Module 1 5 Crop Scie 101

ILOCOS SUR
POLYTECHNIC STATE
SantaCOLLEGE
Maria Campus
MODULE
I. COURSE CODE: CS 101

Course Title: CROP SCIENCE 101
I Course Unit: 3 units
Contact Hours/ Week: 2 hours Lecture and 3 Hours Laboratory
Prerequisite: Botany
Course Description: The course deals with the Principles of
Crop Production.
OVERVIEW on the MODULES for the CROP SCIENCE 101
I. COURSE TITLE: Crop Science 101
II. COURSE OVERVIEW:

Welcome!
This module was written to fill a need for more texts relevant to Philippine and
Southeast Asian agriculture, which can serve as useful references for beginning
courses in crop science and related subjects. While there are voluminous technical
publications relating to the various aspects of crop agriculture in the region, they
constitute fragmentary and scattered sources of information which are not readily
available to students and other users. This book, thus attempts to put together pertinent
information on new technological developments and concepts that can ultimately
elevate crop production practices to a more efficient state.
This module provides the student basic knowledge on the importance of

Agriculture as a science. It also discusses the science dealing with the study of crops
and the various branches. Additionally, it describes the characteristics of Agriculture as
it occurs in the field as well as the various phases composing a world and domestic food
situation and production centers, describing the development and state of Philippine
Agriculture, the concept of crop science, crop production as a science, art and business
and the classification of crops according to their purpose.
It also provides information about the nature and composition of plants like the
plant cells, the anatomical regions of a plant body and plant organs. It also discusses on
plant life processes like photosynthesis, respiration, translocation, transpiration and
assimilation.
This module also covers some knowledge on the growth and development of
crops like the different phases of growth, factors affecting plant growth, the role and
effects of the different hormones when applied to plants.
Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units
Descriptive Title: Principles of Crop Production
Instructor: Mrs. EVELINA D. RAGUINDIN, MSA
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It also discusses how plants are propagated. The different methods are
discussed to give the beginner instructions in propagating valuable seedless plants.
In this unit it concerns on the different factors affecting crop production. Crop
I production can be viewed from two perspective such as: at the CROP level and at the
SYSTEMS level. It also includes the interaction effect of genotype and the environment
and the practical implication.
Finally, Environmental factors also included for discussion like abiotic factors,
(climatic, and edaphic factors) biotic, genetic and human factors. In the last unit of this
module it discusses on plant breeding, how to improve quality of crops, how to make
crop resistance to pest and diseases, how to improve the agronomic characteristics of a
certain crop and non-shattering characteristics of rice plants. Types of varieties,
multiplication of certain varieties and distribution of newly developed crops is also
included for discussion.
For you my dear student, it is hoped that this module will serve a useful purpose
not only to you, but to agricultural practitioners, agribusiness people, extension
specialists and policy-makers as well.
To assist you along this line, eight modules have been developed to support
deeper understanding along identified topics important for you as future agriculturist.
The modules are as follows:
Module 1. THE NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
Module 2. CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS
Module 3. THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF CROP PLANTS
Module 4. PLANT LIFE PROCESSES
Module 5. GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND REPRODUCTION and PLANT GROWTH
REGULATION
Module 6. . PLANT PROPAGATION
Module 7. FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION
Module 8. CROP IMPROVEMENT AND SEED SELECTION
III. COURSE STUDY GUIDE:
This module was prepared for you, my dear student, to work on your own. To
have the best in working with this module, you are reminded to follow these simple yet
effective guidelines:
1. Manage your time well. A course study schedule is prepared for you to help
you study the modules in this course. The productive use of your time and
energy will help you a lot in finishing the scheduled activities.
2. Focus your attention. The key element for better understanding is having
the focus on the things to be done.
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3. Give your best. Always remember that success will be attained in
everything you do by giving extra effort in the things you are doing. Giving
your best also means observing Honesty in doing the assigned tasks you
are asked to do in this module. Never let someone do the task for you or
I copy the work of your classmates.
4. Submit on time. Work diligently. Do not procrastinate. Remember time is
gold. Work immediately on the task at hand in order for you to follow
scheduled time for submission.
5. Be patient, Motivate yourself. Patience equates success. Always think of
the bright future ahead. And to get there, start moving now.
6. Answer confidently. Study hard, surf the internet, read and read and read
more. The more you know, the more confident you become.
7. Work independently. You can do it! Your future lies in your own hands and
your own decisions. So, practice working independently, trust yourself, be
independent.
8. Contact me. If you have any questions, don’t hesitate to ask me through my
email [email protected] or the group chat created for this class.
IV. COURSE STUDY SCHEDULE:
To keep you on track for the best use of the modules in Crop Science 101, the study schedule is
hereby presented for you to follow:
Week Topic Learning Activities Special Instructions

Week Module 1. . Read Information
Research more information or
1 and 2 THE NATURE on the identified details regarding the topics. Take
AND topics in module note of the important points and
IMPORTANCE OF 1. Write in your Notebook for The
AGRICULTURE Crop Science 101
Answer/Perform Work on the intended learning
 Definition the Intended activity / in-text questions and
 The concept of Learning Activity submit to your instructor. Place
Agriculture: answers in an Activity Notebook.
Stages of Dev’t in Answer/research Work on the assignment then
the Phil. /perform the submit to your instructor on the
 World and Assignment specified date. Written
Domestic Food assignments will be placed in an
Situation and Assignment Notebook.
Production
Answer Compare answers with the
Centers
Assessment or answer key from your instructor.
 Development
Self-Check You must have to get a perfect
and state of
Activity score before proceeding to the
Philippine
next activity, if not re-read the
Agriculture
activity and have a re-take.
 Development
and state of Answer Answer the questions asked in
Philippine questions in the the study guide. Write your
Study Guide answers in short bond papers for
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Agriculture, compilation.
Meaning and
Scope of Crop
Science
I Contributions of related
Sciences to crop
production
Week Module 2. Read Information Research more information or
3 to 5 CLASSIFICATION OF on the identified details regarding the topics. Take
CROP PLANTS topics in module 2 note of the important points and
Write in your Notebook for The
Crop Science 101
 System of Answer/Perform Work on the intended learning
Classification the Intended activity / in-text questions and
 General Learning Activity submit to your instructor. Place
Classification of answers in an Activity Notebook.
Crops Answer/research Work on the assignment then
 General /perform the submit to your instructor on the
Classification of Assignment specified date. Written
Crops assignments will be placed in an
Special groups Assignment Notebook.
 System of Answer Compare answers with the
Classification
 General
Classification of
Crops
 General
Classification of
Crops Answer Answer the questions asked in
 Special groups questions in the the study guide. Write your
compilation.
Week Module 3. THE Read Information Research more information or
6 to 7 NATURE AND on the identified details regarding the topics. Take
COMPOSITION OF CROP topics in module 3 note of the important points and
PLANTS Write in your Notebook for The
 The Plant Cells: Crop Science 101
Parts and Answer/Perform Work o the intended learning
Functions the Intended activity / in-text questions and
 The Anatomical Learning Activity submit to your instructor. Place
Regions of a answers in an Activity Notebook.
Plant Body Answer/research Work on the assignment then
 Plant Organs /perform the submit to your instructor on the
Assignment specified date. Written
assignments will be placed in an
Assignment Notebook.
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I activity and have a re-take.
Answer Answer the questions asked in
questions in the the study guide. Write your
compilation.
Week Module 4. . PLANT Read Information Research more information or
8 to 10 LIFE PROCESSES on the identified details regarding the topics. Take
topics in module 4 note of the important points and
 Photosynthesis Write in your Notebook for The
 Respiration Crop Science 101
 Transpiration Answer/Perform Work on the intended learning
 Translocation the Intended activity / in-text questions and
 Assimilation Learning Activity submit to your instructor. Place
answers in an Activity Notebook.
Answer/research Work on the assignment then
/perform the submit to your instructor on the
Assignment specified date. Written
assignments will be placed in an
Assignment Notebook.
compilation.
Week Module 5. A. Read Information Research more information or
11 to GROWTH, on the identified details regarding the topics. Take
12 DEVELOPMENT AND topics in module 5 note of the important points and
REPRODUCTION Write in your Notebook for The
. Crop Science 102
 Plant Answer/Perform Work on the intended learning
movements the Intended activity / in-text questions and
 Three steps in Learning Activity submit to your instructor. Place
plant movement answers in an Activity Notebook.
 Two categories Answer/research Work on the assignment then
of plant /perform the submit to your instructor on the
movements Assignment specified date. Written
 Crop Adaptation assignments will be placed in an
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B. PLANT Assignment Notebook.
GROWTH Answer Compare answers with the
REGULATION Assessment or answer key from your instructor.
I  Phytohormones Activity score before proceeding to the
 Auxin next activity, if not re-read the
 Gibberellic acid activity and have a re-take.
(GA) Answer Answer the questions asked in
 Cytokinin (CK) questions in the the study guide. Write your
 Ethylene Study Guide answers in short bond papers for
 Abscisic acid compilation.
(ABA)
Week Module 6. . PLANT Read Information Research more information or

13 to PROPAGATION on the identified details regarding the topics. Take
15 topics in module 6 note of the important points and
 Seed/Sexual Write in your Notebook for The
Propagation Crop Science 101
 Asexual Answer/Perform Work on the intended learning
Propagation the Intended activity / in-text questions and
 Propagation by Learning Activity submit to your instructor. Place
apomictic answers in an Activity Notebook.
embryos Answer/research Work on the assignment then
Separation and Division /perform the submit to your instructor on the
 Cutting Assignment specified date. Written
 Layering assignments will be placed in an
 Grafting Assignment Notebook.
 Budding
 Inarching
 Tissue culture
techniques other
than embryo
culture.
compilation.
Week Module 7. FACTORS Read Information Research more information or

16 to AFFECTING CROP on the identified details regarding the topics. Take
17 PRODUCTION, . topics in module 7 note of the important points and
ENVIRONMENTAL Write in your Notebook for The
FACTORS Crop Science 102
Answer/Perform Work on the intended learning
 Climatic factors the Intended activity / in-text questions and
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(Abiotic) Learning Activitysubmit to your instructor. Place
 Edaphic or Soil- answers in an Activity Notebook.
bound factors Answer/research Work on the assignment then
(Abiotic) /perform the submit to your instructor on the
I  . Biotic Factors Assignment specified date. Written
 Genetic assignments will be placed in an
 . Human Factors Assignment Notebook.
Module 8. Assessment or answer key from your instructor.
CROP IMPROVEMENT Self-Check You must have to get a perfect
AND SEED SELECTION Activity score before proceeding to the
 Plant Breeding next activity, if not re-read the
 Multiplication activity and have a re-take.
 Distribution
 Germplasm
Conservation

compilation.
V. COURSE EVALUATION:
To pass the course, you must:
1. Submit all course requirements to include the following:

a. Activity Notebook with answers of the in-text questions given in
the seven modules;
b. Assignment Notebook or Assignment Outputs
c. Evaluation Activities (checklist or self-test)
d. Compilation of Answers to the Study Guide for the eight
modules.
2. Pass all examinations:

a. Pre-test and Post-test Exams; Quizzes
b. Midterm examination
c. Final examination
VI. HOW TO USE THIS MODULE:
Welcome!
The Module, “Principles of Crop Production”, is a course which comprises the

knowledge, skills and attitudes required for a future agriculturist, extension worker and

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entrepreneur. Kindly refer to the FLOWCHART given in the next page for your guide on how to
use the module.
I DO NOT WRITE ANYTHING ON THIS

MODULE. All answers to study guide,
activities, assignments, exercises and tests
should be written on a SEPARATE SHEET.
There are a number of symbols in this module to guide you as you study:
This tells you to take note of or to remember an important point.
This tells you there is an Intended Learning Activity for you to accomplish.
This tells you there is an assignment or research activity to be undertaken.
This tells you there is an Assessment or Self-Test.

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This tells you the summary of the module.
I
This tells you of the study guide for you to work upon.
CROP SCIENCE 101
Table of Contents
Title
MODULE 1
I. . THE NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
A. The concept of Agriculture: Stages of Dev’t in the Phil.
B. World and Domestic Food Situation and Production Centers
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C. Development and state of Philippine Agriculture
D. The Concept of Crop Science
E. Meaning and Scope of Crop Science
F. Crop Science As a Science, Art and Business
I G. Contributions of related Sciences to crop production
MODULE 2
II. CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS
A. System of Classification
B. General Classification of Crops
1. According to growth habit
2. According to life cycle
3. According to mode of reproduction
4. Special types
C. Classification of Crops Based on Purpose
D. Special groups
MODULE 3
III. THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF CROP PLANTS

A. The Plant Cells: Parts and Functions
1. Cell wall
2. Cytoplasm
3. Nucleus
B. The Anatomical Regions of a Plant Body
1. Plant tissue and tissue systems
2. Meristematic Tissues
3. Permanent Tissues
4. Types of vascular tissues
5. Major plant tissue system
C. Plant Organs
1. Root
2. Stem
3. Leaf
4. Flower
5. Seed
6. Fruits
MODULE 4
IV. PLANT LIFE PROCESSES
A. Photosynthesis
B. Respiration
C. Transpiration
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D. Translocation
E. Assimilation
MODULE 5
I
V. GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND REPRODUCTION

A. Plant movements
 Three steps in plant movement
 Two categories of plant movements
B. Crop Adaptation
VI. PLANT GROWTH REGULATION

A. Phytohormones
 Auxin
 Gibberellic acid (GA)
 Cytokinin (CK)
 Ethylene
 Abscisic acid (ABA)
MODULE 6
VII. PLANT PROPAGATION

A. Seed/Sexual Propagation
B. Asexual Propagation
i. Propagation by apomictic embryos

ii. Separation and Division
iii. Cutting
iv. Layering
v. Grafting
vi. Budding
vii. Inarching
viii. Tissue culture techniques other than embryo culture.
MODULE 7
VIII. FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION

A. Genotype and Environment
B. G x E Interaction
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IX. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
A. Climatic factors (Abiotic)
I 1. Macroclimate
2. Weather
3. Climate
4. Microclimate
The Climatic Elements
5. Precipitation
6. Temperature
7. Wind or air in horizontal motion
8. Solar radiation or light
9. Relative humidity
B. Edaphic or Soil-bound factors (Abiotic)
Soil Properties in relation to crop production
i. Soil texture
ii. Soil structure
iii. Bulk density
Soil Chemical Properties
a. Soil pH
b. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
c. Soil Organic Matter (SOM
C. Biotic Factors
a. Beneficial organisms
b. Pollinators
c. Decomposers
d. natural pest enemies
e. Pest
D. Genetic Factors
E. Human Factors
MODULE 8

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X. CROP IMPROVEMENT AND SEED SELECTION
A. Plant Breeding
1. Creation of variation
I 2. Selection
3. Evaluation
B. Multiplication
C. Distribution
D. Germplasm Conservation

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I MODULE 1
THE NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF AGRICULTURE
UNIT OUTCOMES
After completing this study unit, you should be able to:
1. Define agriculture and briefly describe the scope of its branches.
2. Describe the development and state of Philippine Agriculture
3. Described world and Philippine present population, birth rate, death rate, total
land area of the Philippines and food supply.
___________________________________________________________
Terminologies
Agriculrure - Systematic raising of useful plants and livestock under the

management of man.
Agronomy - Deals with the principles and practices of managing field crops and
Soils
Horticulture - Deals with gardens and plants within an enclosure. It includes:
Pomology (fruits),
Olericulture (vegetables),
Floriculture ( flowers),
Nursery management and Landscape gardening
Plant - Any organism belonging to the kingdom Plantae, typically lacking active
locomotion or obvious nervous system or sensory organs and has photosynthetic ability.
Crop - Domesticated/cultivated plants grown for profit. It usually connotes a group or
population of cultivated plants.
Crop Science - It is concerned with the observation and classification of knowledge
concerning economically cultivated crops and the establishment of verifiable principles
regarding their growth and development for the purpose of deriving the optimum benefit
from them.
Science - Systematically accumulated and tested Knowledge.
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I -
Lesson 1. The Concept of Agriculture
Introduction
In this session, you will be introduced to the concept of agriculture as a
science, the development of agriculture and world and Philippine present
population, food supply and agriculture.
-
Agriculture
-Agriculture is the systematic raising of useful plants and livestock under the
management of man.
- Agriculture is a purposeful work through which the elements of nature are
harnessed to produce plants and animals to meet human needs.
- - Broad industry engaged in the production of plants and animals for food
and fiber, the provision for agricultural supplies and services and the
processing, marketing and distribution of agricultural products.
A. Development of Agriculture
- Pastoral stage (Hunting/gathering)

Primitive man satisfied his daily needs directly from nature by hunting wild
animals, gathering wild plants and fishing. The hunters-gatherers moved from one
location to another and search for food to sustain them. The fishing tribes were
more likely settled in one place as a permanent home usually near bodies of
water.
When did agriculture start?
The geologic event, the Ice Age, further explains the recent beginnings of
agriculture. Agriculture was not practiced until the climatically stable Holocene
warming. During the most crescent glaciations, there was a warm period
sandwiched between the Oldest Dryas (14,600-18,000 years ago) and Younger
Dryas (11,500-12,900 years ago) cold periods This warm period allowed hunting-
gathering which delayed the emergence of agriculture. The gradual transition from
hunting-gathering to agriculture began at about the 10,000-15,000 years ago.
Where did Agriculture start?
Agriculture started simultaneously in various parts of the world. Based on
evidences (archaeological, botanical, historical, linguistics and literature)

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agriculture had been practiced in the following areas:
Near East. Archeological evidences showed that agricultural village exixted about
8,000 to 9,000 BC in an area known as the Fertile Crescent, often recognized as
I the cradle of civilization’. The Fertile Crescent comprised most of what is now
called the Middle East-extending from Mesopotamia (Iraq) across Syria, down the
eastern part of the Mediterranean. Sea and to the Nile Valley of Egypt. Wheat and
barley farming patterns were established and spread overland through Iran. Other
crops include grapes, peaches and melons.
Why did agriculture start?
Many theories on the origin of agriculture presented by Harlan (1992)
include the following:
- Agriculture as a divine gift
- Agriculture as a discovery
- Agriculture as a result of stress
- Agriculture as an extension of gathering
B. Stages of Development of Philippine Agriculture
Pre-colonial period
Indo-Malayan migrants brought with them wet-rice agriculture, with carabao
as a source of animal power for cultivation. This type of agriculture predominated
near bodies of water like rivers and lakes. Slash-and –burn or kaingin culture or
non-plow farming predominated in other areas. This indicated shifting agriculture
rather than sedentary type of rice culture and the tribes were mainly nomadic.
Main crops consisted of rice, gabi, yams, bananas, corn millet, coconuts,
citrus, ginger, clove, cinnamon and nutmeg. No agricultural specialization existed.
Pattern of agriculture was chiefly subsistence. Farms were small, and chiefly
backyard in coastal and riverbank settlements. Most barangays were self-
sufficient. Land was abundant and populations was estimated to about 500,000 by
the mid-16th century. Private land ownership did not exist.
Colonial Period
This period introduced a non-producing class for which Filipinos produced
surpluses, leading to an increase in agricultural production. The development of
haciendas allowed for the introduction of technological innovations in production
and processing like steam or hydraulic-powered sugar mills.
In March 6, 1909, the College of Agriculture was founded in Los Banos as
a unit of the University of the Philippines. Consequently, science-based methods
of crop and animal production were introduced.
Post-war Period

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This period is characterized by increasing productivity resulting from the
following research and development initiatives:
1. Introduction of technological improvements
I 2. 50’s campaign for use of modern farm inputs and farm mechanization
3. 60’s building up of market for tractors and power tillers
4. Establishment of the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
5. Introduction of high yielding rice varieties which was also termed the green
revolution
6. Further development and expansion of international agricultural trading
especially coconut and its by-products, tobacco, sugar, pineapple, etc.
C. World and Domestic Food Situation and Production Centers

 The world population is expected to increase by 2.6B over the next
45 years from 6.5B today to 9.1B in 2050. Much of the increase will
be from developing countries. The population in developing
countries will increase from 5.3B to 7.8B in 2050.
 Great pressure is being placed on agricultural lands hence, it is
imperative to increase current levels of food production to provide an
adequate supply of food to increasing population
 Must is not suitable for agriculture of the world’s total land area of
150 M km2. Arable land comprises 10% of the total; permanent
crops are 1%; meadows and pastures, 24%; forest and woodland,
31%. The remaining 34% is land surface that supports little or no
vegetation: Antarctica, deserts, mine sites, urban areas.
 Rapid population growth in most developing countries had greatly
reduced the arable land per capita. It is estimated that by 2050, the
amount of arable land will be just over one-tenth of a hectare per
person, from 0.50 in 1961.
D. Philippine population, Food Supply and Agriculture
 In 2009, the Philippine population was 92.23M.
 The annual population growth rate from 2000-2007 is 2.04%
 About 32% of the country’s total land area constitutes the
agricultural land.
 At constant prices, the agriculture and fishery sector had 3.23%
growth in 2008. The average annual rate of increase was 3.98% for
the period 2006 to 2008.
 The share of agriculture in the gross domestic product (GDP) in
2008 is 18%.
 Presently, the increase in food supply is about 2% per year which is
just enough to keep up with population increase. About 20% of this
increase is the result of expansion of new production areas. The
remaining 80% is due to technological advances in production like
improved irrigation, crop protection, better cultivars, improved crop
nutrition, post-harvest handling etc.

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E. State of Philippine Agriculture
The Philippines is rich in agricultural potential. However, agricultural
commodities reveal a poor state of agriculture competitiveness. The
modernization of the country’s agriculture sector has been mandated
I with the signing into law Republic Act 8435 or the Agriculture and
Fisheries Modernization Act (AFMA). AFMA was signed into law in
1997 and yet the country remains the biggest rice importer in the world.
Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities of and threats to Philippine

agriculture
Strengths Weaknesses
 Availability of expertise in  Physical

agricultural research and  Climate- typhoons, drought
development  Soil- erosion of top soil
 Basic institutions in research particularly in sloppy areas
 Endowed with natural  Biological
resources  Insect Pests
 Availability of agricultural  Weeds
technologies to boost  Pathogens
production  Nutrient deficiencies and
toxicities
 Suitable varieties
 Socio-economic
 Low farm income
 Small landholdings
 Decreasing interest in
agriculture
 Inadequate support and
extension services for
optimum production
 In adequate incentives and
support for efficient
production, e,g, irrigation
and postharvest
infrastructures.
 In adequate farm-to-market
roads

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 Marketing problems
Opportunities Threats
 Diverse agro-environment for
I a diverse cropping system
 Wide range of soils and  Population growth
climate to grow different crops  Globalization
 Whole year round growing  Weak governance
period  Deteriorating natural resource
 Sunlight: 11-13 hrs endowments
 Temperature: 24-32
oC
 Rainfall: 2400-
4000mm/yr
Intended Learning Activities:

1. Discuss when, where, and why agriculture started.
2. Research about the development of agriculture, Present world and
Philippine population, food supply, state of Philippine agriculture, birth rate
and death rate.
Assessment # 1
Name________________________ Year and Section______________
1. Agriculture is defined as
_________________________________________________________
__.
2. List the different branches of agriculture.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

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3. What is the importance of agriculture?
_______________________________
4. When, Where and Why did agriculture start?
_________________________________________________________
I _____,
_________________________________________________________
_____,
_________________________________________________________
_____.
5. Describe the different stages in agriculture development in the
Philippines.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
__________
6. Describe the status of food supply in our country today as reported by
PSA.
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
____________
7. What is the present world and Philippines statistics on population, birth
and death rate? (may present in table form).
Note:
Make a separate copy of this assessment form to be filled out of the
needed data/information and submit to me a hard copy not later than
_________________.
References:
CHING, Johnny A., Revised Edition 2007. General Botany.

FULLER, Harry and Ritchie Donald. General Botany. College Outline Series.
Green Empire. LEA Reviewer. Crop Science. (Lecture Manual and Review
Questions)
LANTICAN, Ricardo M. 2002. The Science and Practices of Crop Production.
UP at Los Banos.

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PCARRD 2007. Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines.
Book Series N0. 176/2007.
PhilRice. 2008. Rice Production Training Manual.
I
RIMANDO, T.J. 2004. Lecture Syllabus in Crop Science 1. Department of
Horticulture,
SEARCA, UPLB.
Lesson II. The Concept of Crop Science
Intended Learning outcomes.

1. Define crop science, Agronomy, Horticulture
2. Explain the importance of crop science.
3. Give the other sciences related to crop science and their
contribution
4. Enumerate the different research centers in the world.
Meaning and Scope of Crop Science
Science. Systematically accumulated and tested knowledge. It refers to
the ordered knowledge of natural phenomena and the rational study of the
relationship between the concepts in which these phenomena are expressed.
It is not a set of facts but a way of giving unity and intelligibility to the facts
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of nature so that nature may be controlled and new facts predicted.
Plant. Any organism belonging to the kingdom Plantae, typically lacking of
active locomotion or obvious nervous system or sensory organs and has
I photosynthetic ability.
Crop. Domesticated/cultivated plants grown for profit. It usually connotes
a group or population of cultivated plants.
Two groups of science practitioners may be identified: the theoretical,
academic or basic scientist and the applied scientist. The basic scientist brings
the saturated solution of knowledge to the point of crystallization while the applied
scientist brings the idea to a practical achievement.
The major applied sciences in crop production are the following:
Crop Science. It is concerned with the observation and classification of
knowledge concerning economically cultivated crops and the establishment of
verifiable principles regarding their growth and development for the purpose of
deriving the optimum benefit from them. It is devided into areas as follows:
Agronomy. It came from the Greek word “agros” meaning field and
“nomos” meaning to manage. Thus agronomy deals with the principles and
practices of managing field crops and soils.
Horticulture. It came from the Latin words “hortus”, which means a
“garden”, ( a term derived from the Anglo-saxon word “gyrdan”, which means “to
enclose”) and “colere”, which means “to “cultivate”. The concept of gardens and
plants within an enclosure is distinct from the culture of field crops, a medieval
concept. It also implies more intensive crop cultivation, as contrasted from the
extensive cultivation of field crops.
Crop Science as a science, Art, and business
 Its science is derived from the adoption or application of the basic
sciences of chemistry, mathematics, physics, and from various
applied sciences like physiology, meteorology, anatomy, plant
breeding etc.
 It requires skills to produce crops even with little or no scientific
training.
 Plants are not grown simply to satisfy the needs of man but to
realize some profit in the process of production
 Agricultural research in the Philippines has been established
through schools and research centers, in both private and public
sector. These are:
1. State colleges and universities offering degrees in agriculture
2. Department of Agriculture Research Networks
3. National commodity research centers
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FIDA- Fiber Industry Development Authority

NTA- National Tobacco Administration

PhilRice- Philippine Rice Research Institute

PCA- Philippine Coconut Authority

I SRA- Sugar Regulatory Administration

PRCRTC- Philippine Rootcrops Research and Training

Center
 NPRCRTC- Northern Philippines Rootcrops Research and
Training Center
 NARC- National Abaca Research Center
4. Specialized discipline-oriented research centers
 IPB- Institute of Plant Breeding
 NCPC- National Crop Protection Center
 NPGRL- National Plant Genetic Resources Laboratory
 PHTRC – Postharvest Horticulture Training and Research
Center
 BIOTECH – National Institutes of Molecular Biology and
Biotechnology
5. Private Seed Companies
 East West
 Monsanto
 Pioneer
 Syngenta
 Allied Botanicals
Major international research organization mandated to do research and
development in crop species important to food and agriculture include the
following:
 IRRI – International Rice Research Institute (Philippines)
 CIMMYT – Centro International de Mejoramiente de Maize Y Trigo
(Mexico)
 CIP – Centro International de Patatas (Peru)
 ICRISAT – International Center for Semi Arid Tropics (India)
 CIAT – Centro de International de Agricultural Tropical (Columbia)
 ICARDA – International Center for Agricultural Research for Dry
Areas (Syra)
 IITA – International Institute for Tropical Agriculture (Nigeria)
 ICRAF – International Center for Research on Agroforestry (Kenya)
 AVRDC –Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center
(Taiwan)
 BIOdiversity International – for International Plant Genetic
Resources Institute (Italy)

Contribution of related sciences to crop production
Some of the scientific fields and areas of knowledge related to crop

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production.
1. Crop breeding and genetics are concerned with the improvement of
the inherent or heritable properties of crops.
I 2. Botany (plant morpho-anatomy, plant physiology, plant systematics
and plant ecology) is concerned with plant structures, processes and
relationships among plants as well as plant relationship with their
environment.
3. Soil sciences is the study of the nature and properties of soils;
fundamental principles upon which proper soil management is
based.
4. Plant Pathology and entomology is concerned with pathogens,
insect pests and weeds; their nature, as well as their control.
5. Agricultural engineering is concerned with the farm structures, farm
machinery, farm power, water management as well as waste
disposal.
6. Agricultural economics is concerned with the economics of
production and marketing of agricultural products.
7. Agricultural meteorology is concerned with the study of weather and
climate. The study of meteorology enables one to do weather
forecasting and thus help farmers minimize losses due to bad
weather.
The basic knowledge and understanding of the various related disciplines
are essential to implement appropriate crop management packages for increasing
crop productivity.
Intended Learning Activities

1. Define the following: crop science, horticulture, agronomy, science,
plant, crop.
2. Enumerate the different commodity research centers.
3. Give the other sciences related to crop science.
Assessment # 2
Name________________________ Year and Section______________

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1. Crop science is defined

as_____________________________________
I 2. What are the elements of crop science?
a. ________________b. ____________________ c.
_______________
3. The word Agronomy came from the Greek word “___________”
which means “____________” and “______________” which means
“________”
4. The word Horticulture came from the Latin word “_________” which
means “____________” and “_____________” which means
“________”
5. what are the different National commodity research centers in the
Philippines? (4pts)
6. What are the other sciences related to crop science and what are
their contributions to the improvement of agriculture? (4 pts)
Make a separate copy of this assessment form to be filled out of the

needed data/information and submit to me a hard copy not later than
_________________.
Assignment:
1. Why do you classify plants?
2. Differentiate the systems of plant classification.
3. Classify crop plants according to growth habit, life cycle, mode of
reproduction
4. Classify plants based on purpose and special groups
References:
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Questions)
I
UP at Los Banos.
Horticulture,
SEARCA, UPLB.

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MODULE 2
CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS PLANTS
UNIT OUTCOMES
I
1. Identify and classify common crop plants using the matrix format ;
2. Differentiate agronomic, horticultural, descriptive and other bases of
classifying crops.
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Introduction
 Crops are classified for order and organization. Agricultural crops are
diverse in nature hence classification of a crop is very helpful.
 Crops are classified for logical naming. A crop can be identified by its
common name which varies from one locality to another or by its scientific
name which is constant worldwide.
A. Systems of Classification
1. Artificial system – based on convenience in which a structure or feature
serves as a basis of grouping
2. Natural system – uses the most prominent and most peculiar
morphological structure of the plant with the intention of grouping
together those crops which are most familiar in a number of structures
3. Phylogenetic system – plants are classified according to their
evolutionary status
B. General Classification of Crops
1. According to growth habit
a. Herbs – succulent plants with self-supporting stems, with soft stems
b. Vines – succulent or woody plants without self-supporting stem
c. Shrubs – may have several main branches with no trunk and rarely
grows higher than 5 meters
d. Trees – with single central stem to which branches are attached,
usually taller than shrubs.
2. According to life cycle
a. Annuals – complete their cycle in 1 year or less ex. Squash
b. Biennials – plants ordinarily require 2 years or at least part of 2
growing seasons with a dormant period between growth stages to
complete their life cycle. ex. Carrot, cabbage, celery
c. Perennials – plants that do not die after flowering but live from year
to year. ex. Asparagus
3. According to mode of reproduction
a. Sexual – plants that develop after undergoing processes of meiosis
and fertilization in the flower to produce a viable embryo in the seed
b. Asexual – plants that are produced by any vegetative means not
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involving meiosis and the union of gametes
4. Special Types:
a. Parasites – parasitic, sucking roots
b. Epiphytes – grow upon other plants (orchids) but not parasitic
I c. Saprophytes – grow in places rich in decaying organic substances
C. Classification of Crops Based on Purpose
1. Cereals/grain crops – grown for their grains ex. Rice, corn, wheat,
sorghum
2. Legumes – for pods and seeds ex. Cowpea, mungbean, sitao, peanut
3. Root crops – for enlarged roots/tuberous roots ex. Cassava, ubi, arrow
root
4. Fiber crops – grown for their fibers used in textile, cordage, twines,
sacks, bags etc. ex. Cotton, ramie, kenaf, jute
5. Oil crops – grown for their oil content ex. Soybean, peanut, sunflower,
castor, coconut
6. Sugar crops – grown for their sugar content ex. Sugarcane, sugar beet
7. Pasture/Forage crops – used for roughage source for animals ex.
Para grass, napier grass, ipil-ipil, stylosanthes
8. Beverage crops – used for brewing non-alcoholic drinks ex. Coffee,
cacao, tea
9. Spices, condiments, essences – used to provide special flavor, scent,
and color to food, perfumes, soaps and body dressing ex. Vanilla, black
pepper, citronella, ilang-ilang, annatto
10. Latex and resins – used for extracting sap from the trunk/stem ex. Pili,
rubber, chico, rimas, papaya
11. Medicinal and poison crops – with curative, laxative and pesticidal
properties ex. Lagundi, sambong, tobacco
12. Vegetables – usually eaten with staple crops, further classified
according to similarities in the method of culture
a. Root – radish, carrot
b. Leafy – spinach, lettuce
c. Stem – celery, asparagus
d. Flowers – squash, katuray
e. Fruit – okra, tomato, eggplant Fruits – edible botanical fruits usually
used for dessert which may be eaten raw, cooked or in processed
form. Ex. Pineapple, cashew, mango
13. Ornamentals – plants cultivated mainly for their aesthetic value, further
classified according to their special uses.
a. Cutflowers- grown for its flowers ex. Roses, orchids
b. Cut-foliage – foliage provides background in floral arrangement ex.
Ferns, fortune plant, palmera
c. Flowering pot plants – plants grown in containers for their flowers
usually used for display ex. Poinsettia
d. Landscape plants – for landscaping purposes ex. Blue palm, white
grass, song of India
e. Foliage plants – for attractive foliage, maybe grown indoor or
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outdoor for decoration ex. Begonia, philondendron
f. Turf – used in lawns or greens ex. Bermuda grass, carabao grass,
blue grass
D. Special Groups
I 1. Green manure – a crop that is plowed under while still green and
growing to improve the soil (ex. Sesbania)
2. Cover crop – any crop grown to provide soil cover, prevent soil erosion
by wind, or water, improve soil and control weeds (ex. Centrosema)
3. Companion crop – crop sown with another crop and harvested
separately. The combination benefits either or both of the crops. (ex.
Ipil-ipil planted with black pepper)
4. Trap crop – a crop which is planted to produce the main crop from
pests by attracting the pest to the crop itself and later destroying it. (ex.
Main crop is rice and sweet potato is planted to trap some rats)
5. Catch crop – a short seasoned crop grown immediately after the failure
of the main crop to utilize residual resources (ex. Rice is the main crop
but may have been destroyed by typhoon therefore pechay or mustard
is planted immediately).
6. Soilage – grasses that are grown, cut and directly fed to animals
7. Silage – grasses grown, cut, fermented, and preserved before being
fed to animals

1. Classify crop plants botanically and functionally.
2. Compare between agronomic and horticultural crop. Give examples of
crops under each classification.
3. Give examples of medicinal and flowering plants.
4. Answer the questions on Laboratory Exercise # I.
Assessment # 3
Name_______________________________ Year and

Section____________________
Test I. Multiple Choice. On your answer sheet, write the letter that
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corresponds to your answer.
1. The botanical classification of agricultural crops is the grouping of plants
according to morphological similarities and it was founded by this scientist
I a. Pasteur b. Leuwenhooke c. Linnaues d. Hooke
2. Scientifically the grass family is the same as I, Graminae II. Poaceae III.
Monocotyledonae
a. I and III are true c. I and III are false
b. I and II are False d. I and II are true
3. The word cereal is derived from the name of the most important grain deity,
a. The Roman Goddess Venus c. The Xeres God of Israel
b. The Roman God of Soul d. The Roman Goddess Ceres
4. The synonym of family leguminoceae is
a. Convulvolaceae c. Monocotyledonae
b. Fabaceae d. Pedallaceae
5. A group of plants within a species that are distinguished by the same or
similar characteristics
a. Clone b. Genus c. Variety d. Species
6. Corn originated in
a. India b. Philippines c. China d. Mexico
7. A national agency mainly involved in producing newly bred rice varieties
a. IRRI b. IPB c. PhilRice d. NSIC
8. The Philippines is an agricultural country with a land area of 30 million
hectares. What percentage of this total area is agricultural land?
a. 50% (15,000,000 ha) c. 35% (10,500,000 ha.)
b. 47% (14,100,000 ha) d. 40% (12,000,000 ha)
9. The center of origin of rice (Oryza sativa) is
a. India b. Philippines c. Africa d. Mexico
10. Which of these crops can be classified both as an agronomic and
horticultural crop based on their uses under Philippine condition?
a. Rice b. okra c. sorghum d. Mungbean
11. An example of small fruit is
a. Mango b. Cashew c. Rambutan d. Pineapple
12. One of the principle of AFMA among others is
a. Exploitation of natural resources
b. poverty alleviation and social equity
c. Peace and order
d. Industrialization
13. Crop Science has two divisions, namely:
a. Olericulture and Pomology c. Agronomy and Horticulture
b. Science and art d. Science and Crop production
14. Plants that normally complete their life cycle for a single growing season
a. Annual plants c. Biennial plants
b. Perennial plants d. woody plants
15. Among the plants given, select the one that grow for culinary purposes
a. Vegetables b. Fruits c. Fruit trees d. Trees
16. Select the crop grown that will improve soil fertility
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a. Green manure crops c. companion crops
b. Silage crops d. supplement crops
17. Crops grown for protection against wind and water erosion and nutrient
loss through leaching
I a. Companion crops c. fiber crop
b. Cover crops d. bulb crops
18. It is a legume crops grown and plowed under at their blooming stage
a. Corn plants c. Mungbean plants
b. onion plants d. Gabi plants
19. It refers to the naming of plants and animal organisms using the genus and
species
a. Binomial systems c. scientific names
b. Agricultural systems d. nomenclature
20. Plants which are sources of pharmaceutical and insecticidal compounds
are
a. Herbs c. Medicinal plants
b. Woody plants d. green manure plants
Test II. Answer the following:
1. Why do you classify plants? (5 pts)
2. Differentiate agronomic crops and horticultural crops. ( 5 pts)
Laboratory Exercise # 1. Classification and Identification of Crop Plants

(See separate sheet)
Assignment
1. What is a cell?
2. What are the three main component parts of a cell?
3. What composes the anatomical regions of a plant body?
References:
BAUTISTA, O.K. et al. 1994. Introduction to Tropical Horticulture. SEAMO
SEARCA.
UPLB, College Laguna.

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Questions)
UP at Los Banos.
I
Horticulture,
SEARCA, UPLB.
MODULE 3
THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF PLANTS
UNIT OUTCOMES
After completing this Unit, you should be able to:
1. Define cell, cell wall, cytoplasm, plastids, chloroplast,
microbodies, tissue, organ, system, xylem, phloem, orthodox
seeds, recalcitrant seeds.
2. List the three component parts of a cell
3. Differentiate animal cell and plant cell.
4. Give the functions of the different parts of a cell.
5. Identify the anatomical regions of a plant body.
6. List the functions of the different parts of a plant.
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A. The Plant Cells: Parts and Functions
Cell
- The smallest structure in the universe capable of growth and
reproduction
- The basic unit of every living organism.
- An autonomous living system capable of independent existence and
propagation
- Fundamental morphological unit of plant body.
Differences between plant and animal cells
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a. Plant cells contain chloroplast (s) that carry out photosynthesis
b. Plant cell is surrounded by a rigid cell wall. Each walled cell and its
adjacent wall are cemented together by middle lamella.
c. Plant cells develop a large central vacuole
I d. Animal cells contain centrioles and lysosomes that involved in cell
division and digestion, respectively. Embryonic cell can migrate from
one location to another.
Plant cell has three main components:
A. Cell wall
B. Cytoplasm
C. Nucleus
1. Cell wall
 Provides mechanical protection and rigidity to the plant cell
 Consists of cellulose that overcome pressure due to its elastic
property
 Composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectic substances, organic
and inorganic substances, lignin, enzymes, protein and water.
Three layers of cell wall:
1. Middle lamella (where pectin cements adjacent cells
together);
2. Primary wall ( thin, not rigid, stretched as the cell grows,
Layer formed before and during growth of the plant cell, consists
of cellulose microfibril, have primary pit fields, thin areas that
transversed by numerous protoplasmic strands called
plasmodesmata.
3. Secondary wall (rigid, thick, formed after cell completes growth)
2. Cytoplasm
 All living matter of the cell apart from the nucleus
 Gel- like material or fluid in which the cell’s organelles and
internal membrane system are suspended
 Distributes substances absorbed from outside and released by
the nucleus and other organelles (through cytoplasmic
streaming/cyclosis- flowing movement of cytoplasm)

Cytoplasm consist of the following:
1. Plasmalemma/plasma membrane – has selective permeability
Functions:
- Allows some substances to cross easily and
completely block substances
- Accumulates the ions or the molecules in the cytosol
through the action of transport proteins that consumes
metabolic energy
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- Coordinates the formation of cell wall microfibrils
2. Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Flattened disks or tubular sacs
Types:
I
- Rough endoplasmic reticulum (with numerous
ribosomes)
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (lack ribososmes)
Functions:
-Rough ER – involved in the synthesis of lipid
-Smooth ER – involved in the synthesis of membrane
proteins and secretory proteins
3. Golgi Apparatus – collective term for all dictyosomes
(consist of stack of flattened hollow disks called
cistemae) or golgi bodies
Functions:
Involved in the synthesis of polysaccharides and
glucose units for cell wall formation
 Secretes protein and carbohydrates from the cell to the
exterior part (ex. Nectar coming out from the flower)
4. Mitochondria – small cylindrical organelles enclosed by two unit
membranes:
a. Outer membrane – permeable for smaller particles,
contains the respiratory chain component and enzymes
for the synthesis of ATP.
b. Inner membrane – impermeable and folded into numerous
cristae
Functions: sites of respiration (energy source for plants
body maintenance, growth and development).
5. Plastids – differentiated into system of membrane (2 units) and
ground substance, the stroma.
Types:
a. Chloroplast
Function:
- Site of photosynthesis
- Involved in amino and fatty acids synthesis
- Provides space for temporary storage of starch
b. Chromoplast – responsible for the yellow, orange or red
colors of many flowers and other parts of the plants
Function: Attracts insect and other animals
c. Leucoplasts – nonpigmented plastids but once exposed to
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light, it may develop into chloroplasts
 Amyloplast – starch
 Proteinplast – proteins
 Elaeioplast – fats and oils
I 6. Microbodies – spherical organelles bounded only by one
membrane, about 0.5 to 1.5 micrometer in diameter.
Function:
Peroxisomes (terms to some microbodies) play

an important role in glycolytic acid metabolism
associated with photorespiration.
 Lyoxysomes (other microbodies) contain
enzymes needed for the conversion of fats into
carbohydrates during germination in many
seeds.
7. Cytoskeleton – an organized cytosol into a three dimensional
network of fibrous protein.
Types:
1. Microtubules
 Long, thin, cylindrical structures about 24
mm in diameter and of varying lengths.
 Each is made up of sub units of the protein
called tubulin
Function:
a. Involved in the orderly growth of the cell
wall, especially the control of cellulose
microfibrils alignment.
b. Formation of cell plate ( the initial partition of
dividing cell)
c. Involved in the movement of flagella and
celia in which microtubules are important
components of it.
2. Microfilaments – consist of two action chain (similar
to that of muscle tissue) that maintains in a helical
fashion:
Function:
 Play a causative role in
cytoplasmic streaming
8. Ribosomes – small particles about 17-23 NM in diameter
containing an equal polyribosomes or polysomes.
9. Vacuoles – enclosed by a unit membrane called tonoplast
- Dumping house of the cell, contains
water and other substances
Functions:

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Absorb toxic products
-
Stores various metabolites
-
Breakdown macromolecules and the
-
recycling of their components with in the
I cell.
10. Nucleus – contain the genetic information indispensable for the
cells life and metabolic function.
Function:
- Controls the activities of the cell by
determining which protein molecules are
produced and when they are produced.
- Stores the genetic information
B. The Anatomical Regions of a Plant Body

 The plant body is composed of three organs:
1. leaf- for photosynthesis,
2. stem – for support
3. root – for anchorage and absorption of water and
minerals.
 The flowering plants (angiosperm – 250,000 species) cover
almost the earth’s vegetation.
 The seed contains embryo and cotyledon (endosperm) which
are protected with a seed coat.
 The seed grows under favorable condition ( moisture,
temperature, oxygen and sometimes light)
 From the embryo, the root and shoot develop.
 The seedling grows due to cell division in the meristematic
tissues.
 After juvenile stage, plant produces flowers and fruits (after
pollination and fertilization)
 Fruits contain seeds thus completing the life cycle of the
plant.
Tissue – Composed of cells usually similar in structure and function.
- It is simple if it contains one cell type
- It is more complex. It is made up of several types of cells.
Organ – Composed of several tissues with distinct structure and functions
System – composed of interacting organs that coordinate as a functional
complex in the life of the organ.
Plant tissues and tissue system
1. Meristematic tissue – part of a plant where cell division (mitosis) or
production of new cells occurs.
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a. Apical meristem – tip of stem and roots (shoot or root apical
meristem); give rise to primary meristem
b. Lateral meristem – stem and roots
b 1. Vascular cambium
I
b 2. Phellogen (cork cambium)
c. Intercallary meristem – internodes and bases of young leaves
2. Permanent tissue – derived from meristems which have attained maturity
form thus perform their specific function or functions.
a. Epidrmis
- Outermost layer of cells of the primary plant body
- Contain stomata, thrichomes (appendages)
b. Parenchyma
- Found in the cortical regions of stems and roots and in the
mesophyll of the leaves.
- These are living cells that have diverse functions ranging
from storage and support to photosynthesis and phloem
loading.
- Apart from the xylem and phloem in its vascular bundles,
leaves are composed mainly of parenchyma cells.
- Some parenchyma cells, as in the epidermis, are specialized
for light penetration and focusing or regulation of gas
exchange.
c. Collenchyma
- Thickened tissue found in the cortex of the stem and
petioles or along the veins of the leaves.
- Collenchyma cells are alive at maturity and have only a
primary wall.
- These cells mature from meristem derivatives that initially
resemble parenchyma, but differences quickly become
apparent.
d. Sclerenchyma
- Sclerenchyma cells (from the Greek skleros, hard) are
hard and tough cells with a function in mechanical
support.
- Scattered throughout the plant, found in both primary and
secondary tissues.
Types of Sclerenchyma
a. Fibers –known as bast fibers
- Long thin cells with very thick walls often dead at maturity
b. Schleroids or stone cells – similar with fibers thick wall and lignified;
may be living or dead at maturity
e. Cork
- Outermost tissue; impregnated with suberin (waxy substance)
-

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Complex Permanent tissue/ Types of vascular tissues
1. Xylem
- Conduct water and mineral salts upward the plant body
I - Consist of tracheids, vessel membrane, xylem fibers, and
xylem parenchyma.
2. Phloem
- Distributes the dissolved food materials between the source
and the sinks:
- Consists of:
 Sieve tube element – chief food conducting element
 Companion cells – parenchyma cells always found
besides the sieve tubes; moves food in and out of the
sieve-tube member.
 Phloem parenchyma – like ordinary parenchyma cells
 Phloem fibers – like sclerenchyma cells
Major Plant Tissue System
1. Ground
- This packing and supportive tissue accounts for much of the bulk
of the young plants
- It also functions in food manufacture and storage
- It contains three main cell types: parenchyma, collenchymas,
and sclerenchyma
2. Dermal tissue
- This is plant’s protective outer covering in contact with the
environment
- It facilitates water and ion uptake in roots and regulates gas
exchange in leaves and stems
3. Vascular tissue
- Together the phloem and xylem from a continuous vascular
system throughout the plant.
- This tissue conducts water and solutes between organs and also
provides mechanical support
C. Plant Organs
1. ROOT
Regions of the Root
 Root cap – protects the tender apex (absent in aquatic
plants)
 Region of cell division – 1 to few mm above the root cap;
have small cells with thin walls, dense with protoplasm;
undergo repeated cell division (meristematic region)
 Region of elongation – lies above meristematic region;
extend to 1-5 mm; undergo rapid elongation and
enlargement; responsible for growth in length of the root
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
Region of maturation – lies above meristematic region of
elongation, this region produces root hairs.
Types of roots
I 1. Tap root system

- Primary root grows vertical downward
- Branches grows downward or horizontally outwards
Functions
- Absorb water, mineral, salts from soil, anchorage
2. Adventitious root system
- Roots that grow from any part of the plant of the plant
body other than radicle
3. Fibrous root system
- In monocots (with all adventitious roots)
4. Foliar root system
- From leaves mainly petiole or vein (spontaneous or
due to injury)
2. STEM
- Supporting and conducting organ initially developed
from the epicotyl
-
Major Parts: Bark, Pith and Wood (composed of xylem made up of
vessels, fibers and parenchyma cells)
Types of Stem:
 Bulb – short, erect underground stem
 Culm – flowering stem of grasses and sedges
 Offset – like runner originates from leaf axil as a short and
thickened branch away from the mother plant
 Rhizome – horizontal underground stem
 Runner or stolon – indeterminate aboveground stem with
internodes and new planlet at the tip
 Sucker – shoot arising below the ground from old stem
 Tendril – slender coiling branch for climbing
 Tiller – shoot produced from the base of the stem or culm
 Tuber – thick storage underground stem
 Corm – enlarged solid fleshy base
Forms
 Erect or strong stems:
Unbranched; erect; cylindrical; stout; slim jointed stem with
solid nodes and hollow internodes
 Weak stems:
Weak trailing stem – on ground without rooting at the nodes

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Creeping stem – runner, stolon, offset or sucker
Climbing stem – attaches or climbs objects (vines)
3. LEAF
I Functions
- Food manufacture (PS)
- Exchange of gases (PS and RN)
- Evaporative of water (transpiration)
Parts of Leaf
Leaf base – part attached to stem
-
Petiole – stalk of leaf
-
Leaf blade or lamina – green expanded portion of the
-
leaf
Leaf Venations:
- Reticulate – network-type of veins
- Parallel – veins parallel to each other
4. FLOWER – reproductive structure of flowering plants
Major parts:
a. Calyx – lowermost whorl of modified leaves, also known as
sepals
b. Corolla – whorl of petals above the sepals
c. Gynoecium or pistil – group of carpels in the center or at the top
of the flower
d. Gynophone – stipe of a pistil or carpel
e. Pedicel – stalk of a flower
f. Perianth – combined calyx and corolla
g. Petal – a unit of corolla
h. Sepal – a unit of calyx
i. Stamen – male sporophyll within the flower
Complete Flower - has all four parts of the flower (sepals, petals,
pistil and stamen)
Incomplete Flower – a flower lacking sepals, petals, pistil, or
stamen
5. SEED – a ripened ovule which shed from the parent plant consist of
embryo and stored food supply both of which are enclosed in a seed coat
or covering.
Dicotyledon – embryo lies within an axis of two cotyledons

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Monocotyledon – consist of seed coat, endosperm and embryo
Parts of a seed:
1. Embryo – developing plant still inside the seed. The embryo has
I cotyledons (embryonic leaves), a root cap, a food source and a
plumule (shoot)
2. Hilum – the scar on a seed coat at the location where it was
attached to the plant’s stalk during development
3. Micropyle – the small pore in a seed that allows water absorption
4. Root (hypocotyl) – the part of the stem of a sprouting plant that is
above the root and below the stalk of the cotyledon (seed leaves)
5. Seed coat (Testa) – seed coat is the outer, protective layer covering
the seed
6. Seed leaf (cotyledon) –the embryonic leaf within a seed
7. Plumule – the shoot of an embryo
Types of seed:
1. Orthodox
 Dries out naturally on mother plant to a low MC
 Can be dried to low MC (<5%)without damage
 Can be stored at low temperature
 Ex. Rice, corn, beans, vegetable seeds, pili. Etc.
2. Recalcitran
 Do not dry out normally on mother plant, shed in moist
condition (50-70%MC
 Seed larger than orthodox-embryo is only 15% of the
orthodox
 Killed if MC is reduced below critical values (12-30%)
 Susceptible to freezing (below 0 0C) or chilling (10-15% 0C)
 Ex. Seeds of aquatic species, large seeded species, wild rice,
tropical fruit crops, jackfruit, cacao, rambutan, lanzones etc.
3. Intermediate
 Can withstand desiccation to about 10-12% Mc and can
be stored under hermetic condition
 Lose viability more rapidly at low temperature (<10 0C)
than at warm temp (12-21 0C)
 Ex. Coffee, oil palm, papaya, citrus sp., star apple, chico,
etc
6. FRUITS
 It is a mature, ripened ovary.
 Contain the seed (ripened ovules) and pericarp ( the tissue tht
surrounds the seeds)
a. Simple fruit
 One fruit develop from single ovary of a flower with or without
accessory parts. Ex. Corn, peanut
b. Aggregate fruits – collection of simple fruit developing from
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apocarpus pistil of a flower. Ex. Strawberry
c. Multiple or composite fruits – develop from a number of flower
from an inflorescence. Ex. Pineapple, peach fruit
Types of Fruits
I
1. Fleshy fruit are juicy.
a. Berry – has an entirely fleshy ovary. Ex. Tomatoes, dates,
blueberries, bananas, peppers, and cranberries.
b. Hesperidium – have a leathery rind. Ex. Include oranges,
grape fruits, lemons, and limes.
c. Pepo – is a type of fruit defined by hard rind and a fleshy
inner matrix. Ex. Watermelons, cantaloupe, squash, and
pumpkins.
d. Drupe – is a fruit with a fleshy exterior and a single hard,
stony pit surrounding the seed, Ex. Cherries, peaches, olives,
mango, raspberry, coconut, plums.
e. Pomes – have a fleshy exterior and a center with papery
carpels. Apples and Pears
2. Dry fruits may be indehiscent or dehiscent.
a. Indehiscent fruits – are those that do not split open at
maturity and are usually one or two seeded.
1. Achene – is a single-seeded fruit with seed attached
at only one place to the pericarp.
Ex. Sunflower, strawberry, buckwheat
2. Caryopsis – a fruit is similar to an achene; however,
the pericarp sticks or clings to the seed.
Ex. corn, rice, barley, rye, amaranth, sorghum, oat,
and wheat.
3. Samara – is usually single-seeded with a membranous
wing.
Ex. Maple, elm, and ash
4. Nut – is a hard, one-seeded fruit.
Ex. Oak, walnut, filbert, and hickory
5. Uricle – is like an achene, but the ovary wall fits
loosely around the seed.
Ex. Finger millet and pigweed
6. Nutlet – is a small version of a nut.
Ex. Birch and hornbean
b. Dehiscent fruits –are fruits that split open upon
maturation.
1. Legume (pod) – is composed of a single carpel and
has two longitudinal sutures. Ex. Soybeans, green
beans, and peas.
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2. Follicle – is composed of a single carpel and splits
open along one suture. Ex. Milkweed
3. Capsule – is composed of more than one carpel that
are united and form many-seeded fruits. Ex. Okra and
I cotton.
o Silique – a specialized form of capsule in the mustard
4. Pyxis – is a type of capsule with a lid that falls from
the fruit. Ex. Purslane.
PARTHENOCARPY
Greek word parthenos means virgin and karpos means
-
fruit
- Literally means virgin fruit
- The production of fruit without fertilization. Fruit is therefore
seedless
- Ancient origin – oldest parthenocarpic fig first grown at least
11,200 years ago.
Types of Parthenocarpy
 Stimulative parthenocarpy
o Pollinaton or other stimulation is required for
parthenocarpy
o Banana and watermelon
 Vegetative parthenocarpy
o Do not require pollination or other stimulation to
produce parthenocarpic fruit
o Cucumber, citrus and pineapple
Intended Learning Outcome
1. Describe a plant cell and give the functions of the different parts of a
cell.
2. Compare a plant cell and animal cell.
3. List the different anatomical regions of a plant.
4. Answer the questions on Laboratory Exercise # 2 (The anatomical
Regions of a Plant Body)
ASSESSMENT 4
Name _____________________Year and Section__________________
Test I. Identification. Identify what is being described or defined in each statement

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below.
_____________ 1. It is the main organ for photosynthesis
_____________ 2. It is smallest unit of the plant where hereditary materials are
I
found.
_____________ 3. It gives color or pigment system of the plant.
_____________ 4. It is the green plastids responsible for photosynthesis.
_____________ 5. It is the living portion of the cell.
_____________ 6. It provides separation or boundaries between organelles and
cell parts.
_____________ 7. It is a living organisms that do not have any locomotory
organs.
_____________ 8. It is the central axis or the shoot of plants.
_____________ 9. It is the underground vegetative organ of plants.
____________10. It is a modified or specialized leaves that enclose the
reproductive organs of seed plants.
____________11. It is a mature ovary to which is attached a variety of associated
parts which are the residues of the floral parts.
____________ 12. It is a propagational unit of a flowering species and the
economic part in grain crops..
____________ 13. It is a part of cell that provides mechanical protection and
rigidity to the plant cell.
____________ 14. It is a part of a plant where cell division or production of new
cells occurs.
____________ 15. It is a type of seed that dries out naturally on mother plant to a
low moisture content (MC) below 20%.
Test II. Multiple Choice. Write the letter that corresponds to your answer.
1. A flower that bears both reproductive structures, the pistil and stamen
a. Complete flower c. determinate flower
b. Perfect flower d. essential flower
2. What plant part has the nourishing and protecting tissue?
a. Stem b. seeds c. leaves d. roots
3. These are slender thread like structures used by vine crops to twine around
object
a. Petiole b. cuticle c. tendrome d. brace
4. The food storage organ of the seed.
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a. Plumule b. endosperm c. hypocotyls d. epicotyls
5. It is in the ______________ where pollens usually land and germinate that
result to the production of a seeded fruit.
a. Stamen b. stigma c. sepal d. anther
I 6. In grasses the stored food of the plant in the seed is called
a. Cotyledon b. scutellum c. endosperm d. aleuron
7. What part of the plant helps it keeps from being blown away by wind or
washed away by the rain?
a. Leaves b. roots c. stem d. seed
8. A flower is pollinated when
a. Pollen falls on the sepals c. a zygote is formed
b. Pollen falls on the stigma d. pollen falls on the ovary
9. What part of a flower becomes fruit?
a. Ovary b. petal c. stamen d. pistil
10. The roots that grow from other parts of the plant such as stem, leaves
a. Root hairs c. adventitious roots
b. Aerial roots d. seminal root
c.
Laboratory Exercise # 2 .The Anatomical Regions of a Plant Body
Assignment
1. What are the different plant life processes that affect the growth of plants?
2. Give the general characteristics of C3, C4, and CAM plants
References:

Questions)
LANTICAN, Ricardo M. 2002. The Science and Practices of Crop Production. UP
at Los Banos.

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I
Horticulture, SEARCA, UPLB.
MODULE 4
PLANT LIFE PROCESSES
UNIT OUTCOMES
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
1. Define photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration, translocation
and assimilation
2. Explain the processes involved in photosynthesis, respiration,
transpiration and translocation through observation of plants
3. Differentiate C3, C4 and Cam plants by giving their
characteristics
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I. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Manufacture of sugars and its precursors by green plants in
the presence of light and chlorophyll.
6CO2+12H2O >>> C6H12O6 +6O2 +6H2O

 Carbon dioxide is taken from the air through the stomata,
while water is absorbed from the soil by the roots and is
transported in the xylem to sites of photosynthesis
 The main organ for photosynthesis is the leaf; the main
organelle involved is the chloroplastid.
 The features which make the leaf an ideal organ for
photosynthesis are:
1. Its typically expanded form
2. It’s usually perpendicular angle to incident light
3. Its extensive internal surface with an efficient
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vascular system for channeling the various
reactants and end products of photosynthesis
4. Its pigment for light absorption.
Chloroplast
I
 Are usually lens-shaped bounded by a double membrane
 The inner membrane invaginates parallel to the surface and
becomes organized into specialized cytoplasmic body consisting of
a stack of thylakoids called granum which are embedied in a
proteinaceous matrix called stroma.
Chlorophyll
 Principal pigment in photosynthesis located in the partition between
two adjacent thylakoids
 Chlorophyll a occurs in all higher plant, but other isomers like
chlorophyll b, c, d etc may also be found
 In higher plants, the two main isomers are chlorophyll a and
chlorophyll b in ratio of 3:1
 Its basic unit is the porphyrin ring system, a structure made up of
four simpler pyrrole nuclei joined by carbon linkages.
 The center of porphyrin is occupied by a single magnesium atom.
Significance of Photosynthesis:
1. Light/Light dependent/Photochemical Phase
 Light energy are harvested by two photosystems
 Oxidation of water and and generation of NADPH and ATP by
the chloroplast thylakoids
 The lights induce the splitting of H2O to produce oxygen and
the NADPH and ATP (reducing power)
 Rapid process and requires the presence of light.
 Composed of:
a. Non-cyclic photophosporylation
b. Cyclic photophosporylation
 The end product of light reaction, ATP and NADPH are used
to fix CO2.
2. Dark or Light Independent/Biochemical or CO2 assimilation phase
or photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle
 Primary process by which inorganic carbon is converted to
organic compounds
 Use of reducing power to reduce CO2 to carbohydrates and
water
 Occur both in the presence or absence of light
 Slow process
 Use the products of light reactions, ATP and NADPH
The fixation or reduction of CO2 into carbohydrates can occur via three pathways:
a) Calvin Benson Cycle/ Reductive Pentose Pathway
 Fixation and reduction of one molecule of CO2 requires three
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molecules of ATP and 2 NADPH (coming from light reaction)
 Occurs in the mesophyll cell chloroplast
 CO2 acceptor is RUBP
 RUBP carboxylase enzyme is needed
I  The first product is 3-PGA
b) C4 or Hatch Slack Pathway
 Occurs in the mesophyll cell
 CO2 acceptor is PEP, catalyzed by PEP carboxylase enzyme
 Products are 4-carbon organic acids (oxaloacetic acid at the
mesophyll cells
 The oxaloacetic acid is converted to malate and aspartic acid
 Malic acid is decarboxylated to produce CO2
 The 3-carbon compound goes back to the mesophyll cells
 The CO2 released enters the calvin cycle for sugar/starch
production
 The 3-carbon compound combined with 1-carbon from the
atmosphere to form again into 4-carbon compound
c) Crassulacean acid Metabolism (CAM) Pathway
 Found in succulent plants (cactus, pineapple)
 During the night, CO2 is fixed
 During the day, malic acid is decarboxylated where CO2 is
fixed through the C3 pathway
Table 1. General Characteristics of C3, C4 and CAM plants

C3 plants C4 plants CAM plants
Crop examples Typically temperate Typically tropical Typically
species ex. Spinach, or semitropical xerophytic
wheat, potato, species ex. Corn, species. Ex.
tobacco, sugarbeat, sugarcane, Cacti, orchids,
soybean, sunflower amaranthus, agave,
sorghum, plants bromeliads,
adapted to high and other
light, temperature, succulents
and semi-arid
environments
Biomass Moderately Highly productive; Very poor
Production productive; 30 tons 80 tons per productivity
per hectare is hectare is
possible for possible for sugar
sunflower cane
Leaf anatomy Lack Kranz-type Kranz type Lack kranz-
anatomy and anatomy and type anatomy
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peripheral reticulum; peripheral and peripheral
only one type reticulum are reticulum; only
chloroplast essential features one type
chloroplast
I
Initial CO2 Ribulose- 1,5- Phosphoenol PEP in the
acceptor bisphosphate pyruvate (PEP), a dark and
(RuBP), a 5-C sugar 3-C acid RuBP in the
light
First stable 3-phosphoglycerate Oxaloacetate OAA in the
product (3-PGA), a 3-C (OAA), a 4-C dark and 3-
compound compound PGA in the
light
CO2 fixation Only one CO2 Two CO2 fixation Two CO2
fixation pathway pathways are fixation
separated in pathways are
space separated in
time
Glycolate High Low Low
synthesis
Water-use Low High High
efficiency/salinity
tolerance
Light saturation At about 1/5 full Do not readily Do not readily
sunlight photosaturate at photosaturate
high light density at high light
intensity
CO2 High Low High affinity for
compensation CO2 at night
point
Stomatal opening Open stomata by day Open stomata by Open stomata
day by night
Factors affecting photosynthesis

1. Internal
a. Enzymes – biological catalysts/agent of life
b. Genetic factor – chlorophyll, kind of plant, etc
c. Leaf age
d. Demand of sinks for photosynthates
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e. Water content of the plant
f. Amount of plant regulates
2. External
a. Light
I - Quality
- Intensity
- Duration
b. CO2 and H2O availability
c. Temperature
d. Wind velocity
II. RESPIRATION
- Defined as an enzyme-catalyzed reaction involving the
transformation of organic substrate into carbon dioxide and water
accompanied by the released of energy.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 >>>> 6H2O +6O2 + E

Stages of Respiration
1. Glycolysis
 Occurs in cytoplasm
 Partial oxidation of a glucose molecule (6-C) yields two
molecules of pyruvic acid (3-C). In the process substrate
phosphorylation of the sugar molecule results to a net production
of 2 ATP
2. Krebs cycle
 Pyruvic acids produced in the cytosol during glycolysis are
imported into the mitochondrial matrix which is the site of krebs
cycle.
 Pyrubic acid is first oxidized to acetyl co-enzyme A and
subsequently converted to CO2.
 For every glucose molecule (2 pyruvic acids) entering the
mitochondrion, the krebs cycle generates 6 NADH and 2 FADH2
and yield 2 ATP via substrate level phosphorylation.
3. Electron Transport System (ETS)
 Occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
 NADH (from glycolysis and Krebs cycle) and FADH2 (from Krebs
cycle) are oxidized to yield ATP
 ATP is generated in ETS via oxidative phosphorylation
Factors Affecting Respiration:
1. Age and Tissue type
 Large, young tissues respire more strongly than old
 Developing tissues respire more than mature once
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 Tissues undergoing metabolic processes respire more than
resting tissues
2. Temperature
 Enzymes activity doubles for energy 100C rise in temperature
I within certain limits
 More rapid breakdown of respiration as temperature
increases above 35oC due to destruction of enzymes by heat
3. Oxygen
 Presence of oxygen is essential for oxidative metabolism
4. CO2
 High level (higher than normal atmosphere) inhibits
respiration
 High concentration causes the stomata to close
5. Physiological status of plant or plant parts
 Dormant state respire less than active parts of the plant
6. Moisture content of tissues
 Seeds with higher moisture content respire more than seeds
with drier tissues
III. TRANSPIRATION
 Is the loss from plants in the form of water vapor. This evaporative
process is dependent on energy, the heat of vaporization (539 cal
per gram) which is required to convent water from liquid state to
gaseous state
 Considered as “necessary evil”
a. It keeps cells hydrated
b. It maintains favorable turgor pressure for the transport of
nutrients absorbed by the roots from the soil
c. It serves as a cooling process
Types of Transpiration
1. Cuticular transpiration
- Loss of water through the epidermis which is usually covered
with a cuticle. In some temperate plants, about 5-10% of the
water lost from plants maybe lost by this pathway.
2. Lenticular transpiration
- Loss of water through numerous pores in the outer layer of a
woody plant stem, called lenticels. In deciduous species and in
some fruits, water loss through lenticels maybe quite substantial
3. Stomatal transpiration
- Loss of water through the stomata which can account as much
as 90% of the water loss from plants
Two-stage process
a. Evaporation of water from the moist cell walls into the substomatal air
space
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b. Diffusion of water vapor from the substomatal space into the
atmosphere
Factors affecting transpiration
I 1. Relative humidity
2. Temperature
3. Wind velocity
4. CO2 concentration – higher concentration will close the stomata
5. Light intensity
6. Morphology of leaf stomatal modification
IV. TRANSLOCATION
 A long-distance transport of photoassimilates
 Transport of solutes by the roots to the other parts of plant passing
the dead conduits or dead xylem vessels (apoplastic transport)
 Transport of photosynthesis in living conduits or phloem vessel
(symplastic transport)
 Transport of solution from the roots to the upper parts through the
xylem of the stem (transpirational stream) transpiration or loss of
water in plant is the cause of the movement.
 Tissues involved are the phloem and the xylem
 Sucrose is the main photosynthates being translocated
 The translocation is from the sources to the sinks
Source – an organ or tissue that produces more assimilates than the
requirement of the said organ for its own metabolism and growth
exporter organ.
Sink – importer or consumer of assimilate
Factors affecting translocation
1. Temperature – rate of translocation increases with temperature to a
maximum and then decreases due to hazardous effect of high
temperature
2. Light – CO2 assimilation increases as light intensity increases
3. Metabolic inhibitors
4. Concentration gradient
5. Mineral deficiencies – sucrose movement can be aided by boron
6. Hormones – associated with the active parts, hence growing parts
(sinks) greatly influence translocation
V. ASSIMILATION
 The process of utilizing food (photo assimilates and other
solutes) for growth
 During the early stage, food substances are converted into
simpler compounds (enzymes are needed, nutrients are
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necessary for normal action of enzymes) and used as
building blocks for more complex substances
 During the later stage, simple and complex compounds are
integrated into the living substances of the cells.
I There are number of factors which determine assimilate partitioning in a crop:
1. Sink strength. The ability of a sink to accumulate assimilates is called
sink strength. It is a function of sink size and sinks activity.
2. Proximity of the sink to the source organ. Assimilates move
preferentially toward sink leaves above and in line with the source leaf.
Lower mature leaves feed mainly the roots, the higher mature leaves
feed mainly the young leaves and the shoot apex.
3. Stage of development. Developing flowers and fruits become
dominant sinks during the reproductive stage of a crop. On the other
hand, storage roots used as planting materials export assimilates to
developing vegetative tissues.
4. Nature of vascular connections between source and sinks. Each
leaf is connected to the main vascular system of the stem by a vascular
trace, which diverts from the vascular tissue of the stem into the petiole

1. Define photosynthesis, respiration, translocation, transpiration and
assimilation.
2. Give the factors affecting Photosynthesis, Respiration, translocation,
transpiration and assimilation.
3. Give the general characteristics of C3, C4, and CAM plants
Assessment # 5
Name_____________________ Year and Section_______________________
1. Identify the plant life processes that is described in each item below:
_________________a. Manufacture of sugars and its precursors by green

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plants in the presence of light and chlorophyll.
_________________b. It is an enzyme-catalyzed reaction involving the
transformation of organic substrate into carbon dioxide and water
I accompanied by the release of energy.
_________________c. It is the loss of water from plants in the form of
water vapour.
_________________d. It is a long-distance transport of photo assimilates.
_________________e. It is the process of utilizing food (photo assimilates
and other solutes) for growth.
_________________f. It is the principal pigment in photosynthesis located
in the partition between two adjacent thylakoids.
_________________g. They are usually lens-shaped bounded by a double
membrane.
_________________h. It is a stage of respiration that occurs in cytoplasm.
__________________i. It is a stage of respiration that occurs in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.
__________________j. It is a type of transpiration that loss water through
the
stomata which can account as much as 90% of the water loss from plants.
__________________k. It is an organ or tissue that produces more
assimilates
than the requirement of the said organ for its own metabolism and growth
exporter
organ.
__________________l. It is the importer or consumer of assimilate
__________________m. It is a type of transpiration that losses water
through
numerous pores in the outer layer of a woody plant stem.
__________________n. It is first oxidized to acetyl co-enzyme A and
subsequently converted to CO2 during the respiration.
__________________o. It is a pathway in photosynthesis that is found in

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succulent plants (cactus, pineapple)
__________________p. It is a plant process that is considered a
“necessary evil”.
I
Test II. Essay. Answer the following questions.
1. What are the features that make the leaf an ideal organ for
photosynthesis?
( 5 pts)
2. Write the differences between C3, C4 and CAM plants. (15 pts)
Assignment
Read more about growth and development, and plant growth regulation.
References:
Questions)
UP at Los Banos.
Horticulture,
SEARCA, UPLB.

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MODULE 5
GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND REPRODUCTION

I
UNIT OUTCOMES
After completing this unit you should be able to:
1. Define plant growth, development, growth, crop adaptation,
reproduction, differentiation, organization, correlation, plant
movements
2. Observe the different physiological processes affecting crop
production
3. Conduct scientific investigation on plant growth, development,
and reproduction by conducting simple experiment.
4. Analyze the result of the experiment by observing and
interpreting the data.
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TERMINOLOGIES:
Development – denote the attainment of size by virtue of growth and

architectural style by the concomitant process of
morphogenesis. It has three interrelated aspects, namely:
growth, differentiation, and organization.
Growth – is an irreversible time change generally accompanied by an
increase in size, weight or mass.
Differentiation – is the outward sign of selective gene action, the reflection
of change in the cell’s biochemical program as a
consequence of the release of information encoded in one-
dimensional sequences.
Organization – orientation and integration of the differentiated cells in
space together with regulated growth with the consequent

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attainment of form and structure of the complete organism.
Correlation – regulatory effect exerted by one part of the plant on the
growth and development in another part.
I
Endogenous rhythm – recurring events or oscillations with properties not
directly reflecting environmental fluctuations.
a. Annual rhythm – reoccur every year
b. Lunar rhythm – reoccur every new moon
c. Circadian rhythm – recur every 24 hours
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Plant movements
- May exhibit movement of some organs in response to
environmental stimuli.
Three steps in plant movement:

1. Perception – involves recognition of the environmental stimulus by the
plant
2. Transduction – involves biochemical and biophysical changes which occur
in response to perceived stimulus
3. Response – shows the changes in the organ affected by the perceived
stimulus
Two categories of plant movements
1. Tropic movements (tropisms) – direction of the environmental stimulus
determines the direction of the movement
a. Phototropism – response to light
b. Gravitropism – response to gravity
c. Solar tracking – flat blade of the leaf is always at nearly right angle to the
sun throughout the day
2. Nastic movements – movement may be triggered by an internal timing
mechanism (biologic clock) and the direction of the stimulus may not
determine the direction of movement.
a. Hyponasty – bending up of leaves
b. Epinasty – bending down of leaves
c. Nyctinasty – folding of some leaves in response to light which usually
assumes a rhythmic pattern because of its interaction with the biological
clock
d. Hydronasty – the folding and rolling of leaves in response to water
e. Thigmonasty – response to touch or mechanical stress
f. Seismonasty – response to shaking without contact to the organism
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CROP ADAPTATION
1. Morphological adaptation – exemplified by the presence of
I metamorphosed or specialized organs which performs non-typical
functions. Example: pneumatophores or modified roots of certain trees
growing in marshes which servs as “breathing” organs.
2. Physiological adaptation – exemplified by the closing of stomates of any
bromeliads during the day to help conserve water as well as the abscission
of leaves in deccidous plants to reduce the evaporative surface area
thereby conserving moisture and lowering of compensation point.
3. Biochemical adaptation – biochemical changes with some bearing on
certain survival mechanism such as the increase in proline and abscisic
acid and osmolytes in plants during period of moisture stress to regulate
increased water-
holding capacity of tissues for moisture as well as stomatal closure to
conserve
water.
1. Define development, growth, differentiation, organization and

correlation.
2. Differentiate the two categories of plant movements.
3. Give the three steps in plant movement.
4. Answer the questions on Laboratory Exercise # 3
(Field Crops and Their Environment)
Assessment # 6
Name _______________Year and Section _______________________

1. Define the following:
a. Development -
______________________________________________
b. Growth
-___________________________________________________
c. Differentiation -_____________________________________________
d. Organization -
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______________________________________________
e. Correlation -
_______________________________________________
f. Plantmovements -
I ___________________________________________
g. Perception
-_________________________________________________
h. Tropicmovements -
__________________________________________
i. Nasticmovements
-___________________________________________
j. Transduction -
_______________________________________________
2. List the three steps in plant movement.

______________a.
______________b.
______________c.
3. Give and describe the different nastic movements of plants;
_________a.
_________b.
_________c.
_________d.
_________e.
_________f.
Assignment
1. What is Phytohormones?
2. What are the different plant growth hormones?
References:

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Questions)
I
UP at Los Banos.
Horticulture,SEARCA, UPLB.
PLANT GROWTH REGULATION
Unit Outcomes:
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
1. Define phytohormones and plant growth regulators
2. Give the different plant growth hormones and their functions.
_________________________________________________________________
Phytohormones
- Organic substances other than vitamins and nutrients which are
active in very minute (often <2uM)amounts
- Formed in certain parts of the plant and which are usually are
translocated to other sites where they promote, inhibit, or
otherwise modify physiological, biochemical and/ or
morphological processes
- In general, PGRs are promotive relatively low concentrations but
become inhibitory at relatively higher concentrations
- Endogenous PGRs are called plant hormones or phytohormones
1. Auxin
- Genetic term applied to growth regulators with the special
capacity to promote cell elongation.
- Naturally occurring auxins are the indole-auxins represented
by indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)
- IAA is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan primarily in
actively-growing tissues. It is also produced in mature leaves
and root tips, although at much lower concentrations
- IAA transport is cell to cell and is polar in nature. The
basipetal transport to the root and acropetal transport to the
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upper organs involves vascular and non-vascular tissues.
Effects
a. Promotes cell enlargement and cell division in the cambium in
I tissue culture
b. Stimulates differentiation of phloem and xylem
c. Stimulates root initiation in cuttings
d. Induces ethylene biosynthesis at supra-optimal concentration
e. Mediates the tropic bending response of shoots and roots to
gravity, light and touch
f. Promotes apical dominance
g. Delays leaf senescence and leaf and fruit abscission
h. Promotes fruit setting and fruit development in some plants
i. Can also delay fruit ripening but my promote flowering in
some plants (ex. Bromeliad)
j. Induces femaleness in dioecious flowers (via ethylene)
k. Induction of parthenocarpic (seedless) fruit development (Ex.
Tomato)
l. Popularly used as herbicides (Ex. 2,4-D, 2,3,5-T[agent
orange], dicamba etc.)
2. Gibberellic acid (GA)
- Belong to a family of compounds based on the ent-gibberellane
structure
- Gas are synthesized from mevalonic acid in 1) elongating shoots, 2)
young leaves of developing apical buds, 3) developing seeds and
fruit, and 4) apical regions of the roots
- The major conduit for the on-polar transport of GAs is the phloem
Effects
a. Stimulates stem elongation (may reverse physiological and
genetic dwarfism in plants)
b. Promotes bolting (rapid elongation of floral stem) in long day
plants
c. Induces germination of seeds that normally require a cold
treatment (stratification) or light (positively photoblastic seeds)
d. Stimulates de novo synthesis of a-amylase in germinating cereal
grains
e. Promotes fruit set and fruit growth in some fruits (Ex. Grapes)
f. Induces maleness in dioecious flowers of some species.
3. Cytokinin (CK)
- Adenine derivatives which have the capacity to induce cell
division in tissue culture
- The most common CK base in plants is zeatin, the first natural
CK which was isolated from corn endosperm.
- Synthesized through the biochemical modification of adenine.
- The major site of CK biosynthesis is at the root apical meristem
although seeds (embryo) and developing leaves have been
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shown to produce significant amounts of CK as well
- CK produced in the roots is transported to the upper organs via
xylem.
Effects
I
a. Regulates morphogenesis in cultured tissues (in synergy with
auxin)
b. Releases lateral buds from apical dominance
c. Delays leaf senescence
d. Promotes cotyledon and leaf expansion
e. Promotes nutrient mobilization
f. Enhances stomatal opening in some species
g. Enhances accumulation of chlorophyll as it promotes the
conversion of etioplasts into chloroplast
4. Ethylene
- Only phytohormone occurring in gas state
- It is an unsaturated hydrocarbon synthesized from the amino
acid methionine (primary precursor) in many tissues in
response to stress
- Ethylene does not seem to be essential for normal vegetative
growth but it is the only hydrocarbon with a pronounced effect
on plants
- Synthesized in most tissues in response to senescence and
stresses
- Being a gas, ethylene moves by diffusion from the site of
biosynthesis.
Effects
a. Promotes ripening of climacteric fruits
b. Induces epinasty
c. Induces lateral cell expansion
d. Formation of adventitious roots
e. Induces flowering in pineapple and other bromeliads
f. Enhances flower, fruits and leaf senescence
g. Induces femaleness in dioecious flowers of some species
h. Promotes shoot and root growth differentiation
i. Releases tissues/organs from dormancy
j. Promotes leaf and fruit abscission
k. Enhances flower opening in some species
5. Abscisic acid (ABA)
- Synthesized from mevalonic acid in mature leaves particularly
In response to water stress. Seeds are also rich in ABA which
may be imported from the leaves or synthesized in situ.
- ABA is exported from leaves in the phloem. There are some
evidences that ABA may circulate to the roots in the phloem
and then return to the shoots in the xylem.
Effects
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a. Counteracts the effect of gebberellins on a-amylase synthesis
in germinating cereal grains
b. Enhances stomatal closure (ex. During water stress)
c. Promotes leaf senescence
I d. Promotes storage protein synthesis in seeds
e. Induces transport of photosynthesis towards developing
seeds and its subsequent uptake by growing embryos
f. Induces and/or maintains dormancy in seeds and buds
1. Define phytohormones and plant growth regulations.

2. Give the different plant hormones and their effects to the plant after
application.
Assessment # 7
Name_____________________ Year and Section________________

Test I. Multiple choice. Write the letter that corresponds to your answer.
1. Smudging of mango trees induces flowering due to the production of
hormone
a. Cytokinin b. Gibberellin c. Ethylene d. Napthalene
2. This phytohormone is also referred to as ripening hormone:
a. IAA b. Giberrelin c. Cytokinin d. Ethylene
3. Apical dominance is a phenomenon wherein lateral buds are dormant in
the presence of terminal buds is effected by
a. Ethylene b. Auxins c. Gibberellins d. cytokinins
4. Stomatal closure is not only due to deficiency of turgor pressure but
also due to the action of hormones, it is effected by
a. Ethylene b. Cytokinin c. Gibberellin d. abscisic acid
5. Senescene is yellowing of leaves due to maturity and it is due to a
hormone called
a. Ehylene b. Cytokinin c. Gibberillin d. Auxin
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6. Short day plants are plants that bear flowers during the period of the
year when nights are longer than daytime. The flowering of these kinds
of plants is due to the action of the hormone
a. Auxin b. Ethylene c. Abscisic acid d. Cytokinins
I 7. The production of ethylene is due to the action or growth hormone
known as
a. Gibberellins b. Auxins c. Cytokinin d. Abscissin
8. Geotropism is responsible of the plants to gravity. This responsible is an
effect of growth hormone called.
a. Auxin b. Cytokinin c. Gibberellin d. Ethylene
9. Scenescenen is effected by ethylene but prevented by
a. Auxin b. Ethylene c. Cytokinin d.Gebberellin
10. The hormone that inhibits organ formation is known as
a. Auxin b. Gibberellins c. Cytokinins d. Ehtylene
Assignment
1. Differentiate the following:

a. Sexual and asexual propagation,
b. Epigenous germination and Hypogenous germination
c. Primary dormancy and secondary dormancy
2. How do you hasten seed germination or break dormancy?
References:
Questions)
at Los Banos.
Horticulture,

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SEARCA, UPLB.
MODULE 6
VII: PLANT PROPAGATION
UNIT OUTCOMES
1. Define sexual and asexual propagation
2. Name the different crops that can be propagated through seeds,
and vegetative propagation
3. Reproduce crops by using the different methods of plant

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propagation.
4. Demonstrate the methods of propagating plants by using the
different tools and equipment
5. Perform the different methods of plant propagation based on
I their respective step by step procedure.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
A. Seed Propagation
Seed propagation is sometimes termed as sexual propagation. Ex.
Papaya and coconut
Advantages: Seed propagation also offers a very good opportunity to
produce new hybrids or varieties. Seed propagation is an easy and cheap method
of multiplying plants.
Disadvantages: for fruits and plantation crops. It takes time to flower and
and bear fruits for the first time (longer juvenile period) and fruits tend to grow
taller. It does not retain the characteristics of the mother plant.
Apomixis or apomictic seeds – is seed development without the benefit of
sexual fusion of the egg and the sperm cells. The resulting plants are of the same
characteristics as the mother plant. Apomectic seeds may be poly and mono
embryonic seeds, example mangosteen.
Seed germination – is the resumption of active growth by the embryo
culminating in the development of a young plant from the seed.
Factors that affect germination:
1. Water – essential in the first phase of germination, for softening the
seedcoat, dissolve nutrients in the endosperm making them available to
the embryo and growth begins
2. Light – can stimulate germination of some seeds;
3. Oxygen – for respiration (breaking down the food stored in seeds) This
is one reason for using light or well aerated growing medium;
4. Temperature – trigger the reaction within the seeds (chemical)
Types of seed germination.

1. Epigeal – type of germination when the cotyledon comes above
the ground.
2. Hypogeal – type of germination when the cotyledon remains
below the ground.
Seed dormancy- is the in ability of the viable seeds to germinate even the
most favorable environmental conditions are provided.
Causes of seed dormancy
1. Physical – hard seedcoat, mucilages or waxy material around the
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seeds. Ex. Sacrotesta in papaya
2. Physiological – inhibitor;
3. Light sensitivity;
4. Embryo dormancy
I After ripening – refers to changes in the seeds during storage as a result
of which germination is improved.
Hastening of seed germination.
1. Scarification – is any treatment that removes the seedcoat or
alters it, making it more permeable to water, ex. Chico, pili,
ampalaya. This is done mechanically or soaking in water,
solvents or acid.
2. Stratification – is the placement of seeds between layers of
either moist sand, soil or sawdust at high or low temperatures so
the action of water and high or low temperature will soften the
seed coat. Ex. Abaca seeds
Kinds of true botanical seeds.
1. Orthodox seed –seed of some plants that could be kept viable
for longer periods, provided they are dried properly.
2. Recalcitrant seed – seeds of some plants that could not be kept
for a long time. It cannot withstand drying and should not permit
to dry out before planting.
B. ASEXUAL OR VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Vegetative propagation – involves the use of vegetative parts of the plant
like the roots, stem, and to increase the number of the plants of the same
kind. It is also called asexual propagation, since no union of the male and
female gametes is involved.
Advantages
1. The resulting plant possesses characteristics as the mother
plant.
2. Use in plants where seed propagation is impossible or difficult.
3. The trees are usually smaller and bear fruits earlier than those
grown from seeds.
Disadvantage.
For artificial vegetative propagation, a seedling is indispensable
Separation and Division
Separation – involves separating naturally detachable organs from
the mother plant
Division – procedure wherein specialized vegetative structures are cut

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into sections. Modified organ which may be separated and /or
divided:
 Bulb- a specialized underground organ consisting of a short, fleshy,
I usually vertical system axis (basal plate) bearing at its apex , a
growing point or a flower primordium enclosed by thick, fleshy
scales Ex. Tulips, lilies
 Bulbil _ aerial plantlet formed on the axil of the leaves or flower
stalk. Ex. Agave
 Corm – a swollen base of a stem axis of the leaves or flower stalk
ex. Banana, gladiolus, gabi
 Crown – pan of a plant at the surface of the ground from which new
shoots are produce. Ex. Aster, Shasta daisy
 Offset (syn.offshoot) – a char]acteristic type of lateral shoot or
branch which develops from the base of the main stem in certain
plants.
 Rhizome – a specialized structure in which the main axis of the plant
grows horizontally at or just below the ground surface. Ex. Banana,
bamboo, sugarcane
 Runner – a specialized stem which develops from the axil of the leaf
at the crown of a plant grows horizontally along the ground, and
forms a new plant at one of the nodes. Ex. Strawberry, black pepper
 Slip – leafy shoot originating from axillary buds borne at the base of
a plant or peduncle of the fruit. Ex. Pineapple, cabbage
 Stolon – special modified stem, produced by some plants that grow
horizontal to the ground. Ex. Bermuda grass
 Sucker – adventitious shoot that arise from underground stems
below the ground. Ex. Banana, pineapple
 Tuber – a modified stem structure which develops below ground as
a consequence of the swelling of the subapical portion of the stolon
and subsequent accumulation if reserve materials. Ex. Potato
 Tuberous root – thickened root which contain large amount of stored
foods. Ex. Cassava, sweet potato
Cutting – a portion of a stem, root, or leaf is cut from the parent plant, after which
this plant part is placed under certain favourable environmental conditions and
induced to form roots and shoots, thus producing a new independent plant
Types:
Root cutting – e.g. breadfruit, apple
Stem cutting – types: hardwood, semi-hardwood, softwood,
herbaceous cuttings e.g. cassava, malungay, coffee, rose
 Leaf cutting – e.g. snakeplant, begonia, African violet
 Leaf-bud cutting – e.g. black pepper, vanilla
Layering – a propagation method by which adventitious roots are induced to form
on a stem while it is still attached to the parent plant

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Types:
 Simple layering
 Air layering or marcotting
I  Compound or serpentine layering
 Mound or stool layering
 Trench layering
Grafting – connecting parts of plants together in such a manner that they will
unite and continue their growth as one plant.
- Scion – short piece of detached shoot with one to several dormant
buds and which is to become the upper portion of a graft
combination
- Rootstock – lower portion of graft which develops into the root
system of the grafted plant
- Innerstock – a piece of stem inserted between scion and rootstock
(to avoid any incompatibility between scion and rootstock and /or to
take advantage of its growth controlling properties)
Types:
 Whip or tongue grafting
 Splice grafting
 Side grafting
 Cleft grafting
 Wedge grafting
 Bark grafting
 Saddle grafting
Budding –an asexual propagation, that like grafting, which involves joining 2 plant
parts such that the size of the scion is induced to only one bud and a small
section of bark, with or without wood.
Types:
Shield budding (T budding) – this is usually made on an actively
developing stem whose bark can be readily separated from the
wood
 Patch budding – this type of budding is usually used in species
having a thick bark which can be separated easily from the wood.
 Chip budding – this method of budding is used where the bark of the
stem adheres closely to its wood, which may occur naturally to some
species or raising from growing conditions.
Inarching – an asexual propagation technique in which plants are made to unite
while growing on their roots.
Tissue culture techniques other than embryo culture – can be started from a
variety of plant parts which have cells capable of dividing, ex. Shoot tip culture;

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meristem culture and endosperm culture
I
1. Define the following:
a. sexual and asexual propagation,
2. Reproduce crops by using the different methods of plant propagation.
3. Demonstrate the methods of propagating plants by using the
appropriate tools and equipment
4. Perform the different methods of plant propagation based on their
respective step by step procedure
Assessment # 8
Name____________________ Year and Section____________________

1. Differentiate the following:
a. sexual and asexual propagation,
Test II. Multiple Choice. Write the letter that corresponds to your answer.
1. A method of asexual propagation in which missing organs are allowed to
regenerate or detached from the vegetative parts of the plant is:
a. Marcotting b. Budding c. Cuttage d. Grafting
2. Pants can be propagated using different techniques. Combining a root
stock and a scion until they unite permanently is
a. Cleft grafting b. graftage c. layerage d. cottage
3. The leafy shoots originating from axillary buds borne at the base of the
pineapple fruit are called
a. Suckers b. slips c. runners d. crowns
4. A type of plant propagation wherein formation of adventitious roots or buds
occurs before separation of the propagule from the parent plant.
a. Grafting b. layering c. cloning d. inarching
5. Planting material commonly used in pineapple
a. Runner b. slip c. corm d. sucker
6. Breadfruit is propagated using this planting material
a. Leaf bud cuttings b. sucker c. runner d. root cutting
7. This is an example of a plant propagated by root cutting.
a. Onion b. guava c. okra d. eggplant
8. Plants can be propagated in many different ways. The easiest method of
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plant propagation is:
a. Marcotting b. Layering c. Inarching d. Cuttage
9. This is the treatment that removes the seed coat or alters it making it
permeable to water, so it will emerge faster.
I a. Stratification c. Scarification
b. Vernalization d. Separation
10. Air layering is also known as
a. Marcotting b. Grafting c. Budding d. Inarching
11. In cleft grafting the wedge is located at the
a. Scion b. Top of the scion c. Root stock d. above the scion
12. Inarching is also known as
a. Grafting by approach c. Layering
b. Marcotting d. Serpentine
13. For rapid rate of multiplication the type of propagation generally practiced is
a. Micro propagation b. Sexual c. Asexual d. Grafting
14. The common planting materials for abaca.
a. Tubers b. Bulbs c. Suckers d. Rhizomes
15. Crops that could be propagated by crown, suckers and slips.
a. Abaca b. Pineapple c. Banana d. Gabi
Activity:
1. Perform and answer the questions on Laboratory Exercise # 4
(Seed Germination )
2. Perform Laboratory Exercise # 5. (Vegetative Propagation.)
Assignment
1. Define genotype and environment.
2. Discuss the interaction between genotype and environment.
3. What are the environmental factors affecting crop production.
References:
Questions)
at Los Banos.

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PCARRD. 2007. Urban Vegetable Production in the Philippines.
I
Horticulture, SEARCA, UPLB.
MODULE 7
FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION
Expected Learning Outcomes
1. Define genotype, environment
2. Explain the interaction between genotype and environment at the crop
level.
3. Give the different factors you should consider under production system.
4. Enumerate the environmental factors affecting crop production
________________________________________________________
A. Genotype and Environment
Crop production can be viewed from two properties
1. At the CROPS level
2. At the SYSTEMS level
Crop production at the crop level:
In the form of an equation:
Y= f [(G + E ( G x E)]
Where Y = yield
G = genotype
E = environment
G x E = interaction of genotype and environment
Genotype and environment
 Genotype – genetic design of a plant which dictates the ceiling of how
much a
variety/cultivar can yield.
 Genes controlling a character (yield, plant height, taste,
color, etc.)
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 varieties among and even within species
 Sets the ultimate limit for plant variation
 Environment – any factor eternal to the plant that influences its growth and
development.
I
 May be biotic or abiotic; examples are climate, soil,
topography, pest and diseases
 G x E Interaction
 A high yielding variety grown under poor environment will
have low yield.
 A low yielding variety grown in optimum (good) environment
will still have low yield.
 An ideal genotype therefore is one that has a wide
range of environmental
 An optimum environment is one that poses a minimum
of constraints to crop growth and development
 Through G x E Interaction, some particular elements of
the environment may draw varying responses from
different genotypes.
Practical implications:
1. Develop management practices that can remove or avoid
environmental constraints.
2. Continuously assess G x E Interaction
3. Need for continuous development of improved varieties
In a production system;
 Inputs – controllable, manageable resources such as seeds, fertilizers,
pesticides, etc.
 Output – yield
 Environment – uncontrollable factors external to the system
 System – component crops, processes and activities
Practical Implications;
1. Man (management has only partial control of the system.
2. Certain factors/ conditions are given to which the system has to fit or
adjust.
3. The design of the system emanates from man (his needs, objectives,
knowledge and capabilities)
B. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
 Include CLIMATIC or above-ground factors and EDAPHIC or soil factors
(abiotic factors)
 Also includes pests and beneficial organism (biotic factors)
Abiotic factors

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A. CLIMATIC FACTORS
1. Climate – the seasonal pattern of a particular place occurring from
year to year.
- A composite of day to day weather conditions described in averages
I and variability.
2. Weather
- A momentary state of the atmosphere brought about the
combination of elements, ex. Temperature, pressure, moisture
content, air movements, radiation, etc.
- Day-to-day changes of the state or condition of the atmosphere
3. Macroclimate – the climatic environment one meter above the plant
canopy
4. Microclimate – generally refers to the climatic environment one
meter below the canopy in the case of tall plants or the climate
within the leaf canopy for short (below one meter) plants.
The Climatic Elements:

1. Precipitation – is any form of water particles falling on the ground in liquid
or solid form ( rainfall, hail, snow, etc)
Role of water in plants
1. As a reactants in many biological reactions
2. Enters into the structure of biological molecules
3. Serve as medium of transport of nutrients and other substances
4. Helps regulate plants temperature
Categories of plants based on need for moisture
1. Xerophytes – desert plants
2. Hydrophytes – aquatic plants
3. Mesophytes – land plants; most economically important plants
Rain formation requires
 High relative humidity (RH)
 Sufficiently low temperature (below condensation point)
 Condensation nuclei
 Sufficiently low pressure
Drought – insufficiently low of rainfall/moisture which seriously affects plant
growth.
-Absolute drought – 29 consecutive days without rainfall of at least
0.25 mm.
- Partial drought – 15 consecutive days without rainfall of a least
0.25 mm.
2. Temperature – the degree of hotness and coldness of a body. Every
chemical, physiological and biological process in plants is influence by
temperature.

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Three (3) cardinal temperatures:
1. Minimum temperature – that temperature below which the
velocity of the reaction becomes zero, due to the deactivation of
I enzymes.
2. Optimum temperature – temperature where the velocity of the
reaction is at maximum.
3. Maximum temperature – that temperature above which the
velocity of the reaction becomes zero, due to the desaturation of
enzymes.
Temperature of the environment depends upon:
1. Solar radiation – vertical rays are more energy efficient/unit area than
oblique rays (in polar regions)
2. Surrounding land masses or bodies of water.
3. Altitude – for every 100 meter rise in elevation, there is a 0.6 oC
decrease in temperature.
Classification of crops according to temperature requirement
1. Cool season crops – ex., cole crops like cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower
2. Warm season crops – ex. Rice, banana
3. Tropical ex. Coconut
4. Sub-tropical – ex. Citrus
Effect of temperature on crops:
 Vernalization requirement of certain crops for flowering (ex. Celery
seed exposed to 4.4 – 10 oC for 10 days under imbibed condition)
 Effect on crop maturation (crops mature faster in hotter
environments than in colder ones)
3.Wind or air in horizontal motion
Normal wind speed in the Philippines = 7.2 km/hr
At 30 km/hr = leaf tearing may already occur especially in banana
and abaca
Effects of wind in plants:
1. Increase transpiration
2. Destructive effects of strong winds, typhoon (ex. Crop lodging, grain
shattering)
3. Sterility due to loss of pollens
4. Disease spore dispersal
5. Reduced CO2 levels especially in enclosed spaces
6. Affects plant form.
4.Solar radiation or Light – energy given out by the sun through radiation
Three aspects important to plants
1. Light intensity – expressed in foot-candle or lux.
 Plants are generally spaced so that maximum leaf area is
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exposed to sunlight
 Some plants do not require high light intensity (shade-loving)
because they have low light saturation point.
 Some plants require subdued light to survive. Ex. Some
I ornamentals
2. Duration or day length – expressed in hours per day.
3. Wavelength – expressed in angstrom or nanometer or identified by
color.
- Not all wavelengths of light are equally effective
 In photosynthesis – red and blue wavelength
 In photoperiodism – far red and red wavelength
Effect of light on plants:
1. Photoenergetic effect – direct effect on photosynthesis (intercepted
radiation is important)
2. Photocybernetic effect – effect on plant development (light quality is
rather important than quality of light)
3. Photoperiodic effect – (response) – plant response as conditioned by
daylength
Classification of plants according to light intensity requirements
1. Heliophytes
- Sun loving
- Light saturated at about 5000 foot candles
- Examples: banana, chrysanthemum, corn, cowpea, curcurbits,
eggplant, papaya, peanut, sugarcane
2. Sciophytes
- Shade loving
- Light saturated at about 500 foot candles
- Examples: ginger, African violet, ferns, philodendron, coffee
 Plants belonging to the intermediate group may be converted
through acclimatization into either heliophytes or sciophytes
Classification of plants according to photoperiodic response
1. Day neutral – will flower over a wide range of daylength. Examples:
banana, citrus, coconut, corn, tomato
2. Short day plant – requires a dark period exceeding some critical length
to induce flowering. Examples: coffee, kenaf, lima beans, rice,
sesame, soybean, winged bean
3. Long day plant – inhibited from flowering when the dark period
exceeds some critical length. Examples: aster, castor oil, onion, radish
5.Relative humidity
- Proportion/amount of moisture in the air
- Low relative humidity and high temperature will result to high
evapotranspiration
- High relative humidity and high temperature will result to low
evapotranspiration
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1. Gaseous Environment
 Carbon dioxide – critical in enclosed environments like
greenhouses
 Air pollution – toxic substance like lead, sulphur dioxide, carbon
I monoxide, HF
2. Cloudiness – cloud including smog and fog affect the amount of
radiation received by plants. Most solar radiation is reflected by clouds.
Climate stresses:
1. Typhoon and weather variations
- Typhoon – strong winds with speed greater than 21 kph
2. Ozone destruction
- Ozone – protective shield against the harmful UV rays; it is 6-30
miles above the earth
- Harmful effects:
 Depressed photosynthesis
 Reduced levels of seed protein, lipids and carbohydrates
3. Global warming
- Increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
- CO2 concentration might double to around 600 ppm in 30-75
years
- Methane gas contributes to global warming
4. El nino/La nina
- El nino phenomenon happens when there is a periodic ocean-
warming and atmospheric disturbance characterized by deficient
rainfall or prolonged drought in some areas, while heavy rains,
storms or hurricanes occur in other areas of the globe.
Climatic indicators of El nino in the Philippines include:
1. Delayed onset of the rainy season
2. Early termination of the rainy season
3. Weak monsoon activity
4. Weak tropical cyclones activity
Effects of El nino
1. Fish kill especially cold water fish-tuna and milkfish catch
declines
2. Decrease in yield for most crops
3. Human death
5.Acid Rain
6. Lahar
B. EDAPHIC FACTORS
 Refers to the soil as a factor in crop production
Soil
 A mixture of organic and inorganic materials which developed on the
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earth’s surface through weathering process of rocks and minerals
and whose properties are conditioned in various degrees by the
influence of climate, living organism, and topography acting on the
parent material over a period of time
I  Serve as a medium of plant growth (physical support for anchorage
of plant roots; water and nutrients supplier)
 A natural body with dimensions of thickness and width with indistinct
horizontal boundaries enabling it to blend with other soils and
vertical boundaries of the air above it and the un weathered rocks
below it.
Soil properties in relation to crop production
1. Soil texture – relative proportion of sand, silt and clay in a particular
soil
2. Soil structure – refers to the clustering of the soil particles into
characteristic aggregates of various sizes, shapes and stability
Importance of soil structure to crops:
a. Influences the infiltration of water through the soil
b. Influences soil aeration which is critical during seed germination and
seedling emergence.
3. Bulk density – the mass (dry weight) per unit volume of soil. A
measure of degree of compaction of the soil and an indicator of porosity
Soil Chemical Properties
1. Soil pH – the most favourable pH for growing most agricultural plants is
between pH 6 and pH 7 because at the availability of the nurients and
activities of beneficial microorganisms are at maximum at his range..
The range of pH in the Philippines is from 5.5 to pH 6.5.
- When the pH is too low (5.0, strongly acidic)
- Nutrients particularly Ca, Mg, K, P, Mo, N become less available
to plants
- N release may also be hindered when the symbiotic nitrogen
fixation and nitrification are inhibited
- Fe, Al, and Mn become more soluble to the point of toxicity
- P becomes complexed into insoluble forms with Fe and Al
- P can also be precipitated as insoluble manganese phosphate
compounds when the soil is rich in manganese oxides.
When pH is too high (>8.0, strongly alkaline)
Most micronutrients (except Mo) become un available at high pH
-
Iron deficiency commonly develops
-
P becomes complexed with calcium as precipitates of calcium
-
hydroxyapatite or calcium phosphate dehydrate
- K also competes with the now abundant Ca for plant absorption
2. Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
C.Biotic Factors – all living elements in the environment that can affect crop

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production
 Beneficial organisms – provides beneficial effects n crop
production
I  Pollinators – important role in the preservation of species and in
biodiversity conservation
 Decomposers – a tropic level, usually consisting soil
microorganisms specifically important in the maintenance of soil
organic matter
 Natural pest enemies – provide balance in a crop production
system
 particularly in the control of pests
 Pests – a collective term that includes pests, diseases, weeds,
invertebrates and vertebrates
D. Human Factors
1. Farmer’s preference (crop, type, variety)
2. Farmer’s capability – depends on resources and knowledge of the
farmers most Filipino farmers are resource poor and our culture is very rich in
indigenous knowledge particularly about farming.
3.Management
1. Differentiate climate and Weather.

2. Discuss the interaction effect of genotype and environment to plants.
3. Differentiate microclimate and macroclimate.
4. Give the climatic elements.
Assessment # 9
Test I. Multiple Choice. On your answer sheet, write the letter that corresponds to
your answer.
1. The sum of the conditions that surround and influence an organism is the
a. Ecosystem b. ecology c. environment d. abiotic factors
2. The non-living factors of the environment are called
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a. Biotic factors b. abiotic factors c. weather and climate d. soil and
water
3. The state of the atmosphere over short periods of time is
a. Climate b. weather c. microclimate d. troposphere
I 4. Which of the following are not elements of weather?
a. Temperature and wind c. atmospheric pressure and humidity
b. Typhoons and tornadoes d. precipitation and cloudiness
5. The study of weather is
a. Climatology b. weatherology c. meteorology d. none of the
above
6. An anemometer measures
a. Wind direction b. atmospheric pressure c. wind speed d.
humidity
7. Plants will need more water when the relative humidity is
a. 20% b. 40% c. 60% d. 80%
8. The method of irrigation that has the least contribution to salinization is
a. Flooding b. furrow irrigation c. . overhead irrigation d. drip
irrigation
9. The G in the equation Y= f[G + E +(G x E]) refers to
a. Growth b. genotype c. gibberellins d. geotropism
10. Microclimate refers to the climatic environment at
a. One meter above the plant canopy
b. One meter below the canopy of tall plants
c. One meter below the ground surface
d. One meter from the nearest crop
11. Photocybernetic effect refers to the effect of sunlight on
a. Photosynthesis c. Plant response to daylength
b. Plant development d. Response to gravity
12. Heliophytes are also known as
a. Sun-loving plants c. Day-neutral plants
b. Shade-loving plants d. water-loving plants
13. The net effect of the so-called greenhouse effect is
a. Cool temperature c. Excessive cloudiness
b. Excessive rainfall d. High temperature
14. Most of our economically useful plants are
a. Xerophytes c. Hydrophytes
b. Halophytes d. Mesophytes
15. The temperature, sunlight, humidity and other climatic conditions in a small
localized area is known as
a. Climate b. Weather c. Microclimate d. Macroclimate
Assignment

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1. Define plant breeding, germplasm, domestication, introduction,
hybridization, mutation and selection
2. Explain the importance of plant breeding.
3. Differentiate natural selection and artificial selection.
I
References:

Questions)
UP at Los Banos.
Horticulture,
SEARCA, UPLB.
MODULE 8
CROP IMPROVEMENT AND SEED SELECTION

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Learning Outcomes
I
1. Define plant breeding, domestication, Germplasm, introduction,
hybridization, mutation, and selection.
2. Explain the objectives of plant breeding.
3. Differentiate the classes of seeds.
Plant Breeding -
 Science, art, and business of crop improvement for human benefit
Goals and objectives of plant breeding
Improves quality, disease and insect resistance, change in maturity
duration, agronomic characteristics, photosensitivity, synchronous maturity, non-
shattering characteristics etc.
Activities in plant breeding:
A. Creation of variation
 Naturally existing variability
o Domestication –process bringing wild species under
human management
o Germplasm collection – collection of a large number
of genotypes of a crop species and its wild relatives
o Introduction – taking a genotype or a group of
genotypes of plants into new environments where they
were not being grown before
 Creation of new variability
o Hybridization – crossing genetically dissimilar
individuals
 Hybrid – the intermediate product of hybridization
 Inbreeding – mating of individuals related by ancestry;
leads to production of homozygous individuals
o Inbreed – product of inbreeding hence consequently a
homozygous individual
o Top cross – cross between an inbred and an open-
pollinated variety
o Testcross – cross between a plant or line and a tester
(tester may be an inbred, hybrid, synthetic, or open
pollinated variety)
o Backcross – a cross between a hybrid and one of its
parents; also a breeding method based on repeated
backcrossing of F1 (first generation offspring of a
cross) and the subsequent generation to the recurrent
parent usually to transfer a major trait controlled by
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one or a few genes from the donor (as the non-
recurrent parent) and the recipient (as the recurrent
parent)
o Polycross – open pollination in isolation among a
I number of selected genotypes arranged in a manner
that promotes random mating
o Reciprocal cross – mating of two individuals in which
each is used as the male parent and in one cross and
the female parent in the other
o Intraspecific cross – crossing individuals belonging to
the same species
o Wide or distant cross – crossing distantly related
individuals
o Introgressive hybridization – repeatedly
backcrossing interspecific hybrids to one of the
parental species leading to the transfer of some genes
from one species to another
 Heterosis of hybrid vigor – superiority of the F1 hybrid over its
parents
 Mid-parent heterosis
 Heterobeitiosis
 Standard heterosis
 Combining ability - the ability of a genotype to transfer its
desirable traits to its progeny
 General combining ability – average performance of a
strain in a series of crosses
 Specific combining ability – deviation from
performance predicted on the basis of general
combining ability of parent lines
 Inbreeding depression – loss of vigor due to inbreeding
 Mutation –
o heritable change in an organism
o spontaneous – mutations occurring in natural
populations
o induced – mutations artificially produced by
treatment with certain physical or chemical
agents or mutagens
 chimera – an individual with one genotype in some of its parts
and another genotype in other parts
 Polyploidization - increasing ploidy level to more than two
identical or distinct genomes
 Genetic Engineering – production of transgenic plants
B. Selection – identification of individuals or lines that are more desirable

than others in a heterogeneous population
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1. Natural selection – change n gene frequencies from one
generation to another because of differences in survival and
reproductive abilities of parent genotypes in natural
populations
I 2. Artificial selection – change in gene frequencies brought
about by man as is done in plant breeding where certain
individuals or genotypes are not used as parent of the next
generation
Modes of selection
1. Stabilizing or normalizing selection – when adaptive individuals in
the populations are selected under a constant environment through the
years; keeps the population constant and eliminates the deviants;
reduces the variability present in the population
2. Directional selection – change towards a particular direction due to
change environments resulting also in change of genetic contribution of
the population; mode observed when breeders do artificial selection
3. Diversifying or disruptive selection – opposite if stabilizing
selections; leads to either formation of subpopulations differing in their
characteristics or polymorphism in which each genotype is represented
by a distinct phenotype
C. Evaluation – process of assessing the performance of newly developed
lines of a crop through appropriate multi location trials and tests
D. Multiplication – seed multiplication of an entry after it has been identified
for released; the seed produced by the breeder after a strain is identified
but before it is released as a variety is termed as the stock seed. The
stock seed is known as breeder seed once the identified strain is released
and notified. Seed- any propagating material used for raising a crop.
Seed multiplication involves:

Seed production – should observe proper isolation
procedures to maintain genetic purity of the variety
 Isolation – separation of a population of plants from other
genotypes with which they are capable of mating
 Seed processing – drying, cleaning and grading, testing,
treating, bagging and labelling
Types of varieties
1. Hybrids – first generation offspring of a cross between two
individuals differing in one or more genes.
2. Synthetics – seed mixture of strains, clones, inbreds, or
hybrids, maintained by open-pollination for a specified
number of generations; the component units are propagated
and the synthetic reconstituted at regular intervals
3. Composites – mixture of genotypes from several sources,
maintained by normal pollination
4. Inbreds – a pure line originating by self- pollination and

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selection
5. Multilines – or blends; composite of isolines
6. Isolines – lnes that are genetically similar except for one gene
7. Open-pollinated variety – variety maintained by natural
I cross pollination
8. Landraces – farmer-selected cultivated forms
E. Distribution
Classes of seeds
1. Breeder seeds – controlled by the originating plant breeder;
starting point of all the subsequent classes of seeds; seeds
obtained from uniform panicles by breeders; 100 percent pure
2. Foundation seeds – seeds produced from breeder seeds;
source of registered and/or certified seeds; carry a red tag
3. Registered seeds – produced from foundation, or registered
seeds and carry a green tag
4. Certified seeds – produced from foundation, registered or
certified seed and carry a blue tag
5. Good seeds – produced from varieties not yet approved by
NSIC
F. Conservation of Germplasm
 Germplasm – is the sum total of hereditary material or genes
present in a species
 Plant germplasm – genetic source material used by plant breeders
to develop new cultivars
 Germplasm storage
 As seeds in cold/refrigerated rooms
 Maintained as living plants in field or through slow growth in
vitro
 Cryopreservation or freeze-preservation
Intended Learning Activities:
1. Explain the objectives of plant breeding.

2. Differentiate the classes of seeds.
Assessment 10
FINAL EXAMINATION

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ILOCOS SUR

I. COURSE CODE: CS 101

OVERVIEW on the MODULES for the CROP SCIENCE 101

I. COURSE TITLE: Crop Science 101

II. COURSE OVERVIEW:

This module provides the student basic knowledge on the importance of

III. COURSE STUDY GUIDE:

IV. COURSE STUDY SCHEDULE:

Week Topic Learning Activities Special Instructions

Week Module 6. . PLANT Read Information Research more information or

Week Module 7. FACTORS Read Information Research more information or

To pass the course, you must:

1. Submit all course requirements to include the following:

2. Pass all examinations:

VI. HOW TO USE THIS MODULE:

The Module, “Principles of Crop Production”, is a course which comprises the

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

I DO NOT WRITE ANYTHING ON THIS

This tells you to take note of or to remember an important point.

This tells you there is an assignment or research activity to be undertaken.

This tells you there is an Assessment or Self-Test.

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

CROP SCIENCE 101

III. THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF CROP PLANTS

V. GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND REPRODUCTION

VI. PLANT GROWTH REGULATION

VII. PLANT PROPAGATION

i. Propagation by apomictic embryos

VIII. FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

Agriculrure - Systematic raising of useful plants and livestock under the

- Pastoral stage (Hunting/gathering)

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

C. World and Domestic Food Situation and Production Centers

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities of and threats to Philippine

 Availability of expertise in  Physical

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

Intended Learning Activities:

Name________________________ Year and Section______________

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

CHING, Johnny A., Revised Edition 2007. General Botany.

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

Lesson II. The Concept of Crop Science

Intended Learning outcomes.

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

Intended Learning Activities

Name________________________ Year and Section______________

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

1. Crop science is defined

Make a separate copy of this assessment form to be filled out of the

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

Intended Learning Activities

Name_______________________________ Year and

Laboratory Exercise # 1. Classification and Identification of Crop Plants

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF PLANTS

Course Code: CS 101 Units: 3 Units

Name__________ Year and Section

Name__________ Year and Section

Name _Year and Section _________

Name_____ Year and Section

Name Year and Section