1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I owe a great many thanks to a great many people who

helped and supported me during the writing of this
Seminar report. My deepest thanks to Lecturer,
MR. SUNIL KUMAR NAIR
The Guide of the project for guiding and correcting
various documents of mine with attention and care. He has
taken pain to go through the project and make necessary
correction as and when needed.
I would also thank my Institution and my faculty
members without whom this project would have been a
distant reality.
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CONTENTS
SL.NO TOPIC PG.NO
1. INTRODUCTION 4

2. SEED PRODUCTION 6

3. SEED EXTRACTION AND 7

PROCESSING

4. SEED STORAGE 8

5. Kinds of Storage Facilities 9

6. METHODS OF SEED 11
STORAGE

7. SAFE GRAIN STORAGE 14

METHODS.

8. SEED DIAGONISIS 17

9. CONCLUSION 21
 3

INTRODUCTION
A seed has been defined as a 'mature ovule' or a reproductive unit formed from
fertilized ovule, consisting of an embryo, reserve food, and, a protective cover. Seeds of
woody plants exhibit a great range of variation in shape, size, colour and behaviour.
The most essential factor for the success of plantation is the ready availability of quality
seeds. The quality of seed is totally responsible for the future return/performance of
each and every seedling. The poor quality seeds may have following problems:
— low germination percentage
— poor emergence
— poor survival
— poor adaptability to site
— susceptible to disease and pests
— poor growth
— low productivity
Seeds play a central role in agriculture, serving as to propagate plants from one
generation to the next as human food, as animal feed and as an important commodity in
international trade. These are a concentrated source of carbohydrate, proteins, fats for
human and livestock and are a significant source of minerals, vitamines and fibre. They
also provide raw materials for industrial products. Both physical and physiological
technique can be used to improve seed performance in establishing crop plants.

Characteristics of good seeds:

— must be well ripened, healthy and true to type,
— must be pure and free from inert materials and weed seeds,
— must be viable and have good germination capacity,
— must be uniform in its texture, structure and look, and
— must not be damaged, broken and affected by pests and diseases.

Seed collection:
It requires good planning in advance regarding deployment of trained staff,
arrangement of transportation facilities, seed collection equipments, measures to ensure
the safety of workers, packing and labeling material, and maintenance of the records,
etc. The other important points are:
— information about the location, time of flowering and fruiting,
— information about the periodicity of seed crop,
— prefer seeds of well-adapted local source to the unadapted sources of different places,
— avoid isolated trees of naturally cross pollinating species, since these are likely to be
self-pollinated. Seeds from such trees are likely to be few or may have low viability and
 4

produce weak or malformed seedlings,

— avoid stands of poorly formed, excessively flimsy, off-color, abnormal or diseased
trees,
— change in latitude, humidity, temperature and attack of pests greatly affects the seed
quality, yield and periodicity,
— fruit ripening gets delayed due to rains and advanced due to high temperature and
drought.

Seed Periodicity:
Most species do not produce abundant crops of seed annually. Good seed year occurs at
intervals that are better thought of as sporadic rather than predictably periodic. The
first essential requirement is an ill-defined state of physiological readiness for flowering
and supply of nitrogen and phosphorus. Sometimes good seed crops follow years of total
failure. In general, the more favorable the conditions of soil and climate for plant
growth, the more frequent are good crops of seed.

Seed crop can be estimated by:

— flower count,
— immature fruit and seed count,
— fruit count on standing trees, some trees e.g., Bombax ceiba, Delonix regia, Gmelina
arborea, Pinus kesiya, Tectona grandis, produce good seed crop every year,
— Dipterocarps like hollong and mekai bear irregular heavy seed crops at an interval of
one to six years,
— some species (e.g. Eucalyptus) produce heavy seed crops every year when grown in
plantation, and
— species like Teetasopa (Michelia champaca), Pines and Araucaria take one to two
years from pollination to ripen their fruits.
 5

SEED
PRODUCTION
The production of seeds for planting it can be essentially the same as producing the crop
or it can be a completely different. For a number of the world’s major crops including
wheat, rice, soybeans and cotton. Seed are produced primarily using a self-pollinated or
pure line system. These crops do not outcross with other plants of the same species.
Rather each flower pollinates itself, resulting in seed genetically identical to the parent
plant. This has one advantage that is once it developes, it can be propagated indefinitely
by simply harvesting by simply harvesting the seeds each year and replacing them.

Production of hybrid seeds:

Hybrid seeds are widely produced by seed companies and sold to farmers. To produce
hybrid seeds, two inbred parent lines, each possessing beneficial trait are developed by
repeated self pollination. These parent lines are then crossed in a controlled way, with
one line (male) pollinating the other (female) to produce F! hybrid seeds.
Seed produced on the female plants are then sold to farmers, who plant them to
produce the commercial crop. The primary advantage of hybrid varieties are that when
two distinct inbred plants are crossed. The offspring grow much larger and more
vigorously than either of the parents. This phenomenon known as hybrid vigor or
heterosis. Maize is the oldest example for hybrid seeds but also sorghum, sunflower and
in developed countries some vegetables, including tomatoes, peppers, carrots, cabbage
and onions are grown almost exclusively from hybrid seeds.
Producing hybrid seeds is a challenge, because to succeed, the producer must control
the following factors:
 For pollen to be available when the female flowers are open and receptive. The
two parent lines must flower at the same time.
 Management of pollination is also crucial for seed production.
 If the male flowers are not releasing pollen when the female flowers are
receptive, then fertilization will not occur and no seeds will be produced.
In some plants, seed development can occur without pollination and fertilization. In
these plants, seeds naturally develop directly from cells of the ovary, so that the genetic
compositions of the seeds are identical to that of the plant. The phenomenon is known as
Apomixis, is essentially the same as when a potato is vegetative propagated by a tuber
or a fruit tree by grafting.
6
 7

SEED
EXTRACTION AND
PROCESSING
The method of seed extraction depends on the type and nature of fruits. The cones and
dry fruits generally shed seeds if dried in open air or sunlight. Seeds from fleshy or
pulpy fruits may be removed by macerating/crushing and washing, while the seeds
borne in pods or husks can be extracted by thrashing. Other methods like drying of
seeds under cover (e.g. Abies, Cedrus, Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Quercus, Shorea),
thrashing, de-winging and picking by hand, etc. are used as per the morphology of
seed/fruit. However, care should be taken during all these activities so that seeds are not
damaged .

Seed Cleaning:
It can be done by the following methods :

— screen cleaning by using sieves of different pore sizes,

— air separation/winnowing or by aspirators,

— de-winging reduces storage volume, make upgrading possible, sowing easier and
removes pathogen,

— empty seeds can be removed by liquid floatation, and

— seed drier, seed grader, seed separator, seed blower, seed scarifier, sieves, etc. are
some of the useful equipments of seed processing.

Seed Upgrading:
It reduces the chances of disease, quantity of the seed to be procured as well as its costs.
It is done as follows:

— remove weak and damaged seeds,

— remove empty, immature, and discolored seeds.

 8

Seed storage
Seed storage is the preservation of viable seed until their sowing/requirement. It is
essential to offset the uncertainty of seed production/availability during bad seed years.
It delays deterioration, maintains viability and protects seed from rodent and insect
damage. The longevity of seeds is a species specific characteristic. The seed of most of
the species can be stored at low temperature and low moisture content in sealed
containers. It is important to dry the seed uniformly to prevent fluctuation in moisture
content during storage. The moisture content of most of the seeds for storage ranges
between 10 to 12 percent. The respiration continues at low temperature, which is
necessary to keep the embryo alive. Polythene bags make good containers because they
are impermeable to water but less so to oxygen and carbon dioxide. However, many
species of moist tropical forests are so thoroughly adapted for germination that their
seeds are almost impossible to store or even to transport. On the basis of storage
behavior seeds can be divided into following broad categories:

 Orthodox Seed: Seeds, which can withstand drying down to low moisture
content of around 5% to 10% and successfully stored at low or sub freezing
temperature for long periods. For example, Acacia, Anthocephalus, Betula,
Duabanga, Eucalyptus, Fraxinus, Pinus, and Picea etc.

 Sub-Orthodox Seeds: Seeds of Abies, Juglans, Salix and Poplar loose viability
within a few months in open air. These can be stored under same condition as
true orthodox, but only for six months to a maximum of six years in some cases,
loss of viability ranges from 0% to 34% when stored at -5°C to -20°C and
moisture content between 5 to 10 per cent.

 Temperate-Recalcitrant Seeds: Seeds are desiccation sensitive and can be

dried to 35 to 50 per cent moisture content of fresh weight. Storage temperature
varies from 3°C to-3°C e.g. Acer, Aesculus and Quercus.

 Recalcitrant Seeds: Seeds which cannot tolerate drying below a relatively

high moisture content (often in the range of 20% to 50% net basis) and which
cannot be stored successfully for long periods, e.g. Hollong, Mekai and other
dipterocarps, cane, champ, neem, rubber, and members of family Lauraceae,
 9

etc. Their seeds are sensitive to low temperature, chilling damage and death may
occur if stored in low temperature. These are most difficult group to store even
for short period.

Kinds of Storage Facilities

 On The Ground: Grain is piled on the ground unprotected only between
harvest and the availability of transport equipment with which it can be moved
to a safer place. Losses are small for short periods because a smooth–surface pile
of grain sheds rain down its slopes quite well, permitting it to penetrate only an
inch or two. But with time, depressions develop in the surface, allowing rain to
soak downward and destroy columns of grain. The floor of the pile absorbs
moisture from the ground, and surface water creeps under the edges of the pile.
The grain is exposed to rodents, birds, insects and wind so that losses become
severe within a few weeks.
Before the grain is threshed, the harvested crop is stacked near the
threshing yard in such a way that any down pour of rain does not get an entry
into the stacking, but runs down the stack by virtue of the slope provided
without affecting the quality of grains. By this method the raw grain also attains
good shape and shining colour that would be appealing to the user.
Many a times the farmers erect a storage bin made of paddy straw by twisting a
bundle of the straw to a rope like structure and then laying it in circular fashion
to get a bin like structure. Paddy grains after they are fairly dried are put into
this structure again covered with paddy straw tightly in the shape of a cone, so
that the grains are well stored inside the structure. Before putting the grains, the
ground surface also is well covered with the paddy straw.
 Temporary crib for field storage: This structure of sticks and heavy twine
is used for crops like corn and rough rice. The shifting agriculture practiced in
this tropical lowland often results in fields being far from the farmstead. The
corn will be transferred as needed to the house. This large box has been used for
many years for storing beans and threshed corn. It is elevated on stones to
facilitate inspection for signs of rodent activity.
 10

 Temporary Corn Storage: Field storage of corn is accomplished on

platforms. The stack of un-pealed ears is covered by a cap of partially woven
grasses.

 Underground: Underground storage was probably the principal method used

to accumulate surpluses in primitive societies, and it can still be found in our
time. Its advantages are the grain’s protection from seasonal and daily
temperature fluctuations, inhibition of insects and molds by a tendency towards
low oxygen and high carbon dioxide contents in the inter seed air, and simple
construction methods. Its principal drawback is the high cost of grain handling.

 Bagged: Bags of grain may be piled under any convenient shelter away from
weather and predators.

 Farm Bins: Farm storage space is needed for three reasons; to hold the crop
immediately after harvest, until it can be moved to better storage space or to
market. Grain stored in bins maintains quality better in smaller than in larger
lots. Farm storage tends to maintain the original condition of grain better than
elevator storage, provided grain is not exposed to any moisture increase or to
rodents birds or insects. The farmers have developed the oriental bins by using
burnt clay which are in use by the farm families from time immemorial.
 11

METHOD OF SEED
STORAGE
Only well-dried seeds should be stored. Seeds with moisture in them become damp,
moldy and vulnerable to insect attacks. For drying, lay the seeds under the sun on a mat
and spread them thinly. Mix and turn the seeds 4 to 5 times in a day. Repeat the
process for about 2 to 3 days. On a hot sunny day, the seeds spread on a mat in the
morning should be heaped for some time and again spread frequently to avoid sun-burn
and damage of the embryo.
After drying the seeds well, clean them to remove all stones, malformed, broken,
undersized and diseased seeds, weed seeds, other crop seeds, chaff and other rubbish.
These seeds must now be stored properly. To store seeds use containers that are airtight
and moisture-proof. Earthen pots of burnt clay are used for the storage in traditional
agricultural practices.

Storing seeds in a cool dry environment keeps them viable for longer. Seeds have a
tendency to absorb moisture. To maintain dryness, the storage containers could be filled
to a quarter capacity with either dry wood ash or dry charcoal. If the seeds are to be put
 12

directly into the earthen pot then cover the dry ash with a layer. In case the container is
opened frequently, change the wood ash or charcoal every time it is opened.
The viability and quality of seeds depend on how well they are protected from insects
and pests. There are simple ways of protecting seeds from insects. Farmers have been
using various indigenous methods of seed storage for ages. Generally the seeds to be
stored are smeared with neem / castor oil which checks the pest attack.
Grains are usually stored in clay vessels or gunnysacks. These containers are coated
with a paste of neem leaf or dry Neem cake powder. The floor and room in which the
seeds are stored is plastered with cow dung to keep pests away. These are just a few
very commonly used traditional seed storage practices.

Storage Structures:
 Pits storage: Pits are usually excavated to be wide at the bottom and taper to a
small opening at the top; more hygroscopic than the grain, tends to hold soil
moisture away from grain mass.
 Stone, brick, or mud warehouses have long been used for grain storage. The
floor of the structure is generally covered with cow dung paste to avoid insect
pests by its repellent action.
 13

 For storing major grains like cereals and pulses, mud and brick structures with
double door system are constructed, one door being smaller than the other. The
bigger door is seldom opened unless the entire quantity of stored grains are to be
shifted to market and the like. Small door is provided in such a way that only one
man can enter the storage, take out the required quantity and close the same
immediately without giving room for the larger quantity being affected by
external factors.

 Corn ears tied and hanged on sticks or ropes: Unhusked corn ears are
hung with the tip downward to prevent moisture entry, a technique that is used
almost throughout the world.

 Mud jar for threshed cereals and pulses: This un-burnt mud vessel
placed over stones contains threshed grains. The decorative design varies by
zones within the country.
 14

 Vegetable Seed Storage Method: The vegetable seeds are normally stored
by women folk for their kitchen garden requirements by securing the seeds of
different vegetables into knots tied around them in a white cloth. While doing so
the seeds are mixed with woodash / dried neem leaf powder. After this these are
conveniently put into Bottleguard, sprinkled woodash on the top and closed the
mouth of the bottleguard.

Safe Grain Storage Methods for

Wheat, Pulses and Oilseeds
a) After harvesting of Rabi crops like wheat, pulses and oilseeds, they are
cleaned and put in an open place for sun drying. After drying, seed grains
are packed in jute bags. A store room of 20’x15’ size is used for keeping
50 to 80 qtls of seed. Spread wheat husk on the floor upto 1-2 feet, after
which all bags are kept at a distance of one foot away from all the walls of
the room. After one layer, spread again wheat husk of 6” layer, followed
by wheat bags as done earlier. This process is repeated to accommodate
maximum produce till the room is filled, after which the room is closed.
The door has to be opened only when needed, which helps to protect the
seed/grain from insect pests and moisture.

b) Use of garlic for safe storage on cereals and pulses: Take a

container of one qtl. storage capacity. At the bottom of the container,
about 200 gm of matured garlic are kept and then about 20 Kg of wheat
poured into the container. Again a second layer of 200 gm of garlic and 20
kg of cereals poured into the container. It is repeated like this till the
container is filled. This practice is also followed for safe storage of rice.
But in case of rice, use turmeric instead of garlic. Ensure that the
container is closed tightly. This is a low cost technology and can be easily
practiced.

c) The leaves, kernels and oil of neem (Azadirachta indica) have been found
to be very effective against a wide variety of storage pests. Neem leaves
are dried in shade and powdered. This powder is added to the bags or
containers in which the grain is stored. Using neem oil is more efficient as
the seeds have the maximum concentration of the active ingredients
(azadiragtim, salanin and malandriol). The quantity of oil depends on the
quantity of seeds used. Quantity of Neem oil should be one percent by
weight of seed. Grain stored for seed purpose can be treated with two
percent by weight of seed (storing grains).
 15

d) For safe storage of bean seeds, to one kilogram of bean seed add 2
teaspoons of vegetable oil. Mix the oil with 250 gms of seed and put it into
a clean container. Add the remaining seeds and mix till all the seeds are
coated with oil. When coated well with oil the seeds appear shiny.
Generally this method is used for vegetable seeds.

e) Bamboo grain storage structure plastered with cow dung slurry covered
with a layer of paddy straw and a layer of dried leaves of ‘neem’ at the
bottom to store paddy, reduces storage insect pests of paddy and prolongs
storage life. Cow dung slurry acts as disinfectant while neem acts as an
insect repellent. The bamboo baskets are also used for storing jaggery.
The inside surface is coated with woodash and red soil. However, the
outer surface can be conveniently coated with cow dung and red earth
slurry with little neem oil to drive away the insect pests.

f) Using bamboo bins for storage: Paint the bamboo bins with the solution
prepared from neem cake. To the dry neem cake powder water is added
and a thick paste of this is painted all over the grain bin. If one wishes to
store it for more than 4 months, the process should be repeated every 4
months.
 16

g) Treatment of gunny bags for storing grains: Prepare a 10% neem kernel
solution. Once the solution is made, dip the gunny bag into this solution
for 15 minutes. Dry the gunny bags under shade and this can be used for
storing grains. The stored grain pests will be repelled by the action of
neem. In case the gunny bags are new, they should be soaked for half an
hour. For gunny bags with close meshes and small pores, thinner solution
can be used. Make sure that the gunny bags are impregnated on all sides
with this extract. If the seeds or grains are kept inside the house or in the
godowns, there is no fluctuation in temperature and not much sunlight.
As a result of this, longer, residual action of the neem product is obtained
and the repellent effect persists for 4 months. In store rooms, along with
the cow dung that is used for cleaning the mud floor, neem cake or neem
oil can be used straight away (in the same concentration as used for
spraying purposes). The same could also be used for the mud walls. Neem
cake solution or neem kernel extract could also be sprayed.
 17

DIAGNOSIS OF SEEDs
Seed health is one of the main aspects of the seed quality testing system that underpins
commerce and trade in seed for sowing. Seed health refers primarily to the presence or
absence of disease-causing organism – pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, viruses,
nematodes and of disease-insects, though physiological conditions such as trace element
deficiency may de casual elements as well. The objective of testing is to determine the
pathogen infection status of a seed sample and by inference that of the seedlot from
which it was taken, which is important for two main reasons:

 For quality assurance – in evaluation of planting value, in certification

schemes, and to support decisions about the need for seed treatment; and
 For the detection of plant quarantine organisms, such as to meet
phytosanitary regulations for seed that is exported for trade.

Additionally for grain, test determine the presence of storage fungi, which can affect the
storage quality or its value for feed and human consumption.

To be worthwhile, seed health testing method must deliver:

 Specificity – the ability to recognize the target pathogen from all other
organisms present on the seeds.
 Sensitivity that is fit for the purpose of the test;
 Information relating to the field performance of the crop (except in case
of quarantine inspections);
 Test results that are repeatable within, and between, sample of the same
seedlot, regardless of who performs the test, within statistical limits and
sample variability;
 And they must be cost effective.
 18

It is often difficult to meet all of these requirements, because seed health testing is not
only dependent on the pathogens themselves but also on the presence of other
microorganisms on the seed, which may be antagonistic to, or synergistic with, each
other in some test methods such as incubation tests.

 Qualitative and Quantitative tests: There is a wide range of seed health

testing methodologies, including relatively simple direct inspection methods for
macroscopic fungal bodies, incubation test, growing-on tests, bacterial extraction
and bacterial identification, and the more complex ELISA and polymerized
chain reaction (PCR). The test used depends on the organism that is being tested
for, and the purpose of the test.
Qualitative assay establish whether seed is infected with a plant pathogen, with a
very low probability of ‘false negatives’. Qualitative tests are necessary in the
case of plant quarantine, where the aim is to prevent non-indigenous diseases
establishing in the important country. However, a test can also be used for
quality control purposes, at pre-defined tolerance and accuracy levels.
Quantitative tests are designed to estimate the true level of infection in a seedlot:
that is, how many individual seeds are infected, and the level of information or
contamination. Such information can inform decisions about whether or not seed
treatment is justified. Most fungal pathogens are currently determined using
quantitative methods. Bacterial and viral pathogens, where severe epidemics can
result from relatively low number of infecting microorganism and there are few
control measures in field, are commonly determined using qualitative methods.
 Fungal seed borne pathogens:
 Direct inspection methods – Samples of seed may be visually examined for
the presence of ergots (Claviceps purpurea in cereals and grasses), other
selerotia (Sclerotinia sclerotorium in brassieas) and smut balls (bunts caused by
Tilletia tritiei in wheat). Although this type of tests provides information quickly
and may be readily applied in seed testing stations in conjunction with purity
testing only a few disease are adequately detected in this way.
Seed samples may be immersed in water or other liquid to make fungal bodies
(for example, pyenidia) or symptoms (for example, anthracnose or seed coats)
more visible, or to encourage the liberation of fungal spores, hyphae and so on
that are attached to or carried within the seed. Examination of soaked seeds in
by means of a stereoscopic microscope or, where seeds are immersed in liquid
and shaken, the liquid is examined at a higher magnification using a compound
microscope.
Only a few fungi are adequately detected using these methods, such as Seporia
on early seed. Moreover, the viability of any detected fungi is uncertain. And
additional tests may be required. Examination of seed washings in only valuable
if the spores are known to lead to field infection, for example, in the case of
common or stinking bunt.
 19

Where seed borne infection is more deep-seated within the seed tissues, such as
embryo, fungal staining methods are used. Tissues are normally extracted or
macerated in sodium hydroxide, stained using a combination of lactic
acid:lactophenol and aniline:trypan blue dyes, and examined for fungal
mycelium under a stereoscopic microscope.
 Incubation tests – agar plate and blotter substrates. The agar plate test
gives an indication of the viable fungal or bacterial inoculums present in an
infected seed sample, and is best used for high-incidence pathogens that occur in
seed samples with greater than 1% infection. Some examples of pathogen tested
foe using the agar plate method are Microdochium nivale on wheat, Aschyta pisi
on pea and Phomopsis spp. On soybean. Sample size is normally from 200 to 400
seeds, which are evenly placed on to solidified sterile agar medium in lidded
plates (normally Petri dishes). Potato dextrose agar and malt agar are commonly
used to encourage the growth of seed borne fungal pathogens but there are many
variations: for example, acidic agar may be used to reduce bacterial
contamination and media may be made semi-selective by addition of specific
chemicals, antibiotic or fungicides. The planted seeds are incubated at a fixed
temperature in the dark for a specified number of days, usually seven. Near
infrared light may be used to encourage the development of fruiting bodies.
After incubation the characteristic microbial growth of the fungi is used to
identify the seed borne pathogen(s) under test. Where growth of fungal
saprophytes is excessive, to the extent that the pathogen is concealed, or whether
it is desirable to identify internal infection only, seeds may be surface sterilize by
soaking in 1% available chlorine bleach.
The blotter (paper) test gives an indication of seed borne fungi on the seed, as shown by
the presence of mycelium and fruiting bodies and, in some tests, by symptoms on young
plants. Test involves sowing seeds in sterile containers on moist absorbent paper blotters
(usually 7 days in petri dishes or boxes at a specified temperature, and normally under
alternating cycles of light and dark) and detection of fruting bodies by microscopic
examination. In some cases seed germination is suppressed or seeds are killed using
chemicals or by deep-freezing, to increase the ability of pathogens to grow.
 Bacteria and viruses: Because of the virulence of some of the many bacterial
and viral pathogens infection thresholds are very low, and for statistical reasons
their testing requires large number of seeds. Sample of 10,000 seeds for testing
Xanthomonas on horticultural brassicas and 30,000 seeds for seed borne lettuce
mosaic virus, are common for example:
1. Grow-out / Growing on tests: These tests are performed on plants grown
from seed samples beyond the seedling stage in a greenhouse, controlled-
environment chamber or tiled and the seedlings/plants are observed for
symptoms of the pathogen. They have been used for testing for the effects of
many seed borne bacteria and viruses, for example lettuce mosaic virus
(LMV) and Pseudomonas syringae pv. Phaseolicola, and for fungi, for
example anthracnose in lupin.
 20

Grow-out tests give an indication of potential transmission from external and

internal seed inoculums underthe environmental condition used. However,
both fluctuations in those conditions and viability of the seed stock may
influence the result. The tests are also time consuming and require testing for
the presence of low- incidence pathogens.
2. Laboratory tests: Laboratory methods for the detection of seed borne
bacteria involve three stages: (a) their extraction from seeds; (b) isolation
into culture; and (c) identification
Bacteria are extracted from seeds or from seed flour in a liquid medium –
usually sterile PH-buffer saline, through buffered sterile water with various
other enrichments can be used. The volume and agitation of the liquid
medium together with the duration and temperature of soaking are all
critical to the optimum recovery of the target pathogen, which may also be
affected by the saprophytic microflora of seed and inhibitor compounds in
seeds. Some seed borne bacteria can be identified directly following isolation
on general plating agar media. The non-selective media methods are more
effective when high levels of pathogen and low levels of saprophytes are
present in extracts. Where high levels of saprophytes and low level of
pathogen are present, semi-selective media can be used, in which chemical
agents are used to reduce the growth of saprophytes. Further identification
may be achieved by morphological and biochemical tests, by immunoassay or
other molecular biological methods. All these tests give presumptive
diagonisis and most require contamination by a host pathogenicity test.
3. Host pathogenenicity test: Either the pure culture of a bacterium or the
crude seed extract medium is inoculated into the host plant or seeds to test
the pathogenicity of the bacteria. Plants are inoculated by a number of
different methods, including injection, spraying following leaf abrasion and
vacuum infiltration.
 Molecular methods: The relative expense of traditional seed health testing
methods and the capacity requirement for trained personnel has led to interest
in using new techniques to improve the use of immune-detection using polyclonal
or monoclonal antibodies in immunoassays (eg. ELISA), and PCR mainly for
viruses and bacteria. Once developed and validated, molecular assays can
provide relatively simple, quick, high-throughput diagnosis. However, these
methods tend to be expensive to set up and apply, and advantages have to be
considered against the cost of cheaper methodologies.
Although a series of commercial tests now exists including PCR tests for
Pyrenophora ssp. in barley, anthracnose in lupin, the application of DNA
molecular techniques in routine seed health testing has not been fully exploited.
The majority of viruses have RNA genomes that at first made them unsuitable
for PCR, but this has been overcome by the development of reverse-transcription
PCR assay, which has been the basis of a successful method, for example, in the
detection of pea seed borne mosaic virus (PSbMV).
 21

Conclusion
The ability of seed to tolerate moisture loss allows the seed to maintain the viability in
dry state. Storage starts in the mother plant itself when it attains physiological maturity.
After harvesting the seeds are either stored in ware houses or in transit or in retail
shops. During the old age days, the farmers were used farm saved seeds, in little
quantity, but introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrids and modernization of
agriculture necessitated the development of storage techniques to preserve the seeds.

The practice of storing the seeds starts from the ancient days itself, following simple and
cheap techniques e.g. Placing the seeds in salt, red earth treatment to red gram etc. But
the same practices are not hold good for the present day agriculture, because

 large quantity to be stored

 exchange of varieties and species
 exchange of genes

The type of material to be stored decides the techniques to be followed for safe storage.
Now a day’s storage technique changed from ordinary go-down storage to cryogenic
tank storage and even gene storage.

Seed testing is essential to assess the physical and biological aspects of seed. Seed tests
are commonly done immediately after extraction and shortly before actual sowing. It is
also done periodically on seed lots kept in long storage. For small nurseries, common
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sense, clean hands, a clean working table and one good knife are sufficient for most seed
testing tasks.

REFERENCE

 J. Derek Bewley, Michael Black, Peter Halmer; 13th edition 2006; The
encyclopedia of seeds: science, technology and uses .

 Tamilnadu Agricultural university, Coimbatore; research article;

Seed certification.

 N.S. BISHT AND S.P. AHLAWAT; STATE FOREST RESEARCH

INSTITUTE ,Department of Environment & Forests Government of
Arunachal Pradesh; S F R I, INFORMATION BULLETIN N O . 7;
SEED TECHNOLOGY.

 URL: http://www.angoc.org/dmdocuments/07%20Seed%20Storage.pdf