ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION

Originally the term Environment was used to mean the

surroundings in which the man lives, works and plays including
the physical factors without giving much importance to living
components. But in the changed situations of rapid
industrialization and consequent pollution and other problems,
the dimensions of total environment were enlarged to include
not only the physical factors, but also factors as components of
the environment.

Thus the term environment is defined as all the systems namely

atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere (non living components)
and biosphere (living components) surroundings us. It includes
air, water, food, the pollutions, waste materials and other
ecological problems, which effect the life and health of human
beings and other life.

Environmental engineering is concerned with the control of all

those which exercise or may exercise deleterious effect on his
development, health and sundial with the consideration of the
physical, economic and social impact of the control measures
applied.
Environmental engineering deals with the application of
engineering principles to the control, modification and adaption
of the physical, chemical and biological factors of the
environment in the interest of man’s health, comfort and social
wellbeing. These are some aspects of environmental
engineering, such as ecology, water supply systems, waste water
treatment and disposal, rural sanitation and air pollution are
presented. If proper arrangements for the collection, treatment
and disposal of all the wastes produced from the town or city
such as water from bathroom, kitchens, lavatory basins, house
and street washings, from various industrial processes semi
liquid wastes of human and animal excreta, dry refuse of house
and street sweepings, broken furniture, crockery, wastes from
Industries etc are not made, they will go on accumulating and
create Buildings and roads will be in danger
(i) due to accumulation of spent water in their
foundation
(ii) Disease causing bacteria will bread up in the stagnate
water
(iii) Drinking water will be polluted.

Total insanitary conditions will be developed in the town or city

and it will become impossible for the public to live in the town
or city. Therefore in the interest of the community of the town or
city it is most essential to collect, treat and dispose of all the
waste products of city in such a way that it may not cause any
problem to the people residing in the town.

OBJECT OF PROVIDING SEWERAGE WORKS:

The following are the aims and objects of sewage disposal.

Proper disposal of human excreta to a safe place, before its starts
decomposition and may cause insanitary conditions in the
locality To take out all kinds of wastewater from the locality
immediately after its use, so that mosquitoes, files, bacteria etc
may not breed in it and cause nuisance. Final disposal of sewage
on land or in nearby watercourses after some treatment so that
receiving land or water may not get polluted and unsafe for its
further use. As far as possible the fertilizing elements of sewage
may be used in growing crops through farming and getting some
income in addition to the disposal of sewage In unsewered areas,
the treatment of sewage from individual houses, should be done
by septic tank or other suitable means and the effluent should be
disposed of. If the sewage is disposed of on land, it should have
such s degree of treatment that it may not affect the sub-soil in
anyway.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS-SULLAGE, SEWAGE, SEWER

AND SEWERAGE:

Sullage: The liquid waste from latrines, Urinals stable etc is

known as sullage.
Sewage: The term sewage is used to indicate the liquid waste
from the community and it includes sullage, discharge from
latrines, urinals, stable etc industrial waste and storm water.
Sewer: The underground conducts or drains through which is
conveyed are known as the sewers.
Sewerage: The entire science of collecting and carrying sewage
by water carriage system through sewers is known as sewerage.
Garbage: The term indicates dry refuse which includes decayed
fruits, grass, leaves, paper pieces, sweepings, vegetables etc.
Refuse: The term refuse is used to indicate all kinds of dry
wastes of the community (i.e.,) street and house sweepings,
garbage etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEWAGE:
Storm Sewage: Which includes surface runoff developed during
and immediately after rainfall over the concerned area.
Sanitary Sewage: This includes the liquid wastes of domestic
and industrial places. This sewage is extremely foul in nature
and required to be disposed of very carefully.

SYSTEMS OF SEWERAGE METHODS:

Conservancy System: In this system various types of refuse and
storm water are collected, conveyed and disposed off separately
by different methods in this system. This method is also called
dry system and is in practice from very ancient times. This is
method is adopting in small towns, villages and undeveloped
portions of large city even it is out of date system. In this
method garbage or dry refuse is collected from the dustbins and
conveyed by trucks or covered carts once or twice in a day. All
the uncombustible portions such as sand, dust, clay, ashes etc
are used for filling low lying areas and combustible portions
such as dry leaves, waste paper, broken furniture etc… are
burnt. The decaying fruits, vegetables, grass are first dried and
then disposed of by burning or in the manufacture of manure.
Human excreta or night soil is collected in separate liquid and
semi-liquid wastes by animal drawn carts, trucks or tractor
trailors and buried in trenches. After 2-3 years the buried night
soil is converted into excellent manure which can be used for
growing crops. In this system sullage and storm water are also
carried separately in closed or open drains upto the point of
disposal, where they are allowed to mix up with streams, rivers
or sea.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:
ADVANTAGES:
Initial cost is low, because storm water can pass through open
drains. The quantity of sewage reaching at the treatment plant
before disposal is low. The sewer section is small and no deposit
of silting because storm water goes in open drains.
DISADVANTAGES:
Possibility of storm water may mix with sewers causing heavy
load on treatment plant. In crowded lanes it is difficult lay two
sewers or construct drains roadside causing great inconvenience
to the traffic. More land is required for human excreta. Liquid
refuse may get on access in the sub soil and pollute the
underground water. Aesthetic appearance of city cannot be
increased. Decomposition of sewage causes insanitary
conditions which are dangerous to the public health. This
system is completely depends upon the mercy of sweepers at
every time and may possibility of spreading of diseases in the
town if they are on strike.

WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM:

In this system, the excremental matters are mixed up in the large

quantity of water and are taken out from the city through
properly designed sewerage systems where they are disposed off
after necessary treatment in a satisfactory manner. The sewage
so formed in water carriage system consists of 99.9 percentage
of water and 0.1 percentage of solid matters. All the solid
matters remain in suspension in the sewage and do not change
the specific gravity of water. So all the hydraulic formulae can
be directly used in the design of sewerage system and treatment
plants.

MERITS AND DEMERITS OF WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM:

The following are the merits of water carriage system. It is
hygienic method because all the excremental matters are
collected and conveyed by water only. There is no nuisance in
the streets of town and risk of epidemics reduced because of
underground sewerage system. Less space is occupied in
crowded lane as only one sewer is laid Self cleaning velocity
can be obtained even at less gradients due to more quantity of
sewage.
The land required for the disposal work is less as compared to
conservancy system. This system does not depend on manual
labour at every time except when sewers get choked. The usual
water supply is sufficient and no additional water is required in
water carriage system. Sewer after proper treatment can be used
fro various purposes.

DEMERITS
This system is very costly in initial cost. The maintenance of this
system is also costly. During monsoon large volume of sewage
is to be treated compared to remaining period of year.

COMPARISION OF CONSERVANCY AND WATER-CARRIAGE

SYSTEMS:
CONSERVANCY SYSTEM
Very cheap in initial cost Due to foul smell from latrines, they
are to be constructed away from the living room The aesthetic
appearance of the city cannot be increased Storm water is
carried in usually surface drains, hence no problem of pumping
the storm water The quantity of waste liquid reaching the
disposed point is less, hence it can be disposed of without any
treatment. This system is fully dependent on the human agency
As sewage is disposed of without any treatment it may pollute
the natural water courses For burying of excremental matter,
large area is required.
WATER-CARRIAGE SYSTEM

It involves high initial cost as there is no foul smell, latrines

remain clean and neat and hence are constructed with room.
Good aesthetic appearance of the city can be obtained. Sewage
is treated before disposing of, it may or may not require
pumping it depends on the topography of the town. Large
quantity of sewage highly polluted in nature, it requires its
treatment before disposal so it is costly process. This system is
not dependent on the human agency Sewage is treated upto
required degree of sanitation. Less area is required as compared
to conservancy system.

SEWERAGE SYSTEMS
Sewerage are closed conducts are called sewers and are laid
underground for conveying foul discharges from water-closets
of public and domestic buildings, chemical mixed water from
industries without creating any nuisance outside the town.

Sewers should have such cross-section that self-cleaning

velocity should be developed even during dry weather flow. No
deposit should settle down in the bed of sewers under any
circumstances. These should be laid in the town at such a slope
that water in case of flood in river at the outlet should not come
out from manholes and cause insanitary conditions. Generally
the sewers of circular shape are adopted because of following
facts,
Circular shape affords least perimeter and hence construction
cost is minimum for the same area of other shape.
Deposition of organic matter is reduced to minimum because of
no corners.
They are easy to manufacture or construct and handle
Because of circular shape, these are subjected to hoop
compression hence the concrete required is minimum and no
reinforcement is required They posses excellent hydraulic
properties because they provide the maximum hydraulic mean
depth when running full or half full.

The circular sewers prove to be best when the discharge does

not vary too much and the chances of sewers running with very
low depths (less than half) are less. However the sewers of non-
circular shapes are also used for the following reasons To bring
down the cost of construction to improve the velocity of flow
when the depth of sewage is low to secure more structural
strength to simplify the process of construction to make them
large enough for a man to enter for cleaning or repairing.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION AND CHOICE OF TYPES OF SEWERS

The following factors are to be carefully considered while
making selection for the materials of sewer.
Cost: The cost should be moderate and reasonable
Durability: The material should be durable
Imperviousness: The material of sewer should be impervious
nature
Resistance to Abrasion: The material should possess enough
resistance to abrasion caused due to grit moving with high
velocity.
Resistance to corrosion: The material should be capable of
offering resistance to the corrosion because the sewage posseses
corrosive qualities
Weight: The material should possess moderate weight so as to
make easy handling and transportation.

The following are the various materials, which are used for
sewers
 Asbestos cement sewers
 Brick sewers
 Cast-Iron sewers
 Cement concrete sewers
 Corrugated iron sewers
 Plastic sewers
 Steel sewers
 Stoneware sewers
 Wood sewers

STONEWARE SEWERS:

The stoneware sewers are also known as the vitrified clay

sewers or salt-glazed sewers and they are prepared from various
clays and shapes in required proportion, allowed to dry and then
burnt in a kiln. A small quantity of salt is added to kiln get glass
like glaze on the surface of pipes.
ADVANTAGES:
These pipes are strong enough to take backfilling and traffic
The interior surface of sewers are smooth and impervious
The overall performance is very good
These sewers are cheap and easily available
These sewers are durable and better resistance to corrosion &
erosion

These sewers are capable of withstand hydraulic pressure upto

0.15N/mm2 and bear a load of soil of about 4.5 m depth
DISADVANTAGES:
These are brittle in nature and may damage in handling or
transport.
These are not strong enough to allow sewage under pressure.
These are difficult to handle or transport because of heavy
weight.
CEMENT CONCRETE SEWERS:
The cement concrete sewers may be plain or reinforced. The
plain cement concrete sewers are used upto the diameter of
600mm and beyond 600mm reinforcement is provided.
ADVANTAGES:
These are strong and imperivious.
Larger diameter can be made.
Inner surface of sewer is smooth.
For attack of chemical and errosive actions the inner surface
should be lined with vitrified clay.
DISADVANTAGES:
Heavy weight transportation and handling is difficult.
Joints should be carefully filled.

LAYING OF SEWERS:
The construction of sewer consists of the following works
 Marking center lines of sewers.
 Excavation of trenches.
 Checking the gradient.
  Preparation of bedding.
 Laying of sewers.
 Jointing.
 Back filling.

MARKING CENTER LINE OF SEWER:

The centre line of a sewers are marked on the streets and roads
from the plans starting from the lowest point or outfall of the
main proceeding upwards. The setting out of work is done by
means of chain and theodolite or compass.

For checking the centre line during the construction generally

wooden pegs or steel spikes are driven at 10 meters intervals on
a line parallel to the centre where while laying sewers, they will
not disturb them.

For checking the levels of sewer pipes and their alignment

temporary benchmarks are established at 200-400 metres
intervals. The reduced level (R.L) of these benchmarks should
be calculated with respect to G.T.S benchmarks. On the centre
line position of sewer appurtenances are also marked.

EXCAVATION TRENCHES:

After marking the layout of the sewer lines on the ground, the
first step is the removal of pavement, which starts from the
lower end of the sewers and proceeds upwards. Pickaxes, spade
or pneumatic drills can be used in case of removing concrete
pavements. After removing pavements, the excavation of
trenches is done manually or machinery.
The width of trench depends upon the dia of sewer and depth of
sewerline below the ground level. The width of sewerline is
15cm more than external diameter of sewer for easiness in
lowering and adjusting the sewerpipe. The minimum trench
width of 60 to 100cm is necessary for conveniently laying and
jointing of even very small size sewers. The excavation of
trench sides require shoring and shuttering and also dewatering
is done by gravity method or pumping method.

PREPARATION OF BEDDING:

Trenches are excavated with proper grade so that sewage may

flow in sewer due to gravitational flow only. The centre line of
sewers and their grades are transferred from the ground by
means of sight rail and boning rod
When a sewer has to be laid in a soil underground strata or in a
reclaimed land, the trench shall be excavated deeper than what is
ordinarily required trench bottom or rock. In the case of very
bad soil the trench bottom shall be filled in with cement concrete
of appropriate grade. In areas subject to subsidence the pipe
sewer shall be laid on a timber platform or concrete cradle
supported on piles. In the case of cast in- site sewers and R.C.C
section with reinforcement, bearing capacity is encountered and
soil stabilization shall be done either by rubber, concrete or
wooden crib.
LAYING:
Smaller size pipes can be laid by the pipe-layers directly by
hand only. But heavier and larger size pipes are lowered in the
trenches by passing ropes around them and supporting through
hock.
It is the common practice to lay the pipes with their socket end
upgrade for easiness in joining. After lowering the pipes these
are brought near and spigot end of one pipe is placed in the
socketed end of the other after properly placing and arranging
the pipes they are suitably joined. The joints are carefully cured
for sufficient time.

JOINTING OF SEWERS:

The C.I.Pipes shall be examined for line and level and the space
left in the socket shall be filled in by pouring molten piglead of
bestquality as for IS:782 and IS 3114.

For concrete pipes, the collars shall be placed symmetrically

over the end of two pipes and the annual space between the
inside of the collar and the outside of the pipe shall be filled
with hempyarn soaked in tar or cement slurry tamped with just-
sufficient quantity of water to have consistency of semi-dry
condition, well packed and thoroughly rammed with caulking
tools and then filled with cement mortar 1:2. The joints shall be
finished off with a fillet slopping at 45to the surface of the pipe
and cured for 24 hours. Any plastic solution or cement mortar
that may have squeezed in the pipe shall be removed to leave the
inside of the pipe perfectly clean.

For stoneware pipes, all the joints shall be caulked with tarred
gasket in one length for each joint and sufficiently long to
entirely surround the spigot end of the pipe. The gasket shall
then be filled with 1:2 cement sand mortar in a semi-dry
condition and a fillet shall be formed round the joint with trowel
forming an angle of 45° with the barrel of the pipe as per IS
4217. Rubber gasket may also be used for jointing.

TESTING OF SEWERS:
Following two tests are done for testing of sewer pipes.
WATER TEST:
Each section of the sewer is tested for water tightness preferably
between the manholes. To prevent the change in alignment and
disturbance after the pipes have been laid, it is desirable to
backfill the pipes up to the top, keeping at least given length of
pipe at the joints.
Testing of sewers done by plugging the upper end with a
provision for an air outlet pipe with stopcock. The water is filled
through a funnel connected at the lower end provided with a
plug. After expelling the air through the air outlet, the stopcock
is closed and water level in the funnel is raised to 2m above the
invert at the upper end. Water level is noted after 30 minutes in
the funnel and quantity of water required to restore the original
water in the funnel is determined. The pipeline under pressure is
then inspected while the funnel is still in position. There should
not be any leak in the pipe or the joint except small sweating on
the pipe surface which is allowed. Leakage in 30 minutes
determined by measuring the replenished water in the funnel
should not exceed 15ml for smaller and 60 ml for larger
diameter pipes for 100m length.

AIR TESTING:

This testing is done in large dia. Pipes when the required

quantity of water is not available it is done by subjecting the
stretch of pipe to an air pressure of 100mm of water by means of
hand pump. If the pressure is maintained at 75mm, the joints
shall be assumed to be water tight. In case drop is more than
25mm the leaking joints shall be traced and suitably treated to
ensure water-tightness. The exact position of leak can
be detected by applying soap solution to all the joints in the line
and looking for air bubbles.
BACK-FILLING OF TRENCHES:
After testing and removing defects of pipeline, the trenches are
back filled with excavated soil after removal of pebbles, stone-
pieces and lamps by ramming the soil in layers using with water.
When the height reaches to 60cm above the crown of the pipe,
back filling is stopped for atleast one weak for weathering. After
a week, again backfilling is started in layers and the trench is
filled 15cm above the ground level. During the course of time
the back filled soil gets compacted and the filled soil comes to
the ground level. Back filling will be after 7 days for precast
pipes and 14 days after in the case of cast-in-site sewers.
Reinstatement of the pavement is carried out after about two
months after the proper consolidation of the backfill material
and there is no danger of risk of crank or settlement in the
pavement.

SEWER APPURTENANCES

Sewer system require various types of appurtenances for their

proper functioning and maintenances. If sewerage system will
not be maintained properly, salt, ashes, fats, oils and greasy
matters etc will choke the sewerline. Therefore for the proper
operation and maintenance of sewerage system, various devices
like manholes, lamp holes, drop manholes, street inlets, flushing
tanks, catch basins, ventilating shafts and storm role of works
etc are essential, which should be inaccessible to
the public.

MANHOLES LOCATION:
Manholes are provided at every change of alignment, gradient or
diameter of the sewer. Manholes are provided for inspection,
cleaning, repairs and maintenance of the sewer.

A Manhole consists of working chamber, an access shaft and a

strong cover on the top flush with the road level.
WORKING CHAMBER:
The working chamber has such a size, so that necessary
examination and cleaning can be done easily.
The minimum internal size of the chamber are as follows.

For depth of 0.8m or less - 0.75m x 0.75m

For depth between 0.8m and 2.1m - 1.2m x 0.9m
For depth more than 2.1m - 1.2m x 0.9m
or 1.4dia circular chamber.
ACCESS SHAFT:

The access shaft provides an access to the working chamber.

The shaft is formed, by corbelling the working chamber. So that
the cover frame can be fitted in the opening, the minimum
internal dimensions of the access shaft are 0.5 x 0.5m.

COVER:
At the top of manhole, the manhole cover of cast iron or R.C.C
is provided to cover the opening depending upon the type of
traffic on the road. The manhole covers are provided flush with
the road level. The bottom of the manhole is usually made of
concrete slightly sloped at the top towards the open channels,
which are in continuation of the sewer line. The channels are
sometimes lined with half-round sewer pipe section. The top
surface of the concrete is called benching and the man stands on
its top during cleaning and inspection of the sewerlines over the
cement concrete walls not less than 20cm thickness are
constructed.
Circular shape is structurally more stable and stronger though it
is difficult in construction. The maximum distance between two
manholes should be 30m and the distance between the manhole
and gully chambers should not exceed 6m.

DROP MANHOLE:

If the difference in level between the branch sewer and main

sewer is within 60cm and there is sufficient roof within the
working chamber, the connecting pipe may be directly brought
through the manhole wall by providing a ramp in benching.
Such manholes which drop the level of invert of the incoming
sewer, by providing a vertical shaft are called drop manholes.
The main purpose being to avoid the splashing of sewage on the
man working and on the masonary work. The branch sewer line
is connected to the manhole in such a way that it can be cleaned
and rodded when necessary. For inspection of the incoming
sewage and cleaning of vertical shaft, the vertical shaft is taken
upto the ground level.

.
NECESSITY OF PUMPING SEWAGE LOCATION AND COMPONENT
PARTS OF PUMPING STATION.

In sewerage system at some places the sewage cannot flow

under its gravitational force only and requires lifting in
following circumstances, it is becomes necessary to pump the
sewage.If some portion of the town is low-laying and the
sewage cannot flow by gravity.
When basements are provided in the buildings, the sewage is
pumped to the sewerline. If a ridge intervenes, sometimes it is
economical to pump sewage, instead of providing a funnel.
When the land is flat and it not possible to get self-cleaning
velocity, the sewers are laid at the required slope and after some
interval they are allowed to flow under gravity. At the treatment
plants to rise it upto the plant for treatment. At the outfall while
disposing it is required to be pump if the level of the water
course is higher than the outlet of the sewer.

LOCATION OF PUMPING STATION:

The following points should be considered while locating the

site of pumping station.
The topographical conditions of the city should be thoroughly
studied to locate the best site of pumping station
If the quantity of sewage is very large, the site should be near to
the disposal point or at a place where the sewage can be directly
disposed off during emergencies
The site should be such that during flexed, it should not flooded
with river water or seepage from the ground.
Provision should be made to pump all the sewage which will be
received during worst conditions of rains
ELEMENTS OF PUMPING STATION:
Every sewage pumping station consists of the following
 Preliminary screening and grit chambers
 Sump or wet well
 Pumproom or dry well
 Pumps with driving engine or motar
 Miscellaneous accessories such as pipes, valves, fittings,
flow recorder, emergency over-flow etc
The capacity of pumping station is determined by the present
and future sewage flows based on a designed period of 15years.
While designing the pump house, provisions should be made for
easy removal and installation of pumps and motars for
periodical repairs and replacements

PRELIMINARY SCREENING AND GRIT CHANNELS:

The sewage contains large amount of sand, gravel , rags ,paper,

leaves etc should be removed before pumping so as to prevent
the wear and tear of pumping machinery and increasing its life.
Large floating matter are removed by passing the seepage
through flat bar screens. After passing through the screens, the
sewage goes into grit channel where heavier inorganic solid
matters are removed because of low velocity is maintained.

SUMP OR WET WELL:

The sewage from the city is received at pumping station in a

tank known as sump or wet well. The tank having capacity of
20-30cm per minutes average flow is designed in modern
practice. The sump well is an underground, ring or circular
shape
placed at such a level that sewage from trunk sewer can flow
into it by gravity only. The bottom of the tank is given a 1:1
slope towards a central pit where the end of section pipe of the
pump is placed. The depth of the well depends upon the depth of
incoming sewage of inlet. The main storage inside the well
should be free fall inside the wet well to avoid the save harging
and back flow. Guide pipes filled with flats, switches of motars,
cables of electric motars, sewage level indicators etc should be
placed in the wet well at suitable places. Gate valves should be
fitted on the incoming sewer lines to stop the sewage flow
during inspection , repairs and cleaning of the wet well etc. At
the top of the wetwell manhole with ladders are provided for
cleaning, inspection and maintenance as shown in fig no. 4.13.
The overflow weirs and by-pass arrangements are also provided
in the wet wells for diverting the sewage during emergency
floods.

PUMP ROOM:
This is also called as dry-well and placed in a convenient
location such that the pumps can easily function The pump-
room is an underground masonary or rcc room with circular or
rectangular shape and sewage pumps, their driving units, control
valves etc are installed in it. The size of the dry well should be
sufficient for the movement of operator , maintenance repair and
installation of pumps etc. In some cases a small pump is also
provided to pump the leakages from the wet well in this well
PIPES VALVES, FITTINGS etc:
Cast Iron pipes with flanged joints should be in all installation
works at pumping station so that the dismantling and repair of
pumping station equipment. The size of pipe should be such that
the sewage can flow at a velocity of 0.6 to 0.9m/sec so as to
prevent the settlement of solids in the sewage. The length of the
pipe is kept small so as to avoid anerobic deterioration and also
head due to more number of valves, bends, junctions etc should
be kept small as possible. Check valve should be provided in the
sewerline to prevent the back flow of sewage during floods in
the rivers or discharge area. Gate valve should be provided on
the sewerline before wet well and on the section and discharge
pipe to close the flow of sewage during maintenance, inspection
and repair of the pump. Pressure gauge is note the section
pressure and discharge pressure should be installed at the
appropriate position to record section and delivery pressure.
Sewerage level indicator should also be filled in the wet well to
record the level of the sewage.
PUMPS WITH DRIVING ENGINE OR MOTOR:
The following are the requirements of good sewage pump.
 It can pump the sewage upto required elevation.
 It can pump the required quantity of sewage even in
emergency
 period.
 It should be reliable.
 It should be cheap in initial cost and maintenance.
 It should not corroded by the organic and inorganic wastes
of the
 sewage.
 It should not be damaged or worn out by the presence of
sand ,
 gravel, stone etc in the sewage.
 It should require less spacing for installation.
  It should not made more noise during working.
 It should not require high skills in its maintenance and
operation.

Generally centrifugal pumps are used for pumping of sewage

provided with automatic or remote control devices and fulfill
most of the requirements of the sewage pumps.

SEWERAGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

The sewage contains various types of impurities and disease

bacteria is disposed of by dilution or on land after its collection
and conveyance. If the sewage is directly disposed of, it will
acted upon the natural forces, which will convert into harmless
substances. The natural forces of purification cannot purify any
amount of sewage within the specified time. If the quantity of
sewage is more than receiving water will become polluted or the
land become sewage sick under such circumstances it becomes
essential to do some treatment of the sewage so that it can be
accepted by the land or receiving water without any objection.

The main object of the treatment limits is to reduce the sewage

contents (solids) from the sewage and remove all the nuisance
causing elements and change the character of the sewage in such
a way that it can be safely discharged in the natural course
applied on the land. Practically the treatment of sewage is
required in big cities only where the volume of the sewage is
more as well as the quantity of various types of solids, industrial
sewage etc. The degree of treatment will be mostly be decided
by the regulatory agencies and the extent to which the final
products of treatment are to be utilized.
The sewage treatment units can be broadly classified as
 Primary treatment
 Secondary treatment
 Final treatment

The treatment plant should be located as near the point of

disposal as possible. If the sewage is to be disposed of finally in
the river or natural streams the treatment plant should be located
on the river bank and it should be downstream side of city and
sufficiently away from the water intake works.

PRIMARY TREATMENT: In primary treatment, the larger solids

from the sewage are removed during the treatment process. The
more complex compounds are broken up and converted into
simpler compounds by decomposition. The primary treatment
includes screen, grit chambers, detritus tanks skimming tanks
and sedimentation tanks with or without use of chemicals.
PURPOSE: The main purpose of the installation of screens is to
remove the floating matter of comparatively large size to
prevent the possible damage of pumps and other equipments
LOCATION: The screens should preferably be located just before
grit chambers at an angle of 30° to 60° with the direction of
flow. The screens are sometimes accommodated in the body of
grit chambers. The screening element may consists of parallel
bars, rods, gratings or wire meshes or perforated plates and
openings may be of any shape generally they are circular or
rectangular.
TYPES OF SCREENS:

 Racks or bar-screens
 Perforated or fine screens
 Comminuters or cutting screens.

SKIMMING TANKS:
These tanks are used to remove oil, greese, soap; wood pieces;
fruit skins etc..

1. AIR DIFFUSERS: Air diffusers are provided at the bottom of

the tank for efficient working of skimming tank. The period
of aeration and quantity of air will depends upon the quality
of sewage. The compressed air sets up the currents and it
results in the floating matter of sewage.
2. COLLECTION OF FLOATING SUBSTANCES:
The floating substances collected at the top of tank are
removed either with hand or with the help of mechanical
equipment
3. DETENTION PERIOD: The detension period of about 3 to 5
minutes are designed
4. OUTLET: The submerged outlet is provided to prevent the
floating substances into the outlet channel
5. SHAPE: The shape skimming tank may be elliptical or
circular and depth may be about one metre or so The
disposal of the skimming obtained from skimming tanks
can be done for the manufacture of the soap, lubricants,
wax, pitch and other non-edible products. The skimmings
are usually disposed of burning or burying in the ground
GRIT CHAMBERS:
The purpose of providing grit chamber in the sewage treatment
process is to remove grit, sand and other organic matter by
reducing velocity of flow so that the heavier organic materials
settle down at the bottom of grit chamber and the lighter organic
materials are carried forward for further treatment. The grit
chambers are placed after pumping stations and before screens
or may be changed to suit the local requirements. The grit has a
specific gravity of about 2.0 to 2.5. The weight of dry gret is
about 300kg/m3 and the weight of wet grit is about 1600kg/m3.
The grit contains voids to the extent of 35 to 40 percent.
SOURCES OF GRIT: The grit in the sewage is obtained from
domestic sewage, floorsof garages, obtained from domestic
sewage. Floors of garages, service stations, fast storm of the
season etc.
VOLUME OF GRIT:
The following factors which affect the volume or quantity of grit
in the sewage
 Area of unpaved surface in the locality.
 Characteristics of ground.
 Design of suit chambers.
 Intensity of cleaning the streets.
 Occurance of storms and their intensity.
 Provision of catch basins.
 Systems of sewage – combined or separate.
The grit chambers are provided in duplicate. A stand by unit is
essential for the smooth and efficient working of the grit
chamber.
TYPES:The grit chambers may be horizontal flow or vertical flow
type.

CLEANING DEVICES: The grit deposited at the bottom of the tank

is to be periodically cleaned by
 Hand cleaning.
 Hydraulic cleaning.
 Mechanical cleaning.
CLEANING INTERVAL: depending upon the local conditions
cleaning interval varies from one to two weeks.
DEPTH: A minimum of 300mm should be provided and depth to
length ratio should be about 1/16.
DETENSION PERIOD: The grit chambers are designed for a
detension period of about 1 minute.
SPACE FOR ACCUMULATION OF GRIT: It is necessary to provide
sufficient space at the bottom of grit chamber for accumulation
of grit which may be 12 to 27 litres per one million litres of
sewage.
VELOCITY OF FLOW: The velocity of flow in the gritchamber is
kept 200 to 300 mm per sec. This is obtained by dividing the grit
chamber into compartments.
DISPOSAL OF GRIT: The disposal of grit is used to reclaim the
low lying land. It can also mixed with poor soil to condition it
and acts as good manure for garden crops.

PRIMARY TREATMENT – PLAIN SEDIMENTATION :

OBJECTS:
The process of sedimentation reduces the strength of sewage to
the extent of about 30 to 35%. The quantity of settleable solids
in the sewage reduces to theextent of 80 to 90%. There is a
reduction in B.O.D to the extent of about 30 to 35% The sewage
after being treated in the sedimentation becomes fit for further
treatment processes.
SEDIMENTATION PROCESS:
When the velocity of flow is decreased or when sewage is
allowed to stand at rest, the suspended particles carried by the
sewage tend to settle at the bottom of tanks. The material
collected at the bottom of sedimentation tanks is known as
sludge and partially treated sewage is known as effluent, both
require further additional treatment to make them an
objectionable.
TYPES OF TANKS:
PRIMARY CLARIFIES OR PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY TANKS:
The overall features of primary clarifiers are more or less the
same as those tanks which are provided in the water supply
schemes. The following are the design aspects of the primary
clarifiers.
INLET AND OUTLET ARRANGEMENTS:
The following points should be noted in the design of inlet and
outlet arrangements.
 The rate of inflow and outflow are equal.
 The sewage should diffused equally across the entire
section of tank.
 The outflow should be as thin as possible.
 The distance between inlet and outlet channel should
remain constant.
SHAPE OF TANK:
Rectangular tanks: The ratios of length to width are about to 5
and the ratio of width to depth is about 2 to 3.
Circular tank: The circular tanks are with vertical flow and it is
possible to install conveniently the mechanical scrapers to
collect the sludge at bottom of tank as in the case of dorr
clarifier.
Hopper bottom tank: These tanks may be with horizontal or
vertical flow.
(3) CAPACITY OF TANK: The capacity of tank is determined by
considering the detension period and overflow rate. For primary
clarifiers are generally designed for a detension period of 1 to 3
hours (average 2 hours) The overflow rate is generally taken as
1000 to 2000 lit per hour per m2.
(4) SCUM BUFFLES: The scum baffles in the form of troughs or
boards are to be provided to prevent the entry of floating
substances into the outlet channel.
(5) SCUM REMOVAL DEVICES: The primary clarifiers should be
provided suitable scum removal devices. The floating thus
caught are sent for further treatment or for final disposal.
(6) SLUDGE REMOVAL: The sludge collected at the bottom of
settling tanks should be periodically removed by the following
methods.
 Hand cleaning – suitable for rectangular tank with flat
bottom.
 Hydraulic Cleaning – This method is suitable for hopper
bottom settling tank with vertical flow. In this tank the
sludge is conveyed to a manhole through sludge removal
pipe under hydraulic pressure.
 Mechanical cleaning – This method is suitable for
rectangular and circular tanks.
SECONDARY TREATMENT
The effluent that is coming out from primary clarifies contains
45 to 50 percent of the unstable or organic matter originally
present in the sewage as solution or suspension or colloidal
matter. The sewage to this extent is prepared to receive the
secondary treatment. The main function of the secondary
treatment of sewage is to convert the remaining organic matter
into stable form by oxidation or nitrification. The secondary
treatment involves the following methods.
 Filtration.
 Activated sludge process.
The filters which are commonly employed in the secondary
treatment of sewage are of following types
 Contact beds.
 Intermittent sand filters.
 Trickling filters.
TRICKLING FILTERS:
Trickling filters are used for the biological treatment of domestic
and industrial wastes, which are amenable to aerobic biological
process. The sewage is allowed to sprinkle or to trickle over bed
of coarse, rough, hard material and it is then collected through
the under drainage system. The oxidation of the organic matter
is carried out under aerobic conditions. A bacteria film known as
bio film is formed around the particles of filtering media and for
the existence of this film oxygen in supplied by intermittent
working of the filter and by provision of suitable ventilation
facilities in the body of the filter. The colour of film is blackish,
greenish and yellowish and consists of bacteria, algae, fungi,
lichens, protozoa etc. Raw sewage can be treated as the process
requires sewage treated with primary treatment.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS:

The term activated sludge is used to indicate the sludge which is

obtained by settling sewage in presence of abundant oxygen.
The activated sludge is biologically active and it contains a great
number of aerobic bacteria and other micro-organisms which
have got an unsual property to oxidize the organic matter.
The following are the properties of activated sludge.
 The activated sludge contains fertilizing constituents.
 The colour of activated sludge indicates the degree of
aeration.
(i) Light brown – under aerated sludge.
(ii) Golden brown - well aerated sludge.
(iii) Muddy brown – over aerated sludge.
(iv)
Moisture content of activated sludge is about 95 to 97 percent
.
The following three basic operations are involved in the
activated sludge process.

Mixing of activated sludge : The activated sludge is mixed

properly with raw or settled sewage of primary clarifier
Aeration: The effluent is agitated or aerated in the aeration tank
and various methods are employed
OXIDATION DITCH: Dr. Pasveer of netherland developed this
method for treatment of sewage of small estates and colonies.
For theaeration of sewage to the extended type of activated
sludge process mechanical system is used. The oxidation ditches
are aeration units in the shape of long channels 150 to 1000m
long, 1 to 5 m wide and 1 to 1.5m deep. Mechanical aeration
devices consists of cylindrical cage about 75cm in diameter
made of C.I. is kept at such a level that about 10 to 15cm of
them remain dipped in sewage and rotated at about 75 r.p.m.
Detension period of 12 to 15 hours is normally provided. The
loading of sewage can be 0.8 to 2.5 cum/kg of B.O.D
fortreatment of 150cum of sewage standard mechanical aeration
is sufficient which aerates the sewage as well as move it and
generate a velocity of more than 30cm/sec. It keeps the
solidcontents of the sewage in suspension condition. After
aeration the sewage is allowed to settle in the settling tank. The
activated sludge is returned back to the aerationunits. For
economy purpose sometimes the aeration units also acts as the
settling units. The rotars are stopped for 2 hours to settle the
suspended solids in the bed. The effluent is taken outand
disposed of with or without treatment.

The efficiency of the oxidation ditch is more than 95% for

suspended solids and more than 98% for B.O.D. These ditches
requires about 4.4 km/kg of B.O.D present in the raw sewage.
The power consumption in rotating rotars is very high, but as the
primary settling tanks and the anerobic digestion processes are
eliminated, hence it is compensated. When the land is costly and
it is very costly to construct oxidation ditch method can be
economically used.

OXIDATION PONDS:

An artificial pond of shallow depth formed for the retention of

sewage for sufficient time is known as an oxidationpond. These
ponds are used to treat raw sewage or partially treated sewage.
Oxidation ponds are suitable for small towns situated in tropical
regions with dry climate and warmtemperature.
ACTION: The oxidation ponds purify the sewage by dual action
of aerobic bacteria and algae. The aerobic bacteria obtain
oxygen from the atmosphere and use it in the decomposition of
organic matter of sewage. The carbondioxide produced in the
decomposition of sewage is broken up by algae by the process
of photosynthesis into carbon and oxygen. The carbon is used in
producing more carbohydrates and the released oxygen keeps
the dissolved oxygen content of water at high level.
CONSTRUCTION: The oxidation ponds are constructed with
shallow depths of about 900 to 1500mm, which permits the
sunlight to penetrate into the body of sewage for the growth
ofalgae. It is desirable to provide a free board of about one metre
or so. The pond is constructed into compartments of suitable
sizes and the sewage is allowed to flow in zigzag manner
through these compartments

AERATED LAGOONS AND ANAEROBIC LAGOONS:

AERATED LAGOONS: An aerated lagoon is an earthen basin

about 2.5 to 4.0 m deep in which sewage is filled and aerated by
means of diffused air or mechanical aerators. Commonly
mechanical aerators are used and fixed on permanent foundation
sewage is sent in these lagoons after passing through the
gritchamber, without giving any primary treatment. The aerated
lagoon acts as a settling cum aeration tank, where artificial
aeration replaces algal oxygenation of the waste stabilization
ponds. The initial cost of construction varies from Rs. 15 to
Rs.25 per capita, therefore these are most suitable for middle
size towns. The waste water industries such as paper, straw
board and food industries can also be easily treated by the
aerated lagoons.
The cost of construction can be reduced by constructing the side
walls of lagoons in simple earth work. The floats should
bemanufactured from the non-carrodible water for maximum
durability as well as less maintenance cost. All the
electricalwires, cables supplying power to the mechanical
aerations should be taken overhead for safety as well as low
maintenance purposeThe shape of lagoons are normally
rectangular. The capacity of lagoon is provided about 30 cum
per 2.0 kg to domestic sewage. The oxygen capacity varies from
1.5 to 2.5 kgof oxygen / H.P. / hour at 20°C.

ANAEROBIC LAGOONS:
These lagoons are anaerobic throughout their depth except for
an extremely shallow surface zone. The lagoons are constructed
to a depth of about 6m so that the heat energy is conserved and
an aerobic conditions are maintained stabilizationof sewage is
brought about by the combination of sedimentationand
anaerobic conversion of organic wastes to methane, carbon
dioxide and other gaseous and products of organic acids and cell
tissues. B.O.D. conversion efficiency is about 70% in routine
and under optimum operating conditions it is raised upto 85%.

SEPTIC TANK:
In order to provide satisfactory disposal of sewage received or
obtained from isolated buildings, small institutions, big hotels,
camps etc or undeveloped areas of the locality where municipal
sewers are not laid, the septic tanks may be adopted
THEORY:
The septic tank is just like a plain sedimentation tank but in
septic tank, bio-chemical reactions by anaerobic bacteria take
place as in the case of sludge digestion tanks. During the
detention period, the sewage is purified and the effluent is taken
to soak pits for disposal. The septic tank is provided with cover
at top for avoiding the bad smells occur during the digestion
period of sludge.
The septic tank should provide proper ventilation by air vent
pipes. The top cover of septic tank should be made of R.C.C and
a manhole is provided in RCC slab for the purpose of inspection
and cleaning. If necessary, C.I. steps may be provided. The
sludge is allowed to be accumulated at the bottom of tank and it
is removed at intervals either by manual labour or by pumping.
The septic tanks may be constructed in series to act like two
stage sludge digestion tanks but the single stage septic tanks are
very popular.
A septic tank thus combines the functions of sedimentation tank,
a sludge digestion tank and a sludge storage tank. The
accumulation of sludge at the bottom of tank decreases its
storing capacity and hence the septic tanks should be cleaned
every 6 to 12 months.
DESIGN ASPECTS:
CAPACITY: The volume of septic tank is decided by taking the
consideration of quantity of flow and detention period. It is also
designed based on per capita basis which varies from 60 to 110
litres per person to be served by the septic tank. The space for
sludge is kept usually at the rate of 15 to 45 litres per capita per
year.
DETENSION PERIOD: The detension period varies from 12 to
72 hours commonly being 24 hours.
FREE BOARD: This should be about 400 to 600 mm.
SHAPE: The shape is generally rectangular with length breadth
ratio 2:4.

DISPOSAL OF EFFLUENT:
The effluent of septic tanks is highly odors and it should
therefore carefully discharged by the following methods.
 Absorption trenches.
 Gardening.
 Natural Waters.
 Soak pits.
 Soak wells.
 Sub-surface irrigation.
 Surface irrigation.
 Trickling filters.
SOAK PIT:
It is a circular or square pit of sufficient dimension. The total
depth of soak pit varies from 1.2 to 1.8m. The pit is filled with
brick bats or coarse aggregates. The effluent is applied into the
pit so that aerobic bacteria film on the surface of brick bat
oxidizes the dissolved organic matter. The waste water then
percolates into the ground and thus finally disposed. The size of
the pit depends upon the quantity of effluent and permeability of
subsoil..

.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL:
The liquid effluent of treatment plant has to be disposed
properly to avoid further adverse effects. There are following
methods available.
Disposal on land
Disposal in water
Direct and indirect reuse of waste water
Artificial methods
DISPOSAL ON LAND:
Before disposing on to the land it is to be verified whether the
effluent is treated and removed off the pollutants to such an
extent as to satisfy the standards for disposal. The liquid effluent
can be advantageously used for irrigation purposes. The
methods by which land irrigation (sewage farming) is done are
Broad irrigation or surface irrigation in which the sewage is
allowed to flow over cultivable lands to grow crops like
plantains, cotton etc. The amount of waste water that can be
disposed depends on the climatic conditions, infiltration capacity
of soil, types of crops grown etc.
(b) Sub surface irrigation in which sewage is allowed to enter
the land through distributors. The drain pipes are laid below
ground so as to collect it after evaporation, filtration by
biological action etc. during which the sewage gets purified. (c)
Ridge and furrow method in which the land is ploughed into
ridges and furrows. The furrows are filled with sewage and
crops are grown on ridges.
The continuous disposal of sewage on land may lead to the
conditions, what is called "Sewage sickness". By such
continuous application, the pores of soils get clogged,
preventing free circulation of air. This prevents aerobic
biological action and thus the purifying capacity of land is
reduced. Such adverse phenomenon can be stopped by (1)
Applying pretreated sewage instead of raw sewage (2) Stopping
the application of sewage onto those lands for certain period (3)
By rotation of crops. The land disposal can also be done by
evaporation ponds in which the sewage is filled in ponds and is
made to evaporate.
DISPOSAL IN WATER:
This is also called dilution technique. The method involves
disposing sewage in the natural body of water, taking the
advantage of its "Self Purification" capacity due to natural
aeration. The mechanisms responsible for self purification of
water bodies are (a) Dilution (b) Sedimentation (c) Oxidation
reduction (d) Sun light. This phenomenon of automatic
purification of natural water in due course is called self
purification. However, car should be taken to see that the
effluents are treated for the removal of pollutants below
tolerance limits before being discharged into natural water
bodies. In this method, the effluent may be discharged into any
one of the nearby water bodies.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT REUSE OF WASTE WATER:
It is generally impossible to reuse a waste water completely or
indefinitely. The reuse of treated effluent by direct or indirect
means is a method of disposal that complements the other
disposal methods. Water reuse maybe classified according to use
as
Municipal reuse for park, lawn, golf course watering. Industrial
reuse such as cooling tower water, boiler feed water and process
water. Agricultural reuse i.e., for irrigation of certain crops,
orchards, forests and leaching of soils. Recreational reuse such
as forming artificial lakes for boating etc. Ground water
recharge which is one of the most common methods of disposal
of treated effluent to replenish ground water supplies, and to
stop sea water intrusion into the aquifers.
ARTIFICIAL METHODS:
In addition to the above three methods, the untreated
sewage may also be treated and disposed by the following
methods
  Oxidation ponds
 Oxidation ditches
 Aerated lagoons
 Anaerobic lagoons
These methods are called low cost treatment and disposal
methods.