CVE 112 (Hydraulics 2) : Lecture 1: Principles of Hydrokinetics

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CVE 112

(Hydraulics 2)

Lecture 1: Principles of Hydrokinetics


Hydraulics
deals with practical applications of liquid (esp. water) in motion.

Friction
“There can be no motion between two substances in contact
without friction.”
- To overcome frictional resistance in a flowing water requires
an energy, an energy transformed into heat which cannot
ordinarily be reconverted into any useful form of energy. This
often referred to as lost energy.

Viscosity
The friction between the moving particles of water (or liquid)
themselves.
Discharge (Volume Flow Rate), Q
The rate of flow or the volume of water passing a cross-section
of a stream in unit time.
Working Equations:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
[1] Q = [2] Q = 𝑎𝑣 where v = mean velocity
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
a = cross-sectional area

Steady Flow
The same quantity of water passes any cross-section of a
stream during equal successive intervals of time (in short,
constant flow with respect to time).

Unsteady Flow
The quantity of water passing any cross-section changes during
successive intervals of time.

NOTE: If condition is not stated, steady flow is always assumed.


Uniform Flow:
The average velocity at every cross-section is the same in any
reach of the stream.

Non-uniform Flow:
The average velocity changes with the reach.

Continuous Flow/Discharge
The discharge is the same past every cross-section.
In equation: Q = 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 = 𝑎3 𝑣3 …

Laminar Flow (Stream-line Flow/Motion)


The paths of the individual particles do not cross or intersect.

Turbulent Flow/Motion
The paths of the individual particles are irregular curves which
continually cross each other and form a complicated network.
Energy:
It is defined as ability to do work.

Two Common Forms of Energy:


[1] Kinetic Energy, KE
– the ability of a mass to do work by virtue of its velocity.

[2] Potential Energy, PE


– latent or potential ability to do work.
[a] Gravitational Energy, GE
- by virtue of its position or elevation
[b] Pressure Energy, PE
- by virtue of pressure
Energy Head:
In hydraulics problems, energy is usually represented by
energy head (the amount of energy per lb or N of fluid).

[1] Kinetic energy is represented by velocity head.

𝑣2 where v = velocity
2𝑔 g = acceleration due to gravity [9.81 m/s2 or 32.2 ft/s2]

[2] Pressure energy is represented by pressure head.


𝑝 where p = pressure
γ γ = unit weight [for water, 9.81 kN/m3 or 62.4 lb/ft3]
[3] Gravitational energy is represented by elevation head, z.

𝑣2 𝑝
Total Energy Head: 𝐸= + +𝑧
2𝑔 γ
Bernoulli’s Theorem:
“In any stream flowing steadily without friction, the total energy
contained in a given mass of water is the same at every point in
its path of flow.”
Bernoulli’s Equation (Original):
𝑣1 2 𝑝1 𝑣2 2 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 γ 2𝑔 γ
Bernoulli’s Equation (with Head Loss due to Friction):
𝑣1 2 𝑝1 𝑣2 2 𝑝2 where ℎ𝑓 = head loss due
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 γ 2𝑔 γ to friction

Bernoulli’s Equation (with Pumps and Turbines):


𝑣1 2 𝑝1 𝑣2 2 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 + 𝐻𝐴 − 𝐻𝐸 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 γ 2𝑔 γ
where 𝐻𝐴 = head/energy added (usually for pumps)
HE = head/energy added (usually for turbines)
Bernoulli’s Theorem in Practice:
- Bernoulli’s theorem is based upon the assumption of laminar,
steady, continuous flow. But, water ordinarily flows in turbulent
motion. Thus, the effect of turbulence is considered, and
included with the head loss due to friction.
One Application: Venturi Meter
Example. – A venturi meter having a throat 4 in. in diameter is installed
in a 12-in. pipe line. A mercury U-tube connected as shown in the figure
shows a difference in height of mercury columns of 9 in., the remainder
of the tube being filled with water. Find the rate of discharge, Q, in cubic
feet per second, neglecting friction.
Solution:
Given Data:
Diameter at point 1, D1 = 12 in.
Diameter at point 2, D2 = 4 in.
Δh of Hg on the U-tube = 9 in.
Required Data:
Discharge, Q = ___ [ft3/sec]
Working Equations:
𝑣1 2 𝑝1 𝑣2 2 𝑝2
Bernoulli’s Eq’n: + + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑓
2𝑔 γ 2𝑔 γ
Continuity Eq’n: Q = 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
Assumptions:
[1] The friction is neglected. [stated in the problem]
[2] The flow is laminar, steady, and continuous. [This is assumed when
the condition is not stated].
[3] Elevation of point 1 and point 2 (the centroid of their cross=sections)
are the same. [Difference of elevation is not given. This is assumed to
simplify the problem and make it solvable.]
Solution: (cont.)
From B.E.: (same elevation)
𝑣1 2 𝑝1 𝑣2 2 𝑝2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑓 (neglected)
2𝑔 γ 2𝑔 γ

𝑣1 2 𝑝1 𝑣2 2 𝑝2 (V2 should be greater than V1, since point 2 has


+ = + lower diameter (lower area). Thus, considering
2𝑔 γ 2𝑔 γ
Bernoulli’s theorem, if velocity had increased from pt.
Re-arranging the eq’n: 1 to pt. 2, then the pressure should have decreased.)

𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
=
2𝑔 γ
Using continuity eq’n, establish relation between v2 and v1:
π 2
π 2
𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 12 𝑣1 = 4 𝑣2
4 4

𝑣2 = 9 𝑣1
Solution: (cont.)
Sum up pressure head from pt.1 to pt.2, to solve for pressure head
difference:
𝑝1 𝑝2
+ 𝑥 + 9 − 9 (𝑆. 𝐺.𝐻𝑔 ) − 𝑥 =
γ γ x
𝑝1 − 𝑝2
= 9 (𝑆. 𝐺.𝐻𝑔 − 1)
γ
where 𝑆. 𝐺.𝐻𝑔 (Specific Gravity of Mercury) = 13.6
𝑝1 − 𝑝2
= 𝟏𝟏𝟑. 𝟒 𝒊𝒏. 𝑜𝑟 𝟗. 𝟒𝟓 𝒇𝒕
γ
Back to re-arranged B.E.:
𝑣2 2 − 𝑣1 2 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 where 𝑔 = 32.2 ft/s2
=
2𝑔 γ 𝑣2 = 9 𝑣1

(9𝑣1 )2 − 𝑣1 2 𝑓𝑡
= 9.45 𝑓𝑡 80𝑣1 2 = 2 32.2 (9.45 𝑓𝑡)
𝑓𝑡 𝑠2
2 32.2 𝑠
2
𝑣1 = 2.76 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Solution: (cont.)
Solve for Discharge:
π 2
𝑄 = 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 1 𝑓𝑡 2.76 𝑓𝑡/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 𝒇𝒕𝟑/𝒔𝒆𝒄
4

In actual use of Venturi meter, empirical coefficient K is applied to


consider for friction losses. This K coefficient usually lies between 0.97
and 0.99. Thus, if we use k = 0.97,

𝑄 = 2.17 𝑓𝑡3/ sec 0.97 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟎 𝒇𝒕𝟑/𝒔𝒆𝒄


ASSIGNMENT!
Answer the problems 1 to 5 of the chapter 6 of our textbook in
page 69.

Write the solutions neatly and in an organized manner on short


bond papers (Do not encode). Scan them and save them to one
file as PDF.

Due date: October 4, 2021

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