Chloroplast: Chloroplasts are the sites of
needed substances for the plant. Animal cells also photosynthesis in a plant cell. They contain
contain structures such as centrioles, lysosomes, chlorophyll, a green pigment that absorbs
and cilia and flagella that are not typically found in energy from sunlight.
plant cells.
Shown below are microscopic images of
representative plant cells which you will be
expecting to see when you cut a strip of tissue and
mounted it on the slide.

 Cytoplasm: The gel-like substance within

the cell membrane is known as cytoplasm. It
contains water, enzymes, salts, organelles,
and various organic molecules.

 Cytoskeleton: This network of fibers

throughout the cytoplasm helps the cell
 maintain its shape and gives support to the
cell.

 Mitochondria: Mitochondria generate

energy for the cell by converting glucose
(produced by photosynthesis) and oxygen
to ATP. This process is known as
 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): The ER is respiration.
an extensive network of membranes
composed of both regions with ribosomes
(rough ER) and regions without ribosomes
(smooth ER). The ER synthesizes proteins
and lipids.

 Nucleus: The nucleus is a membrane-

bound structure that contains the cell's
hereditary information (DNA).
o Nucleolus: This structure within the
nucleus helps in the synthesis of
ribosomes.
 Golgi Complex: This organelle is
o Nucleopore: These tiny holes within the
responsible for manufacturing, storing and
nuclear membrane allow nucleic acids
shipping certain cellular products including
and proteins to move into and out of the
proteins.
nucleus.

 Peroxisomes: Peroxisomes are tiny, single

membrane bound structures that contain
 Microtubules: These hollow rods function
enzymes which produce hydrogen peroxide
primarily to help support and shape the cell.
as a by-product. These structures are
They are important for chromosome
involved in plant processes such as
movement in mitosis (Links to an external
photorespiration.
site.) and meiosis (Links to an external
 Glyoxysomes play an important role in
site.), as well as cytosol movement within a
both catabolic and anabolic pathways in
cell.
plants. Glyoxysome break the fatty acid into
succinate in lipid rich seeds like castor
bean.
 size. They are differentiated based on their
composition and shape.

 Plasmodesmata: These pores or channels are

found between plant cell walls and allow
molecules and communication signals to pass
between individual plant cells.

Calcium oxalate crystals in the stem and leaf

of Cynanchum acutum . (A-C) Druse crystals in
the cortex of the stem at different
magnifications. (D) Druse crystals in the leaf
mesophyll. (E) Druse crystals around the major
vein. (F) Druse and prismatic crystals along
vascular bundle. (Dc: Druse crystals; Pc: Prismatic
crystals).
 Ribosomes: Consisting of RNA (Links to an
external site.) and proteins, ribosomes are Calcium oxalate (CaC2O4):
responsible for protein assembly. They can be   1. RAPHIDE = fine, needle like crystals occurring
found either attached to the rough ER or free in singly or in cluster, scattered, or enclosed in a sac
the cytoplasm. as in gabi or other succulent plants
  2. PRISMATIC = prism-like or diamond-like
crystals found in leaves of begonia or bangka
bangkaan
 3. ROSETTE = flowerlike appearance in santan
and stem of kutsarita plant
  4. STYLOID = knife-like, tapering at both ends
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3): 
    5. CYSTOLITH = grapelike as seen in
hypodermal cell of leaf of an Indian rubber tree or
ampalaya like plant.
 Vacuole: This plant cell organelle provides
support for and participates in a variety of
cellular functions including storage, LESSON 2: Plant Tissues
detoxification, protection, and growth. When a Plant tissue systems fall into one of two general
plant cell matures, it typically contains one large types: meristematic tissue, and permanent (or
liquid-filled vacuole. non-meristematic) tissue. Meristematic tissue is
analogous to stem cells in animals: meristematic
cells are undifferentiated continue to divide and
Other substances which may be present are the contribute to the growth of the plant. In contrast,
waste products of metabolism in plants in the form permanent tissue consists of plant cells that are no
of crystals. Crystals occurs in various shapes and longer actively dividing.
Meristems produce cells that quickly differentiate, grows. Collenchyma cells are found in the cortex
or specialize, and become permanent tissue. Such (layer between the epidermis and vascular tissue)
cells take on specific roles and lose their ability to of stems and along leaf veins
divide further. They differentiate into three main
tissue types: dermal, vascular, and ground 4. Sclerenchyma cells also have a support
tissue. Each plant organ (roots, stems, leaves) function in plants, but unlike collenchyma cells, they
contains all three tissue types: have a hardening agent in their cell walls and are
much more rigid. These cells have thick secondary
cell walls and are non-living once matured. There
are two types of sclerenchyma cells: sclereids and
fibers.
                Sclereids have varied sizes and shapes,
and most of the volume of these cells is taken up
by the cell wall. Sclereids are very hard and form
the hard outer shell of nuts and seeds. Fibers are
elongated, slender cells that are strand-like in
appearance. Fibers are strong and flexible and are
          Simple permanent tissue are composed found in stems, roots, fruit walls, and leaf vascular
of only one type of cell.  bundles.

1. Epidermis is the outermost layer of any plant 5. Cork are the outer impermeable protective layer
organ with primary growth. Specialized cells of a secondary plant body. It is composed of
present in the epidermis are the guard cells of the compactly arranged dead lignified and suberized
stomata. Outward growth of epidermal cells are cells without intercellular spaces.
known as epidermal hair or trichome.  
          Dermal tissue covers the plant body           Complex permanent tissue are composed
consisting of epidermis usually made up of of different kind of cells but perform the same
parenchyma cells in single layer. Epidermis function.
produces a waxy material called cuticle. Epidermis
on stems and leaves prevents water loss by 1. Water conducting cells of xylem have a support
transpiration. function in plants. Xylem has a hardening agent in
the tissue that makes it rigid and capable of
2. Parenchyma are the least specialized functioning in structural support and transportation.
permanent tissue composed of living thin-walled The main function of xylem is to transport water
cell. These cells help to synthesize and store throughout the plant. Two types of narrow,
organic products in the plant. The middle tissue elongated cells compose xylem: tracheids and
layer of leaves (mesophyll) is composed of vessel elements. Tracheids have hardened
parenchyma cells, and it is this layer that contains secondary cell walls and function in water
plant chloroplasts. Chlorenchyma are elongated conduction. Vessel elements resemble open-
cylindrical cells with long axis at the right angle to ended tubes that are arranged end to end allowing
the surface of the organ. Aerenchyma on the other water to flow within the tubes. Gymnosperms and
hand are specialized for gas exchange. They are seedless vascular plants contain tracheids,
irregular cell surrounded with large air space found while angiosperms (Links to an external
in the stem of aquatic plants. site.) contain both tracheids and vessel members.
3. Collenchyma cells have a support function in 2. Vascular plants also have another type of
plants, particularly in young plants. These cells help conducting tissue called phloem. Sieve tube
to support plants, while not restraining growth. elements are the conducting cells of phloem. They
Collenchyma cells are elongated in shape and have transport organic nutrients, such as glucose,
thick primary cell walls composed of throughout the plant. The cells of sieve tube
the carbohydrate polymers cellulose and pectin. elements have few organelles allowing for easier
Due to their lack of secondary cell walls and the passage of nutrients. Since sieve tube elements
absence of a hardening agent in their primary cell lack organelles, such as ribosomes and vacuoles,
walls, collenchyma cells can provide structural specialized parenchyma cells, called companion
support for tissues while maintaining flexibility. cells, must carry out metabolic functions for sieve
They are able to stretch along with a plant as it
tube elements. Phloem also contains sclerenchyma Mitosis, although a continuous process, is
cells that provide structural support by increasing conventionally divided into five stages: prophase,
rigidity and flexibility. prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase. Please watch the video below for further
recall and understanding.

Prophase
                Prophase occupies over half of mitosis.
The nuclear membrane breaks down to form a
number of small vesicles and the nucleolus
disintegrates. A structure known as
the centrosome duplicates itself to form two
daughter centrosomes that migrate to opposite
ends of the cell. The centrosomes organize the
The meristems are found in zones of the plant production of microtubules that form the spindle
where growth takes place. Three main types in fibers that constitute the mitotic spindle. The
angiosperms include: apical, intercalary and lateral. chromosomes condense into compact structures.
Each replicated chromosome can now be seen to
LESSON 3: Plant Cell Division consist of two identical chromatids (or sister
chromatids) held together by a structure known as
the centromere.

 Prometaphase

                The chromosomes, led by their

centromeres, migrate to the equatorial plane in the
mid-line of the cell - at right-angles to the axis
formed by the centrosomes. This region of the
mitotic spindle is known as the metaphase plate.
The spindle fibers bind to a structure associated
with the centromere of each chromosome called a
kinetochore. Individual spindle fibers bind to
a kinetochore structure on each side of the
centromere. The chromosomes continue to
condense.
Metaphase
 G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell
for division. At a certain point - the restriction                 The chromosomes align themselves
point - the cell is committed to division and along the metaphase plate of the spindle
moves into the S phase. apparatus.
 S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic
material. Each chromosome now consists of  Anaphase
two sister chromatids.
                This is the shortest stage of mitosis. The
 G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the
centromeres divide, and the sister chromatids of
cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis and
each chromosome are pulled apart - or 'disjoin' -
cytokinesis.
and move to the opposite ends of the cell, pulled by
 M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed
spindle fibers attached to the kinetochore regions.
by a cell division (cytokinesis).
The separated sister chromatids are now referred
to as daughter chromosomes. (It is the alignment
and separation in metaphase and anaphase that is
The period between mitotic divisions - that is, G1, S important in ensuring that each daughter cell
and G2 - is known as interphase. receives a copy of every chromosome.)
 Telophase
                The final stage of mitosis and a reversal and pungency are used. Cultivars with medium-
of many of the processes observed during sized rhizomes and high curing percentage are
prophase. The nuclear membrane reforms around preferred for dried ginger production. Ginger for
the chromosomes grouped at either pole of the cell, cooking is ideally harvested eight to nine months
the chromosomes uncoil and become diffuse, and after planting.  
the spindle fibers disappear.
How we benefit from it? Ginger is used as a spice
 Cytokinesis in cooking and as ingredient in candies, beverages,
liqueurs, ice cream, baked goods, curry powder
                This is the final cellular division to form blends, sauces, and various condiments. It is also
two new cells. In plants, a cell plate forms along used in herbal medicine to treat several ailments
the line of the metaphase plate; in animals there including nausea, motion sickness, migraine,
is a constriction of the cytoplasm. The cell then dyspepsia, and to reduce flatulence and colic.
enters interphase - the interval between mitotic
divisions. Ginger is used in numerous forms, including fresh,
dried, pickled, preserved, crystallized, candied, and
powdered or ground.  In addition, the Philippine
National Standard for Ginger classifies ginger into
three sizes: (1) large, over 300 grams; (2) medium,
150 to 300 grams; and (3) small, less than 150
MODULE 4 grams.

How important the identity of one species from the LESSON 1: Definition of Terms
other? In plants, for example looks might be
deceiving or disguising. How familiar are you with
the ginger you use at home? Do you know its
variety or tag name? Or was it another species?
Ginger, Zingiber officinale, is popular tor its distinct
sharp and hot flavor due to an oily substance
called gingerol. It is known as ‘luya‘ in Tagalog,
‘shoga‘ (Japanese), ‘chiang‘ (Chinese), ‘jingibre‘
(Spanish), ‘gingembre‘ (French), and ‘zanjabil‘
(Arabic). It has an aerial part of about 0.8 m high,
which could grow up to 1.5 m tall (in Costa Rica,
Hawaii, and Honduras) and a finger-like perennial
underground part or rhizomes called hands.
Ginger varieties differ in size and shape of To begin, please consider the following terms with
rhizomes, moisture content, quality, and flavor.  In given definitions:
the Philippines, the common varieties available are
of course our native ginger (white and yellow  SYSTEMATICS - is a science dealing with a
version), red native, Imugan, Hawaiian, Jamaican, comprehensive study of diverse organisms with
Taiwanese variety (which may be the Chinese regard to their natural relationships. It makes
variety). Most of the ginger grown in Nueva Vizcaya use of characteristics and data from many
is of the Hawaiian variety. Ilocanos generally prefer disciplines in carrying out its primary objectives
the native variety. But majority of the Filipino of describing, naming, classifying, identifying
consumers prefer the Hawaiian variety. In the and determining relationships of organisms.
global market, the most sought-after varieties
      The word systematics is derived from the
generally have a light-brown skin, with creamy
Latinized Greek  word ‘systema’ applied to the
yellow to light green bluish flesh. Dark ginger has
system of classification developed by Linnaeus in
more heat and preferred for extraction purposes.
the 4th edition of his historical book Systema
The content of essential oil and the pungency of the Nature in 1735. Today’s systematics generally
rhizomes reach the maximum about nine months makes extensive use of molecular biology and
after planting. Immature ginger is best used in fresh computer programs to study organisms.
or preserved forms. For dried ginger, mature
rhizomes that have developed full aroma, flavor,
 TAXONOMY - is a science usually dealing with principle of priority usually applies. That is, the
principles and procedures of classification. oldest name that was “validly and legitimately”
published for a species provides the specific epithet
      The word ‘taxonomy’ is derived from the Greek
that should be used if possible. Certain errors in the
words taxis (=arrangement) and nomos  (=law).
publication of a name can make it invalid or
The term ‘taxonomy’ was coined by A.P. de
Candolle in 1813. illegitimate, meaning that it should not be used no
matter what its age. (For example, if you publish a
 CLASSIFICATION - is the process of producing new name that had already been used by someone
a logical system of categories, each containing else, your name will be illegitimate.) If the strict
any number of organisms, which allows easier application of these rules would lead to great
reference to its components, namely  kinds of nomenclatural confusion, there are procedures by
organism. Plants are assigned to groups within which younger names can be conserved or older
a system or heirarchy of ranks or categories names rejected at the meetings of the International
distinguished by structure, origins, and other
Botanical Congress, which are held every six years.
characteristics. Classification precedes
identification.  The International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature (ICBN)is the set of rules and
 IDENTIFICATION - is the naming of an
recommendations dealing with the formal botanical
organism by reference to an already existing
names that are given to plants. Its intent is that
classification. It is the act of recognizing or
each taxonomic group ("taxon", plural "taxa") of
establishing the taxonomic group to which a
plants has only one correct name that is accepted
specimen belongs, applying a name to a
worldwide. The value of a scientific name is that it
specimen.
is an identifier; it is not necessarily of descriptive
 NOMENCLATURE - is the study of the system value, or even accurate.
and methods of naming organisms, and the           May you be aware first of the principles
construction, interpretation, and application of underlying ICBN.     
the regulations governing this system. The use
of a binomial for the specific name is basic.           The Six principles that guide decisions
concerning botanical nomenclature are as follows:
1. Straightforward Principle
Botanical nomenclature is independent of
zoological and bacteriological nomenclature. The
Code applies equally to names of taxonomic
groups treated as plants whether or not these
groups were originally so treated.
2. Type Principle
The application of names of taxonomic groups is
determined by means of nomenclatural types.

LESSON 2: Botanical Nomenclature 3. Priority Principle

In the early days of botany, it was common for The nomenclature of a taxonomic group is based
multiple names to be published for a single species, upon priority of publication.
especially one that is found in many places or that 4. Uniqueness Principle
is variable enough to be mistaken for a group of
several species. These excess names are called  Each taxonomic group with a particular
synonyms. To reduce confusion, there should be circumscription, position, and rank can bear only
only one correct name for a species under a given one correct name, the earliest that is in accordance
taxonomic treatment. The International Code of with the Rules, except in specified cases.
Botanical Nomenclature provides rules to 5. As-it-should-be Principle
determine what that correct name is. These rules
are too complicated to recount in detail, but the
 Scientific names of taxonomic groups are treated  Labiatae (Mint Family, alternatively Lamiaceae)
as Latin regardless of their derivation.
 Compositae (Daisy Family, alternatively
6. Retroactivity Principle Asteraceae)
The Rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless LESSON 3: Botanical Identification of Medicinal
expressly limited. Plants
What is NOMENCLATURE in its simplest The events of misidentification of plant species,
meaning? It deals with the application of a correct inadvertent use of totally unrelated species or by
name to a plant or a taxonomic group. closely related inferior quality species can hinder
 We have millions of species distributed in their medicinal use, the adverse effects of which
different geographical regions of the world. may even kill a consumer. The medicinally useful
plants and plant products must have their specific
 The Scientific names (Botanical name and identity correctly ascertained with standardized
Zoological name)of the living organism (Plants circumscription and nomenclature for quality control
and Animals) are necessary because the same and prevention of adulteration of drugs.
common name is used for different plants
/animals in different areas of the world.

 Swedish Botanist Carolus Linnaeus introduced

Binomial Nomenclature.

 The Binomial nomenclature uses two Latin

words to indicate the genus and the species.
The first word is the genus and the second word
is the species. Example the botanical name of
rambutan is Nephelium lappaceum.

 Species is the basic unit of classification. Plants

in the same species consistently produce plants
of the same types
Family names must be formed by combining a
generic name with the suffix –aceae, but there are Seven general classification categories have been
eight exceptions to this rule. Each of the eight defined in plants. These classifications can be
exceptional names was almost universally used,
arranged in order from the most inclusive group
and used in the same sense, throughout the world
when the first edition of the Code was prepared and (kingdom)to the least inclusive group (species).
so, in accordance with the overriding goal of Each of these groups constitutes a taxon (plural:
achieving nomenclatural stability, it was agreed that taxa).In addition to these basic groups,
they would continue to be used. What are these? subcategories are used in certain cases. These
include such as subdivision, subclass, suborder,
 Graminae (Grass Family, alternative Poaceae)  subspecies, and variety (or cultivar). An example of
plant classification is presented in the figure above.
 Palmae (Palm Family,alternatively Arecaceae)

 Cruciferae (Mustard Family, alternatively

Brassicaceae) According to the binomial nomenclature, each
individual has two-part name; the first part is called
 Leguminosae (Pea family, alternatively the genus (plural: genera)and second part is called
Fabaceae) a specific epithetor species. This system is
equivalent to surnames and first names in the
 Guttiferae (St. John’s Wort Family, alternatively naming of people.        
Clusiaceae)
Scientific names are necessary because the same
 Umbelliferae (Carrot Family, alternatively common name is used for different plants in
Apiaceae) different areas of the world.
The term “genus” has no real biological meaning at the size of these groups is arbitrary. Where one
all. It is simply a group of closely related species taxonomist chooses to recognize one large genus,
that are recognized as such by being given the another might break that genus into half a dozen
same name, often because they are similar enough smaller genera. The same applies to the grouping
to be recognized by their shared features. In of genera into families.
modern taxonomic practice, it is desirable for
genera to be natural groups, which comprise all of
the descendants of some common ancestor, but