LESSON 1

UNDERSTANDING POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT

The inclination and interest of people toward anything political is based on the fact that
individuals are inherently social. Unlike other species, humans rely on social
interactions to survive. Politics is born out of these social interactions.

Political science does not only involve the state and the government because politics
exists in the family, in school, and even in the streets. It is present in intimate personal
relationships, too.

"Man is by nature a political animal" 

-aristotle, father of political science

LECTURE 1

ARISTOLE
- Politics was "politike" the short form of "politike episteme" or political science. This
pertained to a practical science concerned with the noble action or happiness of the
citizens. The adjective "political" also traces its roots to the Greeks. It comes from
politikos which means "of, or pertaining to, the polis" or city-state.

DAVID EASTON
- Politics is described as human activity concerned with the authoritative decision-
making and action by the government which results in an authoritative allocation of
values in society. By "value" he meant anything that is useful or important in life and is
therefore sought after any object, activity, idea, principle, goal or other phenomenon
which many individuals and groups within the political community consider to have
measurable importance. As such, anything of political value is considered useful,
desirable, good, attractive, beneficial, advantageous, and rewarding.

HAROLD LASSWELL
- Politics is defined as "who gets what, when, and how." Politics is concerned with how
official governmental decision-making and action identifies (1) who in political society
receives how much of what benefits, rewards, and advantages, (2) when they receive
such, (3) the methods by which they receive such.
LECTURE 2

Views on politics and Description of Politics

Art of Government
- Politics concerns the state. It focuses on the personnel and machinery of the
government.

Public Affairs
- Politics is the conduct and management of public interest and therefore, political
affairs.

Compromise and Consensus

- Politics attempts to resolve conflict through discussion, compromise, bargaining, and
consensus, wherein people arrive at a binding decision.

Power and the Distribution of Resources

- Politics involves the exercise of authority in the production, distribution, and use of
resources. This describes who gets what and under what circumstances.

The table above shows that the human beings relate to each other not only in formal
structures but also in a collective arrangement such as families, religions, peer groups,
or cultures. Power is also exercised in these types of relationships, making them
political as well.

LECTURE 3

POLITICAL SCIENCE
- Political science is a social science discipline that studies the state and the
government. The state is a political community that involves four elements, namely
people, territory, sovereignty, and government. The state is considered as something
abstract for it has no existence as a material object, enjoys permanence, is not confined
to a particular space, and is not embodied in any person or collection of persons.
GOVERNMENT
- Government is the instrument of the state through which the will of the people is
expressed, carried out, and formulated. Thus, the government serves as the bridge that
connects the people to the state. The terms state and government are commonly used
interchangeably, but in strict political science terms, they definitely mean two different
things.
- The terms government and governance are also used with confusion to a large extent.
It is the government which concretizes the policies and addresses the problems of the
state. On the other hand, good governance arises when the government involves the
people in its agenda and in the process of policy making. Therefore, the extent to which
democratic participation is encouraged determines whether or not governance exists.

GENERALIZATION

You have learned that politics is characterized by an interaction between individuals

whose relationship is characterized by conflict and cooperation. Politics involves the
presence of binding solutions that will solve such differences, although politics is no
utopian solution. A particular form of social interaction could be considered political if it
involves relationships that have something to do with the art of governance, public
affairs, compromise and consensus, and power relations, which all fall within political
research. The ability to determine what is political is important in researching about or
studying politics. The use of particular approaches in political science - whether the
scientific, philosophical, or empirical ones - is crucial in understanding what politics
entails.
LESSON 2

Political Ideas And Ideologies

Following Aristotle's contention that man is by nature a political animal, all individuals are, in essence,
political thinkers. Have you heard your parents express their opinions on an issue of political relevance?
How about you? Have you not noticed that individuals use political ideas and concepts when they share
their opinions or whenever they speak their mind? This module explores these ideas from the
perspective of major political ideologies.

LECTURE 1

ROLE OF IDEAS

Why did the Filipinos march against the dictator Ferdinand Marcos in what became known as the 1986
EDSA People Power Revolution? Why did people do the same during the time of former Pres. Joseph
Estrada in 2001? What are the reasons behind the Million People March in 2013? There must be some
motivating ideas behind their actions.

IDEAS

IDEAS, govern individual behavior. While they are not ideologies by themselves, they constitute a part of
the raw material needed to create one coherent doctrine. How did the individuals who participate in
rallies and protests, perceive the existence of inequality and injustice during their time? Surely, these
political ideas are not merely a passive reflection of their personal interests because these inspired and
guided them in their political action.
POLITICAL THEORY AND POLITICAL IDEAS

Political theory and political practice are inextricably linked. Political ideas did not come out of nowhere.
They are shaped and continuously reshaped by current socio-historical, economic, and political
circumstances. Whether you are conscious or not, your behavior is guided by a set of ideas, beliefs, or
value systems you adhere to. At a more general level and at a definitely larger scale, political ideas shape
the nature of political systems and serve as a glue that binds societies together.

LECTURE 2

NATURE OF POLITICAL IDEOLOGY

- An ideology is more or less a coherent set of ideas that direct or organize a specific political action
(Heywood, 2013). It consists of....

- belief and value systems

- a discussion of existing power relationships

- an exploration of how political change is achieved in line with this power relations

- and an illustration of a desired future

DEFINITIONS OF POLITICAL IDEOLOGY

The following are several definitions of political ideology according to Heywood (2013).

- a political belief system

- an action orientated set of political ideas

- the ideas of the ruling class

- the worldview of a particular social class or social group

- political ideas that embody or articulate class or social interest

- ideas that propagate false consciousness amongst the exploded or oppressed

- ideas that situate the individual within social context and generate a sense of collective belonging

- unofficially suction set of ideas used to a legitimate a political system regime

- an all-embracing political doctrine that things in monopoly of truth

- an abstract and highly systematic set of political ideas

LECTURE 3

------- LIBERALISM ------

- Belief in INDIVIDUALISM underscores the importance of the human individual compared to any other
group.

- LIBERTY of the individual must be protected. An individual has freedom when he/she is able to act as
he/she pleases.

- REASON can lead individuals to make wise judgements, which could solve issues or differences

- EQUALITY implies that individuals are born equal, at least in moral terms. Equal rights and entitlement
are at its core. It must be noted, however, that liberals do not endorse social equality or equality of
outcome.

- Tolerance is the willingness of individuals to allow others to think and behave in ways they do not
approve. It is a guarantee of individual liberty.

- Authority and social relationships must also be based on agreement or consent.

-------- CONSERVATISM -----

- TRADITION must be conserved. These traditions include established customs, institutions, and ways of
doing things that have endured through time.

- As a bellef, PRAGMATISM emphasizes that action should be

shaped by practical circumstances and goals.

- HUMAN IMPERFECTION presents the pessimistic view of conservatism on the individual. Individuals are
morally corrupt and are therefore the sources of crime and disorder. Order could thus be achieved
through a strong state.

- Conservatives believe that society is an organic whole and is a living entity, more than being an artifact
of human ingenuity. This belief is known as ORGANICISM.

- Conservatives also believe that social position and status are only natural. With this, HIERARCHY is
thought to be inevitable.

- AUTHORITY must be exercised from above. Leadership is provided to guide and support those who lack
knowledge and education and those who have little capacity to act for their own interest.

- Conservatives look at PROPERTY as significant because it is the Individual's source of security and
independence from the government.

----------- SOCIALISM --------

- Belief in the COMMUNITY highlights the degree to which the Individual is connected with others.

- BROTHERHOOD OR FRATERNITY speaks of a shared common humanity. Socialist thus prefers

cooperation rather than competition, and collectivity rather than individualism.

- Socialists put primacy on SOCIAL EQUALITY over other values. This is believed to be the basis for social
stability and cohesion.

- Socialists look at society in terms of differences in the distribution of income or wealth. SOCIAL CLASS is
believed to be an important social cleavage, which divides societies. The interests of the working class
and the oppressed should be upheld. With this, eradicating economic and social inequalities is deemed
as the primary goal of socialism.

- COMMON OWNERSHIP is also central to socialist thought. Unlike private property, common ownership
is a means to harness material resources for the common good.
---------- MARXISM ------

- One should be careful in branding communism, socialism, or any other similar ideologies as Marxists
because they may not necessarily reflect the ideas of Karl Marx although these ideologies might find
their roots in the tenets proposed by Marx. Some social scientists do not even consider Karl Marx as
Marxists. Some of the ideological and conceptual bases of Marxism are the following:

- ALIENATION. This is the relationship between two or more people or parts of oneself in which one is
cut off from, a stranger or alien, the others (Sargent 2009). For Marx, alienation in its basic for is the
alienation from one's labor (or product of one's labor), and capitalism is a great factor in this
phenomenon.

- CLASS STRUGGLE. Karl Marx also noted the struggle between the bourgeoisie (the capitalist or middle
class) and the proletariat (workers). The BOURGEOISIE social class oppresses and exploits the
PROLETARIAT not only through unfair compensation of the latter's labor but also by setting up laws and
standards, and controlling the system or the state to maintain its social status. But there will come a
time for the need to educate the proletariat and/or they will eventually be made aware of their situation
and will overthrow the bourgeoisie and the systems they created, which means also overthrowing the
state (Sargent 2009; Defensor-Santiago 2002).

- MATERIALISM. Marxism and the offshoots of this ideology offer a complex perspective and usage of
materialism. Most social scientists, however, would agree to the basic definition that "how people think
is greatly affected by how you live" (Sargent 2009). For example, the members of the bourgeoisie might
think more of profit and leisure, that life is good, and that money can do anything. This is because they
live a comfortable life with money and power in the state. They do not actually do the hard labor. In
fact, their profit might even come in through passive income. But the members of the proletariat who
work every day for income might think more of survival, that life is unfair. They might think that either
there is no good in trying to change their status or they might be driven to strive for more whatever it
takes.

- REVOLUTION. Almost all theories and ideologies related to Marxism consider proclaiming revolution as
the way to change the system. By revolution, Marx did not mean peaceful walkouts but a violent one in
which the proletariat will topple down the elite class and all the systems they have made. Even in its
violent nature, Marx considered revolution as a good and inevitable process that will eventually lead to
a classless ideal society in the form of communism (Sargent 2009).

- HISTORICAL MATERIALISM or the Materialist Conception of history provides that the economy (mode
of production) conditions all other aspects of social life including the law, government, politics,
education. The DIALECTIC, a process of interaction between competing forces, drives change and leads
to a higher stage of development. Historical change is therefore a consequence of contradictions in the
mode of production, as reflected in class conflict.
- The exploitation of the proletariat (worker) by the capitalists (owner of the means of production)
would develop CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS among the former, hence ushering a proletarian revolution
which will facilitate the creation of a communist society.

- A COMMUNIST SOCIETY - one that is classless and stateless - will arise when class antagonisms fade.

---------- FACISM ------

- FASCISM is an ultranationalist ideology. As such, it subscribes to the idea of a supreme race, whose
members should enjoy the natural resources. It is by nature exclusive as it excludes non members of the
race.

- Fascism was manifested during Mussolini's fascists dictatorship in Italy and Hitler's Nazi dictatorship in
Germany.

- Common values upheld are struggle, leadership, power, heroism, and war.

- The NEW MAN or a hero who is motivated by duty, honor and self sacrifice; and gives unrelenting
obedience to the supreme leader is a fascist ideal.

- Fascism is an anti-character: anti-liberalism, anti-individualism, anti-capitalism, etc.

- Fascists believe in a UNIFIED NATIONAL COMMUNITY or strength through unity. As such, individual
identity is not as important as that of the social group or community.

--------- ANARCHISM --------

- The STATE or any political authority is seen as both evil and unnecessary.

- Anarchists prefer a stateless society. Individuals can best manage their own affairs through voluntary
agreement and cooperation.

- Anarchism is thus at the intersection of liberalism and socialism.

--------- FEMINISM ----------

- Feminism is diverse but its unifying theme is the desire to enhance the SOCIAL ROLE OF WOMEN.

- Society is characterized by SEXUAL or GENDER INEQUALITY.

- The structure of male power must be overturned, hence the belief in gender equality.

- Its strands include liberal feminism, social feminism, and radical feminism. There are also "new
feminisms" that emerges.

-------------- SOCIAL DEMOCRACY ----------

- Social Democrats stand for a balance between the market and the

state, and between the individual and the community.

- This ideology promotes compromise between acceptance of capitalism and the distribution of wealth
according to moral, rather than market principles.

- Social democratic thought is concerned with the weak, vulnerable, and the underdog.

- Compassion, common humanity, freedom, equal opportunities, paternal duty, and care are among the
values social democracy

recognizes.

---------- GREEN POLITICS/ ECOLOGISM ------

- This ideology is linked with the emergence of ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENT. It also rose as a revolt
against industrialization.

- It is concerned with the damages brought by economic development and by the declining quality of
human existence.

- Conventional ideologies are a vehicle of ecologism. ECOSOCIALISM looks at the destruction of the
environment due to capitalism; ECOFEMINISM traces this crisis to male power; and ECOCONSERVATISM
links the cause of conservation to the desire to preserve tradition and Institutions.
--------- COSMOPOLITANISM --------

- Ideological expression of GLOBALIZATION.

- It is a belief in a COSMOPOLIS or a world state. It is thus associated with the project of world
government.

- Modern cosmopolitanism tends to have a moral or a cultural character, believing that the world
constitutes a single moral community.

- Cosmopolitanism focuses on the idea that all other people in the world have obligations to each other
regardless of nationality, ethnicity, and the like.

GENERALIZATION

You have learned the importance of ideas in shaping the behavior of an individual at the micro level and
the society at large. Political ideologies are powerful such that they shape the structure of a society - the
institutions and the ways of doing things. These ideologies are comprised of beliefs and value systems
that give rise to political processes; they also continue ideas about change and its desired future.
Ideologies are comprised of beliefs and value systems that give rise to political processes; they also
constitute ideas about change and its desired future. Ideologies vary from the classical to the
contemporary ones. These ideologies have different perspectives on various issues, but also have
similarities on a number of respects. The relevance of these ideologies rises and fall depending on their
significance to explain current social, political, and economic circumstances.
LESSON 3 

Political Power

Knowledge will give you power, but character respect

- Bruce Lee
- 

LECTURE 1
Political Power involves three interrelated concepts: legitimacy, authority and
sovereignty.

LEGITIMACY, SOVEREIGNTY, AND AUTHORITY

- Legitimacy refers to the people's perception that their government rules rightfully, and
thus must be obeyed.
- Sovereignty speaks of the ability of a national government to be the sole leader, which
has the last word of law in that society.
- Authority is seen as the political leader's ability to command respect and exercise
power.

------- Dimensions of Power -------

Power comes in different faces or dimensions. It can be considered as decision-making,
agenda setting, or thought control.

Power as Decision-Making
- Power is perceived as the influence on the content of decisions. Who decides, what to
be made, and how to execute such decision all involve power.

Power as Agenda Setting

- Power involves the ability to set or control political agenda, highlighting one at the
exclusion of other issues.

Power as Thought Control

- Power is seen as an ideological indoctrination or a psychological control where one
has the ability to change or shape how another thinks or behaves.
LECTURE 2
POWER AND AUTHORITY. While power is defined as the ability to command
obedience and is rested on coercion, most political systems have developed
mechanisms by which people obey orders. Power is considered as authority when it is
recognized as legitimate. Max Weber distinguished three types of authority: traditional,
rational-legal, and charismatic.

Types of Authority
Traditional
- Authority is based on acceptance of and high regard of traditions. Monarchies are
examples of this type

 Rational-Legal
- Authority is based on impersonal rules and regulations. People obey through a
legitimate command from the leader.

Charismatic
- Obedience is based on personal characteristics of a leader, whose qualities are
considered to be exceptional.

THE EXERCISE OF POWER AND ITS CONSEQUENCES

- Power defines social and political relationships. Who gets what, when, and how much
are usually determined by power. From political systems characterized by democratic
institutions o dictatorships, down to interpersonal relationships between and among
individuals, the struggle for power is ever present.

GENERALIZATION
- Politics can be studied without having a focus on power. Power is the ability to
influence another. It can be also be seen as coercion or the use of intimidation to get
desired outcomes. Power can also be legitimate - that is, the exercise of influence is
recognized and that the governed accords obedience to the leader. Power comes in
various forms and dimensions, and it exists in different levels of relationships: from the
personal level, to the governmental, and up to the international level. It has different
consequences, but what is notable is that it defines all types of relationships. After all,
power involves who gets what, when, and how much.
Lesson 4
States, nations and globalization

"Globalization means we have to re examine our ideas, and look at ideas from other
countries, other cultures, and open ourseleves to them."

Herbie Hancock

BIG IDEA

Because the state exercises public authority, it is considered as a very powerful entity.
However, this is challenged by several phenomena, such as globalization.

LECTURE 1

STATES, GOVERNMENTS, AND NATIONS

The state is a political community that has sovereign jurisdiction over a clearly defined
territory, and exercise authority through several institutions, including

the government. Heywood (2013) offers five features of a state:

1. It is sovereign.
2. Its institutions are public.
3. It is an exercise of legitimation.
4. It is an instrument of domination.
5. It is a territorial association.

FOUR ELEMENTS OF STATE

- Sovereignty refers to both jurisdiction (the ability of a state to exercise its authority
over its territory and people) and independence (the freedom from external control).
- Government is the machinery of the state through which the people's will is formulated
and carried out.
- Territory includes all the land, sea, and airspace the state exercises jurisdiction on.
- People or population is the organization of human beings living together as a
community.
There are several classifications of states depending on the perspective one conforms
to. Roskin (2012) claims that while no international tribunal classifies states based on
strength, analyst provide three categories.

Effective
- The state controls and taxes the entire territory.
- Laws are mostly obeyed.
- The state provides general welfare and security.
- There exists only minor corruption.

Weak
- Crime has penetrated politics.
- Government is weak in fighting lawlessness, corruption, and poverty.
- Justice is bought and elections are often rigged.
- Governmental revenues go to private pockets.

Failed
- No national government exists.
- The state is ruled by warlords, private army, and militias.
- "Gun" is the law.
- Education and health standards decline.

LECTURE 2
Roskin (2012) held that a state is a powerful entity strong enough to enforce its will.
Political institutions, the working structures of government, are important in the ertan
proper functioning of a state. As what you have learned in module 1, the government
serves as a mechanism of the state, through which the will of the people is expressed,
and formulated, and carries out. One way of studying political institutions is through
identifying the locus of power - that is, by asking the question, "Who governs?"

From this, governments may be classified in several ways. One of the earliest
classifications was that of Aristotle. He distinguished governments based on who
governs and whether or not such government is positive (legitimate) or negative
(corrupt). The table below present's Aristotle's classic work
Aristotle's Six Types of Governments

Who governs? How many?

- one
- few
- many

Positive Forms
- monarchy
- asistocracy
- polity

Negative Forms 
- Tyranny
- Oligarchy
- Democracy

Now that you have learned these basics, how different then is a state from a
government
 There are eral key difference according to Heywood (2013).

Key Distinctions between State and Government

State: More extensive; it encompasses all institutions and citizens

Government: An element/part of the state; it is the means through which state authority
is exercised

State: Continuing and permanent entity

Government: Temporary and can be changed from time to time

State: Exercises impersonal authority; its personnel are trained in bureaucratic ways
Government: The "government of the day" is ideologically biased
 
State: Represents the interest of the society or the common good
Government: Represents the interests of those in power at a given period
How about nation? How different is it from a state and form a government? If a state is a
political community bound by political obligations, a nation is a group of people bound
together by commonalities in language, history, traditions, and religion. In this case, a
nation is not just cultural, but could be a political as well - especially when the people
share a common civic consciousness. Although not necessary, a nation can also be
seen as psychological when people share loyalty or affection in the form of patriotism
(Heywood 2013).

The integration of the state and the nation forms the nation-state. This political
organization is widely recognized today. As an entity, its strength relies on the fusion of
both the cultural and political aspects present in a state and in a nation, allowing for
cultural cohesion and at the same time political unity. However, nation-states have been
met with challenges, including, but not limited to, the growth of ethnic politics and
globalization. How has globalization influenced the nation-state?

LECTURE 3
Globalization is considered to be the most important threat to the nation-state. But what
is this phenomenon? What impact does it have to people and nation-states? Heywood
(2013) defined globalization as the process through which societies have become so
intertwined or interconnected that events and decisions in one part of the world have
significant effects on the lives of people in the other part of the world, Transformations in
production of goods and the flow of financial capital can be a result of the further
integration of economies in the world economy. For example, changes in domestic
politics and economy of the Philippines can actually be caused by events happening in
different countries. To illustrate this, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) Integration may have caused the developments in Philippine educational
policies (e.g., the implementation of the K to 12 Basic Education Program) so that the
movement of students within the member-countries will be "free-flowing" too. How and
why does this happen? What are the characteristics of globalization as a phenomenon?
Heywood (2013) enumerates its features.
 1. Declining relevance of geographical distance
2. Lessening significance of territorial boundaries
3. Deepening and broadening of political processes, such that the local, national, and
global events constantly interact.

Globalization resulted in a growing interdependence among actors, activities, and

processes all over the world. Several forms of globalization can be identified, of which
Heywood (2013) listed three economic, cultural, and political. The following table
summarizes the key features of these forms of globalization and enumerates some
examples.
----- forms of globalization --------
Forms : 
- Economic Globalization

Features/Characteristics :
- All economies have been integrated in a global economy.
 
Manifestations/Examples :
- Internationalized production
- Financial capital flowing freely between countries

Forms : 
- Cultural Globalization

Features/Characteristics : 
- Information, commodities, and images from one part of the world make cultural:
differences between nations and individual less significant.

Manifestations/Examples :
- McDonaldization or what George Ritzer (1993) called as bureaucracies leads to
rationalization that Max Weber found in extended to fast-food chains. This then
standardization af processes such as production.
- Information revolution
- Global brands penetrating the local scene

Forms : 
- Political Globalization

Features/Characteristics : 
- The importance of international organizations, transitional organizations, and
nongovernmental organizations is being recognized.

Manifestations/Examples :
- Influence on domestic issues of organizations such as the United Nations, World
Trade Organization, World Bank, Asian Development Bank, International Red Cross,
and World Wide Fund for Nature.
GENERALIZATION
- In ordinary language, the terms nation, state, and government are used
interchangeably. In this module, you have seen how different these terms are from each
other. The Philippines is both a state and a nation. As a state, it is composed of
elements such as people, territory, government, and sovereignty. As a nation, the
Philippines is comprised of individuals who share certain commonalities as to language,
identity, tradition, or history and who share a feeling of unity and belongingness with
that imagined community. Globalization as a phenomenon poses threats to the
existence of the Philippine nation-state, or at least, for those who are skeptic about it.
Lesson 5 Historical Background of Philippine Democratic Politics

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT The evolution of Philippine politics may

be presented through various historical periods that the country has undergone. it is divided
as follows:

1. Precolonial Period (before 1565)

2. SPANISH PERIOD (1565-1898)
3. Revolutionary Period (1868-1898)
4. American Period 91898-1941)
5. Japanese Occupation (1941-1945)
6. Postwar Era or the Third Philippine Republic (1946-1971)
7. Martial Law Era and the Fourth Republic (1981-1986)
8. Post-EDSA or the Fifth Republic (1986-present)

1. Precolonial Period (before 1565)

- a painting by Fernando Amorsolo depicting Lapulapu, a datu of Mactan
- the datu occupied the highest rank in the barangay, the most basic political unit in
precolonoa; Philippines and up to this day
- The painting by Manuel Pañares depicts trade at Port of Sugbu. Foreign trade was existent
long beofre the Europeans arrived in the Philippines
- this painting by Fernando Amorsolo depicts Princess Urduja. Women during the precolonial
times exercised a multitude of powers and privileges and enjoyed a high status
- Even before the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines in 1521, there already existed a system
of governance in precolonial Philippines.
- Back then, the Philippines was an archipelago organized into several independent and self-
sufficient political units known as the BARANGAY.
- This unit is headed by a chief as the DATU.
- Present also during the precolonial times was the system of stratification. The stratification
was based on class, which include:
a. nobility(maharlika)
b. freeman (timawa)
C. the serf (aliping namamahay)
d. the slaves (aliping sagigilid)
2. Spanish Period (1565-1898)
- Ferdinand Magellan's arrival in the Philippines in 1521 became the Spanish crown's basis for
the occupation of the archipelago.
- Thereafter, a number of expeditions were sent to formally colonize the archipelago.
- However, it was only during Miguel de Lopez conquest of the islands in1565 did the formal
establishment of a colonial government take place.
- The precolonial government was characterized by independent barangay, the Spaniards
consolidated power under a centralized government which was led by the GOVERNOR-
GENERAL.
- With his authority based in Manila (intramuros), the governor- general was likewise an all-
powerful individual.
- Recognizing the influence of the datus for the easier pacification of natives, the Spaniards
appointed the chieftains as the CABEZA DE BARANGAY.
- The unified barangays composed the pueblos or town which were led by the
GOBERNADORCILLO (LITTLE GOVERNOR).
- The consolidated towns then form into provinces which could be categorized into two:
a. alcaldia- provinces fully subjugated headed by ALCALDE MAYOR.
b. corregimiento- provinces that were not entirely pacified under spansh authority led by
CORREGIDOR.
- ROYAL AUDIENCIA- is an independent body created to hear and solve cases. - audiencias
were established in MANILA, CEBU, VIGAN.

3. Revolutionary Period (1868-1898)

- the Pacific and europe based members of the Propaganda Movement were from elite and
wealthy
- a Carlos V. francisco painting that depicts the Philippines Revolution of 1896
- The PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT, led by key figures such as Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar
and Graciano Lopez Jaena advocated reforms such that the same rights and freedoms being
enjoyed in Spain would also be granted to Filipinos.
- They also wrote novels, manifestos and articles that called for reforms.
- However, the failure of the propaganda to initiate changes in the society gave birth to a
secret association (1).
- As an organization, the katipunan adopted its own form of government, which had national
and local levels.
- The katipunan was governed by the:
1. kataastaasang sanggunian( supreme council) - which was composed of the president,
secretary/ies, treasurer and fiscal.
2. sangguniang balangay (provincial council)
3. sangguniang bayan (popular council)
4. sangguniang hukuman (judicial council)

- Events, however, led to the division of the kaatipunan into two factions:
a. the Magdalo
b. Magdiwang

On march 22, 1897, the Tejeros Convention was called, where Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo was
elected as President.
- On November 1, 1897, Aguinaldo established the BIAK-NA-BATO REPUBLIC. Its constitution
declared the creation of an independent Philippine state.

4. American Period
- The Treaty of Paris was signed on 10 December 1898
- a photograph of Filipino soldiers during the Filipino-American war
- The signing of the TREATY OF PARIS signaled the end of the Spanish-American war.
- The treaty involved United States payment of $20 million to Spain after the latter ceded all as
imperial possessions including Puerto Rico, Guam and Philippines.

William H. Taft

-became the fist civil governor of the Philippines. The civil governor act as the head of the
executive branch and also exercised legislative power as the head of the Philippine
Commission, a law making body whose members were all appointed

- in 1902, the Philippine act (cooper act) was enacted which provide for the creation of a
Philippines legislature
- by 1916, the Philippines autonomy act (jones law) provided for the reorganization of ther
Philippines legislature into a fully elected and Filipino- controlled bicameral body

- until in 1934, tydings- Mcduffie Act (Philippine Independent Art) was ratified by the US
Congress

- It is established the Philippines Commonwealth, which provided for a 10 year transition

period that would prepare the Filipinos for self governance

- President manuel Quezon and Vice President Sergio Osmena header first commonwealth
government

5. Japanese Occupation

- the Japanese occupation of manila signaled the establishment of the Japanese Military
Administration on January 3, 1942

- an initial move, the Japanese military forces established the Philippines executive
commission (PEC) a civil government that would temporary rule the country

- In 1943, a new constitution was promulgated and the Japanese sponsored Philippine
Republic was established.
- JOSE P. LAUREL served as its president, also called the SECOND REPUBLIC. Second
Republic is commonly referred to as a PUPPET GOVERNMENT.

6. Postwar Era
- The structure of postwar Philippine politics and government was founded on the 1935
constitution.
- The first president of the third republic was Manuel Roxas, followd by Elpidio Quirino, Ramon
Magsaysay, Carlos P. Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal and the first term of Ferdinand Marcos.
- Marcos second term saw changes in the governmental structure and the ratification of a new
constitution in 1973.
- manual roxas took hus oath of office during the Independence Day ceremony on 4 July 1946

7. Martial Law Era and the Fourth republic (1981-1986)

- In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos was elected to the presidency and his administration was
characterized by an :
A. INCREASED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIVITY
B. MASSIVE INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
C. DEFINING DIPLOMATIC POLICY

- In 1969, he ran for reelection and succeeded, making him the only president under the 1935
constitution to be elected for a second term. That time, however the country was undergoing
worsening economic condition, deteriorating peace and order, social discontent and a
growing communist insurgency.
- Under Marcos administration, a new constitution was adopted in 1973.
- The 1973 constitution provided that the Philippines will have a modified parliamentary form
of government. G
- During Martial law, the political rights and civil liberties of the people as well as their human
rights were suppressed and violated.
- Marcos lifted martial law by 1981, he continued to exercise dictatorship powers.
- Calls to end his dictatorial regime brought Filipinos to take to the streets to participate in a
popular and nonviolent uprising called the EDSA PEOPLE POWER which ousted Marcos and
ended his dictatorial rule.

8. POST-EDSA OR THE FIFTH REPUBLIC

- The period from 1986 onward is the restoration of democracy. The fall of the dictatorship
marked the shift toward redemocratization and return to constitutionalism.
- A revolutionary government was created following Corazon Aquino's ascent to presidency.
- When the new Philippine Constitution was ratified in 1987, a democratic and republican
government was established.
- The POST-EDSA era also known as the FIFTH REPBULIC.
- CORAZON AQUINO served as the first [resident of the fifth republic. Followed by FIDEL
RAMOS, JOSEPH ESTRADA after being dispose by the EDSA PEOPLE POWER II.
- ESTRADA was succeeded by his vice president GLORIA MACAPAGAL ARROYO, followed by
BENIGNO AQUINO.
- Today, the Philippines is headed by RODRIGO DUTERTE, the first president to have hailed
from Mindanao.
GENERALIZATION
You have read in this module the brief overview on how Philippine politics and government
transformed through time. Nonetheless, this module point out the current development in the
country's political landscape which are heavily influenced by the past. There are several
institutions and political processes that traced their roots from the precolonial up to the
colonial period. The structure of Philippine politics to date is not only a reflection of the
country's struggle with colonialism but also with dictatorship. After all, the return to
democracy and constitutionalism, through the 1987 Constitution, is a reflection of the nation's
victory against the authoritarian system. While it is true that the Philippines espouses
democratic ideals, the extent and real essence of democracy are definitely challenged in the
present time. This is addressed in the succeeding modules.

Lesson 6 The Executive

The Philippines has a presidential, unitary, and republican system of government.

Under a presidential system of government, the executive, legislative and judiciary branches
are separate and distinct from each other.

SEPARATION OF POWERS
- This means that each of the branches has its own powers and responsibilities and that each
is expected to work in its own sphere.

CHECKS AND BALANCES

- Is a constitutional guarantee which assures that one branch does not abuse its powers. One
branch is granted powers to check on the others exercise of privileges.
PRINCIPLE OF SEPARATION OF POWERS:

1. EXECUTIVE POWER- power to put law into action.

2. JUDICIAL POWER- power to make judgements on law.
3. LEGISLATIVE POWER- power to make and change law

EXECUTIVE POWER
- is the power to implement laws in one country.
- if the legislature's task is to create or make laws while the judiciary's duty is to interpret or
apply these laws, the executive branch of three government is vested the power to execute
these laws and make sure that they are properly implemented.

Qualifications, Elections, and Terms of Office of the President and Vice President, as Provided
for in the Article VII of the 1987 Constitution

Public Official
- President
- Vice President

Qualifications
1. A natural born citizen
2. A registered voter
3. Able to read and write
4. Atleast 40 years of age on the day of election
5. A resident of tha Philippines of atleast 10 years immediately preceding his or her election
Manner of Election
- The president and vice president shall be elected by a direct vote of the people (Section 4)
- The person having the highest number of votes (plurality method) shall be elected.

Term of Office
- Six years the term begins at noon on June 30. The president shall not be eligible for
reelection. (Section 4, Paragraph 1)
- Six years the vice president shall not serve for more than two successive terms. (Section 4,
Paragraph 1)

POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT:

The Philippine president is granted specific powers by the constitution. The following are
some of his or her powers:
1. Control over all executive departments, bureaus and offices.
2. Power of general supervision over local governments and autonomous regions.
3. Power to nominate, appoint and remove officials.
4. Budgetary and fiscal power.
5. Military power (him or her being the commander in chief of the armed forces of the
Philippines.
6. Power to contract or guarantee foreign loans on behalf of the country.
7. Pardoning power
8. Powers to check other branches of the government.

CHECKS ON THE PRESIDENT'S POWER:

Here are the ways on how the president's exercise of power is checked:
- The congress specifies the conditions and restrictions of certain powers it assigns to the
president.
- Only through the authorization and specifications of congress could the president exercise
power of taxation.
- The Congress can request the department heads under the executive department to appear
and be heard on any matters pertaining to their corresponding departments.
- The Congress can override the president's veto by two-thirds vote in each house.
- The Supreme Court may declare executive orders and proclamations unconstitutional.
- The Supreme Court may review the declaration of martial law and suspension of the writ of
habeas corpus.

PHILIPPINE PRESIDENTS DURING THE CONTEMPORARY PERIOD (FIFTH REPUBLIC)

CORAZON C. AQUINO
- Has been regarded as the icon of Philippine democracy.
- It was during her term that the Philippines found its way back to democracy and
constitutionalism.
- Her leadership directed redemocratization in the Philippines, that is rebuilding of democratic
political institutions that were abolished during Marcos time.
- It was under her administration that elections and other mechanisms for popular
participation in governmental affairs including political parties and civil society were restored.

FIDEL V. RAMOS
- Is known for his vision of Philippines 2000. - His administration opened the Philippine
economy to foreign investors, prompting increased investments in the country after martial
law.
- Ramos dealt well with the members of the Philippine legislature through the rainbow
coalition strategy directed by the speaker Jose de Venecia.
- He also modernized the Armed Forces, the Commission on Elections, the Department of
Justice, and the Sandiganbayan.
JOSEPH E. ESTRADA
- He was a former movie star
- He became known for his charisma and appeal to the masses.
- But because of plunder and corruption in the government, he was deposed and was
succeeded by his vice president.
- Was known as the president of the masses.
- His campaign battle cry" erap para sa mahirap" brought hope to the masa (lower class
people) who saw him as the president who could relate to them.
- He was eventually disposed in 2001 when the Pilipino called for his resignation in the EDSA
PEOPLE POWER 11.

GLORIA MACAPAGAL ARROYO

- A former member of the congress, she rose to power in the EDSA People Power II when she
as vice president assumed the country's top governmental post after Estrada was ousted.
- In 2004, she was elected for a fresh presidential term, where she served until 2008, amidst
issues of massive electoral fraud against Fernando Poe Jr.
- Her primary agenda was known as the STRONG REPUBLIC.
- Legislative- executive relations were definitely excellent during the time of arroyo because
unlike her predecessor, she was more familiar and skillful in dealing with the members of the
congress.
- While impeachment complaints were attempted due to the issue of massive electoral fraud
during the 2004 elections- infamously known as the "HELLO GARCI" scandal
- It did not prosper as she was supported by her allies in the congress.

BENIGNO S. AQUINO III

- He started to rise power when the people called for him to run as president months after his
mother died in 2009.
- In 2010, he won the presidential election and became the 15th president of the country.
- He began his effort to get rid of a corruption - laden government via the campaign slogan
"daang matuwid".
- The aquino administration efforts to address systematic corruption have received favorable
commendations from both international and local organizations which resulted in the
improvement of the country performance on corruption and political stability.
- However, the Priority Development Assistance fund (PDAF) scam rocked the administration
efforts towards "DAANG MATUWID" and its promise of good governance, greater
transparency and accountability.
- In 2012, the government and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) signed a peace
agreement.
- The agreement served as the framework agreement that would create an autonomous
political entity called BANGSAMORO, which will replace the Autonomous Region in Muslim
Mindanao (ARMM).
- The BILL called BANGSAMORO BASIC LAW that would have established this political entity
was not passed because it was met with strong public opposition after the Mamasapano
incident in Maguindanao, where 44 PNP SPECIAL ACTION FORCE commandos were killed
after a MISENCOUNTER with the Moro Rebels.
- Aquino's administration also saw a reform in the education sector after the ENCHANCED
BASIC EDUCATION ACT OF 2013 was signed. Finally, the Aquino administration has also been
very outspoken in defending the country's sovereignty and territorial integrity in the West
Philippine Sea after China claims in Sovereign rights.

RODRIGO R. DUTERTE
- Before being elected as president, Rodrigo Duterte was the longest serving mayor of Davao
City for a total of seven terms.
- running with the campaign slogan "CHANGE IS COMING" primarily with a platform of having
a corruption free government and crime and drug free society
- Duterte won as president with a total of 16 601 997 votes or 39% of the total votes cast in
the May 2016 elections.

You have learned in this module the nature of executive power. It is the power of the executive
branch to implement the laws created by the legislature. Under Article VII, Section 1 of the
1987 Constitution, executive power is vested in the President of the Philippines. The
Constitution provides qualifications and prohibitions to the president, but equally important
are the political skills and the political will needed in addressing the key issues in the
government - from social welfare, economic development, public accountability, transparency,
to good governance, among many others. The Philippine president is challenged by the culture
of patronage and the use of popularity appeal rather than programs-based stance and
reforms. The extent to which the succeeding presidents address these issues determines the
strength of their administrations and the type of legacies they will leave the Filipino people.
Lesson 7 the legislative

LEGISLATIVE POWER

- Legislative power is the legislative branch creates the laws which the executive implements
and which the judiciary interprets.
- ARTICLEVI, Section 1 of the 1987 constitution provides that the power to enact laws is
vested in the PHILIPPINE CONGRESS.
A. Comprised of SENATE
B. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

The Philippine Congress

Composition
Senate: 24
House of representatives: 250 (unless otherwise fixed by law)

Manner of Election
Senate: elected a large (or nationwide) by qualified
House of representatives: by district proportional representation and by party-list

Term of office
Senate: six years
House of representatives: three years

Maximum Term of Office

Senate: two consecutive terms
House of representatives: three consecutive terms

Qualifications of the members of congress

Senate
- atleast 35 years old
- registered voter
- able to read and write
- natural born citizen
- resident of the Philippines for not less than 2 years

House of Representatives
- atleast 25 years old
- registered voter in the district (except in the party list)
- able to read and write
- natural born citizen
- resident of the district for not less than a year

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CONGRESS

The 1987 Constitution sets limits to the Congress's exercise of power to create laws. For
instance, the Congress shall not pass a law that abridges the freedom of speech, expression,
and the like (Article III, Sections 4-5, 10, and 22). Similarly, it is provided that the Congress may
not increase appropriations recommended by the President (Article VI, Section 25); that the
rule of taxation shall be uniform and equitable; and that tax exemptions to charitable
institutions (and the like) shall be provided (Article VI, Section 29).

The Congress is also given powers to check on the powers of the president. Among these are:

- Check the president's power to appropriate money for government use (Article VI, Section
25).
- Provide consent on appointments made by the president (Article VI, Section 16)
- Request heads of executive departments to appear before the Congress (Article VI, | Section
22).
- Check the president's power as commander in chief in the suspension of writ of habeas
corpus or declaration of martial law (Article VII, Section 17).
- Concur with president in granting amnesty to individuals (Article VII, Section 19).

The members of the Congress shall be the only judge of all contests related to the election,
returns, and qualification of their respective members, and through the House and Senate
Electoral Tribunals. The Senate shall also have the sole power to decide on all cases of
impeachment by two-thirds votes. The Congress may also punish its members for disorderly
behavior (Article VI, Section 16).

With respect to international relations, the Congress also exercises functions known as
diplomatic powers. The following are good examples:
- Declaration of the existence of a state of war [Article VI, Section 23(1)]
- Granting of emergency powers to the President in times of war or emergency [Article VI,
Section 23(2)]
- No treaty or international agreement shall be valid and effective unless concurred in by at
least two-thirds of all the members of the Senate (Article VII, Section 21).

THE LAWMAKING PROCESS AND LEGISLATIVE PERFORMANCE THE BASIC ON HOW A BILL
BECOMESA LAW:
Pa1. Preparation of the bill
2. First reading
3. Committee consideration/ action
4. Second reading
5. Third reading
6. Transmittal of approved bill to the other house ( where procedures 1 to 5 also happen)
7. Conference committee (it there are differences or disagreements)
8. Submission of the bill to the president.
9. Presidential action on the bill.

If the president approves the bill, the same is assigned an RA (Republic Act) number and is
then transmitted to the house where it originated. Afterwards, copies of the bill are
reproduced and sent to the office of the OFFICIAL GAZETTE for publication and distribution to
the implementing agencies. Finally, it will be included in the annual compilation of acts and
resolutions.

If the bill is vetoed, it is transmitted to the House where it originated together with the
message of the president citing the reason for the bill's disapproval. The Congress may
decide to override the veto of the president. If two-thirds of the members in each house vote
to override the veto, then the bill becomes a law.
GENERALIZATION
- Under a presidential system of government, the three branches of the government exercise
separate powers from each other. You have learned that it is in the Philippine Congress where
the power to create or enact laws and policies are vested. Important issues like poverty,
criminality, welfare, social equality, and economic development are addressed through these
laws or policies. Thus, the Congress plays an important role in the socioeconomic and
political developments of the country. It is important to take note that executive-legislative
relations also affect the quality of legislation. The structure and composition of the Congress
also has a definite role to play in this prospect. The issues of patronage, presence of political
dynasties, and exclusivist character haunt the Philippine legislature. The restored Philippine
Congress following EDSA People Power in 1986 is faced with several challenges, including the
prospect of institutional reform. Nonetheless, reform in the Philippine legislature is not only a
concern of the said body but also of the different branches of the government and the civil
society.
Lesson 8 The Judiciary

JUDICIAL POWER
- The power to decide on legal disputes.
- Article VIII, section 1 of 1987 constitution provides that judicial power shall be vested in one
Supreme Court and in such other lower courts as may be established by law.

THE INDEPENDENCE OF THE PHILIPPINE JUDICIARY IS MANIFESTED IN THE FOLLOWING:

1. Creation of the judicial and bar council
2. Expanded power of judicial review
3. Fiscal autonomy of the judiciary
4. Power to review proclamation of martial law and suspension of the writ of habeas corpus.
5. Security of tenure of the judges
6. The supreme court as judge in presidential elections.

STRUCTURE, ORGANIZATION, AND COMPOSITION OF JUDICIARY

The present judiciary is comprised of regular courts tasked to administer justice. These are
organized into four, the first two being review courts and the last two being trial courts:
1. Supreme Court
2. Court of Appeals
3. Regional Trial Courts
4. Metropolitan Trial Courts Municipal Trial Courts Municipal Circuit Trial Courts Municipal
Trial Courts In Cities

THERE ARE ALSO SPECIAL COURTS, WHICH ARE TRIBUNALS THAT HAVE LIMITED
JURISDICTION OVER CERTAIN CASES OR CONTROVERSIES:

1. SHARI'A COURT - which has the powers similar to the regular courts but the subjects to
over whom judicial powers are exercised limited to Muslim Filipinos.
2. COURT OF TAX APPEALS - which retains exclusive appellate jurisdiction to review by appeal
not only civil tax cases but also those that are criminal in nature.
SANDIGANBAYAN- is a special court that has jurisdiction over civil cases (including graft,
corruption and other offenses) committed by public officers and employees and those in
government owned or government controlled corporations.

THE EXPANDED JUDICIAL SYSTEM OF THE PHILIPPINES ALSO INCLUDES QUASI COURTS OR
QUASI-JUDICIAL AGENCIES:

1. Civil Service Commission

2. Commission on Election
3. Commission on Audit

THE SUPREME COURT

- The Supreme Court is also known as the court of last resort. It is composed of a chief justice
and 14 associate justices.
POWERS OF THE SUPREME COURT
- According to the 1987 Constitution, Article VIII, Section 5, the Supreme Court exercises the
following powers:
1. Exercise jurisdiction over cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls,
and over petitions for certiorari, prohibition, mandamus, quo warranto, and habeas corpus.
2. Review, revise, reverse, modify, or affirm, on appeal or certiorari, as the law or the Rules of
Court may provide, final judgments and orders of the lower courts in:
- All cases in which the constitutionality or validity of any treaty, international or executive
agreement, law, presidential decree, proclamation, order, instruction, ordinance, or regulation
is in question;
- All cases involving the legality of any tax, impost, assessment, or toll, or any penalty imposed
in relation thereto;
- All cases in which the jurisdiction of any lower court is in issue;
- All criminal cases in which the penalty imposed is reclusion perpetua or higher;
- All cases in which only an error or question of law is involved;

3. Assign temporarily judges of lower courts to other stations as public interest may require.
Such temporary assignments shall not exceed six months
4. without the consent of the judge concerned. Order a change of venue or place of trial to
avoid a miscarriage of justice.
5. Promulgate rules concerning the protection and enforcement of constitutional rights,
pleading, practice, and procedure in all courts; the admission to the practice of law, the
Integrated Bar; and legal assistance to the underprivileged. Such rules shall provide a
simplified and inexpensive procedure for the speedy disposition of cases, shall be uniform for
all courts the same grade, and shall not diminish, increase or modify substantive rights. Rules
of procedure of special courts and quasi-judicial bodies shall remain effective unless
disapproved by the Supreme Court.
6. Appoint all officials and employees of the Judiciary in accordance with the
Civil Service Law

GENERALIZATION
In the post-Martial Law period, the Philippine Judiciary was established as an independent
branch of government, protected from influence by any instrumentality, agency, or individual.
This remains to be an immense challenge even at present. As the bulwark of liberty, the
independence of the judiciary must at all times be protected. It protects the people from an
oppressive individual or government. The prospect of judicial reform has not only been a
concern of the institutions of the government. The stakeholders including the citizens,
business or private sector, and even international governmental and nongovernmental
organizations - have roles to play in this agenda.

Lesson 9 decentralization and local governance

DECENTRALIZATION
- transfer of power and authority from central institution to lower or local levels of a
government system
- according to Raul P. De Guzman, generally refers to the systematic and rational dispersal of
power, authority and responsibility from the center to the periphery, from top to lower levels,
or from national to local governments
FORMS OF DECENTRALIZATION

1. Deconcentration
- It involves the redistribution of administrative responsibilities within the central government.

Example:
The shifting of workload from the central government agency to its own field staff outside the
national capital.

2. Delegation to semi-autonomous or parastatal organizations

- It involves the delegation of decision-making and management authority for specific
functions to bodies that are not under the direct control of the central government.

Example:
Public corporations, and regional planning and area development authorities.

3. Devolution
- It involves the process by which the central government relinquishes certain functions to
local government units. It thus seeks to strengthen or to create independent levels or unit of
government. It is an arrangement where there are reciprocal, mutually beneficial, and
coordinated relationships between central and local governments.

4. Transfer of Functions from government to nongovernment institutions It involves the

transfer of planning and administrative powers or functions to voluntary, private, or
nongovernmental institutions.

WHAT IS LOCAL GOVERNMENT?

LOCAL GOVERNMENT

It pertains to the activity by which local officials, both elected and appointed, implement the
goals and manage the resources of the local government unit

STRUCTURE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT

-naka mark sa module

Levels of the Philippine local government

- naka mark sa module

PROVINCE
The largest unit in the political structure of the Philippines. It consists, in varying I | numbers,
of municipalities and, in some cases, of component cities. Its functions and duties in I |
relation to its component cities and municipalities are generally coordinative and supervisory.

CITY
There are three classes of cities in the Philippines: the highly urbanized, the independent
component cities which are independent of the province, and the component cities which are
part of the provinces where they are located and subject to their administrative supervision.

MUNICIPALITY
Is a political corporate body which is endowed with the facilities of a municipal corporation,
exercised by and through the municipal government in conformity with law. It is a subsidiary
of the province which consists of a number of barangays within its territorial boundaries, one
of which is the seat of government found at the town proper (poblacion).

/BARANGAY

The smallest political unit into which cities and municipalities in the Philippines are divided. It
is the basic unit of the Philippine political system. It consists of less than 1,000 inhabitants
residing within the territorial limit of a city or municipality and administered by a set of elective
officials, headed by a barangay chairman (punong barangay).
EVOLUTION OF PHILIPPINE LOCAL GOVERNMENT

THEN NOW
Cabeza de barangay Barangay Kapitan
alkalde City Alkalde
Alkalde mayor province gobernador

The national government consists of the machinery of the central government, as

differentiated from the local governments, which are political subdivisions that have
substantial control over local affairs. Each local government unit has a set of locally elected
and appointed officers, their functions being mandated by the 1991 Local Government Code.
The post-1986 period aimed at strengthening local governments for self-governance and
sufficiency given the fact that people are closer to their local government than to the central
government. The idea of decentralization lies in the simple logic that local governments are
expected to better address issues since they can easily determine the problems of their
constituents. However, decentralization - specifically devolution - has its fair share of
successes and failures. While it has led to significant improvements, the prospect of
decentralization in the country is still confronted with issues and challenges. Local
governments may be able to identify problems instantly, but they are not equipped with both
expertise and resources to these problems. Nonetheless, the future of decentralization is
determined by a number of factors including, but not limited to, the context of globalization,
civil society, popular participation, and central-local relations.

Spanish-american war ended because of the signing of what treaty?

-treaty of paris

Who is the 4th president of the Philippines?

 - Sergio osmena sr.

The only Philippines president to be elected for a second term

- Ferdinand marcos

What year Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines

-1521

It was form of government during pre-colonial period

- Barangay

Independent body to hear and solve public dispute and cases

- Royal audiencia

The year a formal establishment of a colonial government take place?

- 1565

How much did the united states pay to the spain to cede their possessions to Philippines?

- 20 million

The datus appointed as

- Cabeza de barangay

Which among the following colonial period

- 1521

American period starts

- 1898
The 1st president of the 5th republic of the Philippines

- Corazon aquino

The lowest class in precolonial perio

- Slaves

The 1st president elected from Mindanao

- Rodrigo

The countries united states paid for the spain to ceded all imperial possessions

- Puerto rico, guam nad Philippines

The katip[unan was governed by the

- Kataastaasang sangunian, sanguaniang balanagy, sanguguniang bayan, sangguniang

hukuman

The first governor general of the precolonial government consolidated by the Spaniards

- Miguel lopez de legazpi

Spanish period starts in the Philippines in the year?

- 1565

The two factions of kkk?

- Magdalo at magdiwang

In what ordinal order in presidency of the Philippines is Rodrigo Duterte

- 16th