I.

FUNDAMENTALS OF LOGIC
• Contradictions are a good example of a philosophical Why Philosophy?
problem. • In the natural level, the most perfect form of wisdom is
If everything is here, where is nothing? attained through Philosophy. It provides foundation to all
Why is there something rather than nothing? other disciplines.
Why do we think we are free given that our • Examples:
choices are materially conditioned? Philosophy: Beings as Beings
Why does evil exist if there is God? All other disciplines: Beings as a man, dog, plant,
• What makes a problem philosophical is how we develop the day, night, time, place, anything, even nothing (or
problem with the depth and rigor of a theory. non-Beings)
• Philosophy may never be rigidly measured with the solutions • Philosophical problems inquires about the highest form of
it could produce. It is measured rather on how a philosophy knowledge (wisdom) and also become avenues for
develops a problem. development in all fields of thought and disciplines. (The
Medieval Definition of Philosophy: “Mother of all sciences
PHILOSOPHY and arts”)
• The term “philosophy” comes from the Greek philosophia • Philosophy safeguards the integrity of all disciplines as it
which literally means “love of wisdom.” problematizes the highest forms of thought created by man.
philia – love The seven liberal arts safeguards the integrity of discipline.
sophos – wisdom
• It was Pythagoras who first coined the term “philosophy” III. STRUCTURE OF THE LIBERAL ARTS EDUCATION
• “Generally, to philosophize means to theoretically consider (From 6th Century to Renaissance Period)
all things in a study or reflection. But philosophizing is a
complex process of thought.” (Alfredo Co, “What is to TRIVIUM
philosophize?”)  Arts of language pertaining to the Mind
• “Philosophy is the science of all things through their ultimate Grammar Rhetoric Dialects (Logic)
causes, reasons, and principles under the light of human  Art of inventing  Art of  Art of thinking
reason alone.” and combining communication
symbols
Philosophy Sophism
 Truth and Wisdom  Fame and Wealth QUADRIVIUM
 Knowledge for the sake of  Knowledge for the sake of  Arts of quantity pertaining to matter
knowing. something else. (e.g. Arithmetic Music Geometry Astronomy
 To make life worth living. money)
 Theory  Application  Theory  Application
 To make a living. of of of of Space
Numbers Numbers Space
What differentiates Philosophy from other fields?
Philosophy concerns the first principles of things.
IV. LOGIC AS A PHILOSOPHICAL BRANCH
(Philosophy as a ground of the science)
• “Pre-philosophical”
Philosophy is both interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary
• Etymology: Logic came from logike (gk.), which means
Philosophy offers a higher form of knowledge: wisdom.
treatise on matters pertaining to thought. It was Zeno of Elea
(wisdom vs. ordinary knowledge and intelligence)
who first introduced the term in such usage.
Philosophy, by nature, is critical. (Considers certain subject-
• Logic is always associated with thinking.
matters not only as objects, but more appropriately as
Only concerned with the “correctness” or the
subjects)
“validity” of reasoning (and not about truth).
Solely interested in the logical necessity
II. BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY
(consequential relation) existing between the
Overall Classification of Branches
premises and the conclusion.
Metaphysics
o General Metaphysics (Ontology)
o Special Metaphysics V. LOGIC AND VALIDITY
 Cosmology • Reasoning is valid if and when the conclusion is necessarily
 Theodicy/ Philosophy of Religion inferred from the premises.
Epistemology (If X, then Y) and (If W, then Z)
Logic X or W
Ethics Therefore, Y or Z
o Normative Ethics
o Metaethics • *logic is interested in the form of reasoning, its validity or
o Integrative Ethics correctness, irrespective of whether or not the premises of
o Applied Ethics this reasoning agree with the facts.
Philosophical Anthropology or Philosophy of the Human
Person VI. ACADEMIC DEFINITION OF LOGIC
Social and Political Philosophy
• Generally, logic is both the science and the art of correct
Aesthetics
inferential thinking.
Sub-branches • The study of the methods and principles used to distinguish
Philosophy of Mind correct from incorrect reasoning. (Q: “Does the conclusion
Philosophy of Science follow its premises?”)
Philosophy of History • The science of demonstration. Logic shows the laws of valid
Philosophy of Language and Hermeneutics inference by their ultimate causes and explanation.
Philosophy of Education
 3. Do not believe in anything simply because it is
VII. NATURE OF LOGIC found written in your religious books.
• … as a science 4. Do not believe in anything merely on the authority
Properly, logic is a science, since it is essentially a of your teachers and elders.
rational system that demonstrates its conclusions. 5. Do not believe in traditions because they have
• … as an art been handed down for many generations.
Virtually, logic is an art, in as much as the laws or 6. But after observation and analysis, when you find
patterns of valid inference, which it establishes, that anything agrees with reason and is conducive
serve to help reason proceed with order, ease, to the good and benefit of one and all, then accept
and error in the art of inferential thinking. it and live up to it.
7. Never stop wondering.
OBJECT OF STUDY (FORMAL AND MATERIAL LOGIC)
Formal Object Formal Logic
Inferential functions of concepts Discusses the conceptual
and propositions or logical patterns or structures needed
relations of propositions (rules for correct and valid inferences.
of education and syllogism, truth It deals with how arguments
tables and validity) may be considered to be valid.
And it is most accurate as
‘treatise pertaining to matters of
thought.’
Material Object Material Logic
Concepts and conceptual Discusses the kinds of matter,
structures (terms, propositions, that is, the nature of the terms
syllogisms, informal fallacies, and premises that are used in
symbols) the different kinds of
demonstrations. (It is related to
epistemology, and critical
thinking).

VIII. IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING LOGIC

It helps one to reason out validly.
It makes us more critical and analytical.
It helps us think systemically.
It helps us detect fallacies and errors in reasoning.
It helps us to distinguish valid from invalid reasoning.
It enables us to persuade people.
It develops in us self-confidence.

Deductive Logic Inductive Logic

 From universal to  From particular to
particular. universal.
 Deduction is the method  Induction is the method by
by which we infer a which we infer a
conclusion from universal conclusion from particular
statements to particular statements to universal
statements. The statements. The
conclusion must always be conclusion can be inferred
firmly supported by the from particular premises,
premises on order for the but never precise as
argument to be valid. deductive statements.

IX. IMMANUEL KANT, “WHAT IS ENLIGHTENMENT?”

• “The only thing we require to be good philosophers is the
faculty of wonder.” (Jostein Gaarder, Sophie’s World)
• In Immanuel Kant’s famous 1784 essay, “Beantwortung der
Frage: Was it Aufklärung”
• He remarks: “Enlightenment is man’s release from his self-
incurred tutelage. Tutelage is man’s inability to make use of
his understanding without direction from another. Self-
incurred is this tutelage when its cause lies not in lack of
reason but in lack of resolution and courage to use it without
direction from another. Sapere Aude! ‘Have courage to use
your own reason! -this is the motto of enlightenment.”
1. Do not believe in anything simply because you
have heard it.
2. Do not believe in anything simply because it is
spoken and rumored by many.