Manual For Solar Technician: November 2015

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Manual for Solar Technician
Research · November 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2161.0962
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Manual
For Solar Technician
Authors:
Ajay Singh
ME in Planning and Operation of Energy System, Kathmandu University
Assistant Lecturer
Khwopa College of Engineering
Bhaktapur, Nepal
E-mail: [email protected]
Ashish Shrestha
ME in Planning and Operation of Energy System, Kathmandu University
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: [email protected]
2014
Contents
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 7
1.1 General Background .................................................................................... 7
1.2 Development of PV system ......................................................................... 7
1.3 Current and Emerging Opportunity.............................................................. 9
1.4 Advantages of PV system .......................................................................... 10
1.5 Limitations of PV system .......................................................................... 11
1.6 Environment, health and safety issue ......................................................... 13
1.7 Photovoltaic system components ............................................................... 14
1.8 Photovoltaic system types .......................................................................... 15
PHOTO VOLTAIC ELECTRIC PRINCIPLE.......................................................... 20
2.1 Terminology .............................................................................................. 20
2.2 Matching Appliance to the system ............................................................. 21
2.3 Electrical Circuit ....................................................................................... 21
2.4 Combination of sources ............................................................................. 22
2.5 Combination of loads................................................................................. 23
2.6 Exercise ..................................................................................................... 24
SOLAR RESOURCES ............................................................................................ 25
3.1 General ...................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Solar Radiation Fundamental ..................................................................... 26
3.3 Gathering Data .......................................................................................... 27
3.4 Completing the solar site analysis .............................................................. 27
ELECTRICAL LOAD ANALYSIS ......................................................................... 29
4.1 Efficient Energy Utilization ....................................................................... 29

4.2 Electrical Load Analysis ............................................................................ 29
4.3 Refrigerators and lighting .......................................................................... 30
4.4 Consideration in load estimation ................................................................ 30
4.5 Load estimation ......................................................................................... 31
4.6 Exercise ..................................................................................................... 31
PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE ................................................................................. 32
5.1 Photovoltaic Principle................................................................................ 32
5.2 Characteristics of module .......................................................................... 32
5.3 Module performance ................................................................................. 33
5.4 Factors affecting module performance ....................................................... 33
BATTERY SIZING AND SPECIFICATION .......................................................... 36
6.1 General ...................................................................................................... 36
6.2 Types and operation of Battery .................................................................. 36
6.3 Capacity and discharge .............................................................................. 37
6.4 Specification of Battery ............................................................................. 37
6.5 Sizing ........................................................................................................ 37
6.6 Configuration of battery ............................................................................ 37
6.7 Safety ........................................................................................................ 37
6.8 Exercise ..................................................................................................... 37
Charge Controller .................................................................................................... 38
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 38
7.2 Types of Charge Controller ....................................................................... 39
7.3 Controller features ..................................................................................... 40
7.4 Specification of Charge Controller............................................................. 41

7.5 Sizing a Charge Controller......................................................................... 42
INVERTER ............................................................................................................. 43
8.1 General ...................................................................................................... 43
8.2 Operating Principle .................................................................................... 43
8.3 Types of Inverter ....................................................................................... 46
8.4 Features of Inverter.................................................................................... 50
8.5 Inverter System ......................................................................................... 50
8.6 Exercise ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Photovoltaic system wiring ...................................................................................... 54
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 54
9.2 Wire Size ................................................................................................... 54
9.3 Over current Protection.............................................................................. 55
9.4 Over current Protection Sizing ................................................................... 55
9.5 Disconnects ............................................................................................... 55
9.6 Grounding ................................................................................................. 55
9.7 Exercise ..................................................................................................... 55
STANDALONE PV SYSTEM SIZING .................................................................. 56
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 56
10.2 Design Considerations ........................................................................... 56
10.3 Sizing worksheet .................................................................................... 58
10.4 Hybrid System ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.5 Exercise ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
GRID-TIED PV SYSTEM ...................................................................................... 63
11.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 63

11.2 Advantage of Grid-tied PV system ......................................................... 63
11.3 System Sizing and economics ................................................................ 64
11.4 Obtaining an interconnection agreement ................................................ 64
11.5 Net metering .......................................................................................... 64
11.6 Exercise ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
MOUNTING PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES ......................................................... 66
12.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 66
12.2 Types of Mounting System .................................................................... 66
12.3 Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) System ................................... 67
PV APPLICATIONS ............................................................................................... 69
13.1 The Need of Reliable Electricity .............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.2 Lighting ................................................................................................. 69
13.3 Television and Radio ............................................................................. 70
13.4 Health care and Refrigeration ................................................................. 71
13.5 Micro enterprise ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.6 Water pumping ...................................................................................... 71
13.7 Determining solar access with a sun chart .............................................. 73
13.8 Sample installation materials .................................................................. 74
System Installation .................................................................................................. 75
14.1 Solar radiation fundamentals .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.2 Gathering Data ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.3 Completing the solar site analysis ............ Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.4 C ............................................................................................................ 76
Maintenance ............................................................................................................ 81
15.4 C ............................................................................................................ 81
INSTALLATION SAFETY .................................................................................... 82
16.1 Introduction ........................................................................................... 82
16.2 Basic Safety ........................................................................................... 82
16.3 Safety Testing High Voltage .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
16.4 Hazards and Safety Equipments ............................................................. 83
16.5 Site Safety.............................................................................................. 84
16.6 First Aid................................................................................................. 84
COSTING ............................................................................................................... 85
17.4 C ............................................................................................................ 85
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Background

Energy is the crucial factor and basic necessity for the economic development of
country. In present day, many functions and activities performed in a day would be
halted when the supply of energy stops. It is impossible to estimate the actual
magnitude of energy that has played in a building up the present-day civilization. The
use of energy per person and his standard of living is correlated. As the energy
consumption increased, the higher is the standard of living.
Energy exists in different form in nature and the most important is the electrical
energy. Electrical energy can be produced from the various source of energy available
in the nature and the primary source of the energy is sun. Different technologies are
used to produce electrical energy with the consideration of environmentally friendly
and sustainable form of energy. The newly growing renewable energy, which is
naturally replenished on a human timescale, technologies are more pronounced for
cleaner and sustainable energy. Among the renewable energy technologies, the
photovoltaic (PV) system is more pronounced.
Photovoltaic systems are the devices which converts light energy coming from sun to
the electrical energy.
1.2 Development of PV system

If we look forward to the history of solar energy uses then it goes to the 3rd Century
BC. History claims that Archimedes, a Greek inventor, uses solar energy to destroy
the enemy ships with fire during the Siege of Syracuse with a heat ray, which
supposedly was a collection of mirrors that concentrated sunlight onto the ships.
A study on photovoltaic technology began in 19th Century. In 1839, a French

physicist, Edmund Becquerel, discovered that there is a creation of voltage when a
material is exposed to light. This discovery would lay the foundation of solar power.
In 1873, a Brutish engineer, Willoughby Smith, discovered photoconductivity in solid
selenium. Three years after the Smith’s discovery, professor William Grylls Adams
and his student were the first to observe and electrical current flowing through the
electrodes onto the plate of selenium when exposed to light. In early 1880’s, the first
solar photovoltaic cell was designed based on selenium wafers.
In 1905, Albert Einstein explained his theory of photoelectric effect which explains
the science behind the photovoltaic cell and understanding the physical process of that
cell. Limited researches are continued on selenium solar cell despite its lower
efficiency and higher production costs. Jan Czochralski, a Polish scientist, figured out
a method to grow single-crystal silicon which laid the foundation for solar cells based
on silicon.
The year 1954 also called the birth of photovoltaics when world’s first photovoltaic
cell (solar cell) is created in the Bell laboratory. The efficiency achieved in that cell
was six percent. In 1957, Hoffman Electronics achieved 8% efficient photovoltaic
cells.
In 1958, the Vanguard I space satellite used a small (less than one watt) array to
power its radios. Later that year, Explorer III, Vanguard II, and Sputnik-3 were
launched with PV-powered systems on board. Despite faltering attempts to
commercialize the silicon solar cell in the 1950s and 60s, it was used successfully in
powering satellites. It became the accepted energy source for space applications and
remains so today. In 1963, Japan installs a 242-watt, photovoltaic array on a
lighthouse, the world’s largest array at that time. In 1972, the Institute of Energy
Conversion is established at the University of Delaware to perform research and
development on thin-film photovoltaic (PV) and solar thermal systems, becoming the
world’s first laboratory dedicated to PV research and development.
In 2000, first Solar begins production in Perrysburg, Ohio, at the world’s largest
photovoltaic manufacturing plant with an estimated capacity of producing enough
solar panels each year to generate 100 megawatts of power.
At the end of 2013, worldwide PV capacity reached 139,000 megawatts.

Photovoltaics grew fastest in China (11.8 GW), followed by Japan (6.9 GW) and
the United States (4.75 GW), while Germany remains the world's largest overall
producer of photovoltaic power with a total capacity of 35.5 GW, contributing almost
6 percent to the overall electricity generation.
1.3 Current and Emerging Opportunity
The conventional fuel sources, fossil fuels, are used by most of the industries and
human activities which cause adverse effect on environment such as climate change,
GHG emissions, global warming, pollution, loss of natural resources etc. Photovoltaic
system has no any negative environmental consequences. In present day, silicon is
used as major component in PV module manufacturing process and is available in
huge amount in nature.
The expansion of PV system and technology at the turn of the twenty-first century
couldn’t have come at a time when it was more needed. People till uses more
conventional fuel which, fortunately, harnessing the sun for power presents a cleaner
and more efficient alternative to the dirtier source of energy. As the threat of global
warming and climate change increases, PV system and related technologies provide
opportunities that are impossible to ignore.
The emerging opportunities in PV system are growing rapidly. The expanding market,
increasing of its related job and useful applications continue to be developed. All the
corners of the glove, regardless of wealth or even abundant sunlight, are developing a
demand for solar power. This is not happening at some point in the distant future but
happening now so, it is great time to be a part of industry as a PV professional.
In context of Nepal, Alternative Energy Promotion Centre (AEPC), a government

institution, is established on November 3, 1996 under Ministry of Science and
Technology (MoST) with the objective of developing and promoting
renewable/alternative energy technologies in Nepal. Presently, AEPC is under
Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment (MoSTE). The 29 companies are
pre-qualified by AEPC to participate for small solar home system and solar home
system (S/SHS) installation and 43 companies are for to participate in S/SHS and
institutional solar power system (ISPS) installation by 2013 and growing rapidly with
alternative energy commercialization. Some of them are also work in the solar
powered water pumping system. The total power installed in 2.22MW by 2013 and
become near about 10 MW by the end of 2014. These solar PV system are sued in
rural areas for lighting purpose in household, provide electricity in schools and
hospitals along with water pumping and communication system. This growth of PV
system in market for energy creates many jobs and healthy environment.
1.4 Advantages of PV system
Photovoltaic systems can be an ideal solution for covering basic energy needs of
contemporary and next generation societies. PV systems can facilitate a sustainable
energy mix. There are numerous advantages of PV system, especially in comparison
with the conventional fossil fuels.
The advantages of PV system are as follows:
i) Cleanliness
PV systems use solar power, a renewable green energy source, to generate

electricity and thus they help reduce CO 2 and other GHG gases emissions to the
atmosphere. Moreover PV systems, as any other renewable green energy
technology, avoid adverse effect to the atmosphere which is beneficial to the
public health and the environment.
ii) Reliability
The life of PV systems is expected to 30 year and can be installed in various

regions and climate where exposure to the sun is optimal. The system does not
contain any mechanical and moving devices so requires minimum maintenance.
Only minor checking of cable connections and basic regular cleaning of panel
surface is adequate to keep it in operation for several years.
iii) Safety
The PV systems require sunlight to operate. It do not require any materials that
can combust or explode when ignited, or remain toxic for several years so makes
PV system safer. However, some PV products use toxic materials which can
create an increased hazard in future.
iv) Reduced Operating Costs
PV systems do not require any fuel for run rather require only sun light, which
comes at no charge. Additionally, the minimum maintenance is required so
reduces maintenance costs. Hence overall running costs of PV system is much
more less.
v) Silence
Unlike generator and other sources of power and its generating system, PV makes
no any noise.
vi) Modularity
The size and scope of PV system is not fixed. PV systems are scalable and can be
expanded at any time to increase the amount of power. The growing trend towards
inverter of modular design. Components are individually replaceable in case of
failure.
vii) Independence
Because PV systems can be used for remote and small power generation plants,
they are more decentralized and consistent power grid that is less dependent on
utility companies. They are also for distributed power generation.
viii) Sustainable Energy
The PV systems are used for long term even 20-30 years, which provide long term
energy to the people, thus it is sustainable energy.
1.5 Limitations of PV system

Although the advantages of PV systems are becoming more apparent as society
develops, PV systems do possess limitations which should be considered.
The limitations of PV systems are discussed below:
i) High Initial Cost
The cost of PV systems is in operation is almost negligible but it requires high

initial investment cost than those of conventional power sources. The PV system
produces DC current and voltage so requires inverter and other extra devices (e.g.
synchronizer for Grid Tied PV system) for AC supplies which increase the costs
of installation of PV system.
ii) Efficiency
The efficiency of solar cell is improved and it is still in range of 14% to 40%
which is much less than the other sources of power. Due to its inefficiency, more
solar power is required to operate same device.
iii) Manufacturing, Storage and Handling
After installation, PV system is almost safe but their manufacturing, handling and
storage comes with various hazards. Potentially explosive gases like phosphine
and diborane are used in making PV module. Thin-film technologies uses
cadmium telluride and other hazardous materials may create long term hazardous
waste. PV system installer also needs proper training in handling the components.
The durability of proper designed and installed PV systems often justifies and
overweighs the associated costs and risks.
iv) Require Large Area
The PV system installation requires large area for the deployment. If installed on
land the cause associated land use problems because it is used for 25 years or
longer. The large area exposure to light is not always available on roof of the
buildings to meet the required area of installation.
v) Need of Energy Storage Devices
Sunlight is not always available to power the PV systems so requires energy

storage device such as batteries to provide consistent and reliable power supply.
The batteries and other storage device increases the cost.
vi) Inconsistent source of energy
Sun doesn’t always shine in day time. In addition to this, geographic location,
climate and other environmental conditions affect the amount of exposure to any
available sunlight. Thus it creates inconsistent source of energy.
vii) Lack of Awareness
The more technology and its knowledge, the more power will receive society from
sun in affordable and practical way. The lack of knowledge slows the growth of
alternative energy market as well as PV system.
1.6 Environment, health and safety issue
The cleaner energy as electricity can be available from the PV system without
affecting the environment and health because it doesn’t produces GHG gases and
toxic materials when under operation. PV system has many environmental advantages
for generation of electricity over other conventional sources. However, if the life-
cycle of PV system is considered then there are environmental, health and safety
hazards associated with the manufacture of solar cells and installation of PV system.
The PV industry uses toxic chemicals in manufacturing process of the PV cells. The
hazards differ for different thin film technologies and deposition process. The
environmental issues are related to the generation of liquid- and solid-wastes during
wafer slicing, cleaning, and etching, and during processing and assembling of solar
cells. In thin-film technologies, Silane used in bulk quantities which may facilities
may pose hazards to the surrounding community if adequate separation zones do not
exist. PV modules will have to be decommissioned at the end of their useful life, 20 to
30 years after their initial installation. In decommissioning these devices, the principal
concern will be associated with the presence many hazardous chemicals.
The different health problems are associated with the toxic materials. In production
facilities, workers may be exposed to Cd compounds through the air they breathe, as
well as by ingestion from hand-to-mouth contact. Inhalation is probably the most
important pathway, because of the larger potential for exposure, and higher absorption
efficiency of Cd compounds through the lung than through the gastrointestinal tract.
Although elemental selenium has only a mild toxicity associated with it, hydrogen
selenide is highly toxic. It has an Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health
concentration of only 1 ppm. Potential public health issues are related to the use of
hydrogen selenide in facilities that use hydrogen selenide as a major feedstock
material. Associated hazards can be minimized by using safer alternatives, limiting
inventories, using flow restricting valves and other safety options.
The manufacture of photovoltaic modules uses some hazardous materials which can
present health and safety hazards, if adequate precautions are not taken. Routine
conditions in manufacturing facilities should not pose any threats to health and the
environment.
Some of hazardous chemicals used in PV manufacturing and it health hazards are
shown in table below:
Material Critical Effects Material Critical Effects
Arsine Blood, kidney Arsenic Cancer, lung

compounds
Cadmium Cancer, kidney Diborane CNS, pulmonary

compounds
Germane Blood, kidney Hydrogen fluoride Irritant,burns, bone,

teeth
Hydrogen selenide Irritant,flammable Nitric acid Irritant, Corrosive
Selenium compounds Irritant Phosphine Irritant,flammalable
Table 1: Toxic materials used in PV manufacturing with their critical effects
1.7 Photovoltaic system components

The photovoltaic system components include all those components which are
necessary in transformation of light energy to electrical energy. The form of electrical
energy is either AC of DC system. The PV system components are:
i) Photovoltaic Cell
The basic unit of PV system is called photovoltaic cell which can generate
electricity when exposed to light. It is usually semiconductor and square or disc
shape or tiny particle of powder.
ii) Module
The module is the integration of PV cells. When the PV cells are wired in
organized form which provide electric power in PV system is called module.
When there is one or more than one module then it is refer as panel. The PV cells
are laminated between two layers or substrate.
iii) Array
The combination of one or more panel configured together to produce specified

voltage and current with specific power then it is called array. Array contains
module but module does not include the array.
iv) Charge controller
It is the electronic device which controls the charge of the battery. In other words,
the controller regulates the charge to maintain specific battery voltage. It is the
intermediate part between battery and solar panel.
v) Battery
A battery is that converts chemical energy to the electrical energy. Moreover, it

stores the energy in chemical form and gives output as electrical energy.
vi) Inverter
Inverter is the electrical device which converts the DC signals of voltage and
current to AC signals of voltage and current. The array produces DC which is
used to charge the battery and lastly converted to AC by means of inverter.
vii) AC/DC loads
These are the electrical devices which consume electrical energy in either DC or
AC form and gives output energy in different forms for the end-use services.
When the load consumes DC electrical power then the load is DC load and
consumes AC power then called AC load. For example, DC loads; DC motor, DC
LED lamp, TV operates on DC power etc. AC loads; ac fan, ac motors, ac lights
etc.
1.8 Photovoltaic system types

The PV system creates DC (direct current) electricity from the sunlight. The DC
electricity applications are not widely used for various applications as AC (alternating
Types) of electricity.
The PV systems are categorized on the basis of its use whether used with AC system
or with storage system or standalone system.
The types of Solar PV systems are:
i) Standalone PV system
ii) Direct PV system
iii) Grid-Tied PV system
A) Battery Free system
B) With Battery Back-up
i) Standalone PV system
Wherever a power grid is not or not at reasonable costs available, a stand-alone

photovoltaic system can be used to generate the needed electric energy.
Since the solar modules only produce electric energy during daytime, it is necessary
to store energy for the night or for cloudy days. Such storage systems mostly use
rechargeable lead batteries, due to their ability to accept with high efficiency both low
and high input voltages. A battery regulator prevents over-charging; a load shedding
circuit prevents deep discharges.
The Off-Grid or Stand-Alone PV System incorporates large amounts of battery

storage to provide power for a certain number of days (and nights) in a row when sun
is not available. The array of solar panels must be large enough to power all energy
needs at the site and recharge the batteries at the same time. Most Off-Grid systems
benefit from the installation of more than one renewable energy generator and may
include Wind and/or Hydro power. A gas generator is often employed for emergency
backup power. You may have seen mini versions of the stand-alone system on remote
road signs and radio towers.
ii) Direct PV system
PV Direct systems are usually very simple systems where the photovoltaic panel
is connected directly to a motor or pump which matches the voltage and amperage
output of the panel. When the sun shines and the PV panel produces electricity,
the device runs--when the sun is not available, the device stops. This system is
often used for livestock where a well-pump lifts water out of the ground to a
watering trough in remote locations. Other applications include solar
powered attic fans, irrigation systems and small day-time garden waterfalls or
fountains.
iii) Grid Tied PV system
A) Battery Free system
The simplest and most cost effective PV design for most sites is the "Grid-
Tie" (sometimes referred to as intertied or utility-interactive) system. This
system does not provide backup power during a power outage (even if the
sun is shining) but for sites with reliable grid power, this is usually
the logical system choice.
B) With Battery Back-up

The Grid-Tie with Battery Backup system can also push excess electricity
produced to the electric utility grid but has the added feature of batteries in
order to power some selected backup loads when the grid is down. With
this benefit comes an increased complexity, cost and maintenance
requirement.
PHOTO VOLTAIC ELECTRIC PRINCIPLE
2.1 Terminology
The basic terminology in photovoltaic system includes the following:
i) Electricity
The physical phenomenon of presence and flow of electron through a conductor is

known as electricity.
ii) Conductor
Conductor is the any material which allows the electrons to flow through it.
iii) Circuit
The configuration of wires and devices, or the formation of network with

conductors, load or sources, which can provide single or multiple paths to carry
electric energy to provide power on load.
When there is closed path in which circuit current flows and provide power to the
load is called closed circuit. When power to the load cannot be provided with
electrical network configuration or current cannot be allowed to flow in the circuit
is called closed circuit.
iv) Current
Current is the rate of flow of charge through the conductor or circuit. It is

measured with ammeter and its unit is ampere (A or Amp).
v) Voltage
It is the driving force which causes the flow of electron or electric charge through
the circuit. It is measured with voltmeter and its unit is volt (V).
vi) Ampere-hour(Ah)
An ampere-hour (Ah) is the amount of electrical charge which is transferred by

one ampere current for one hour. It is frequently used related for battery for the
charge stored in the battery.
vii) Power
It is defined as the rate of work done or energy transferred. It is the capacity to do

something. It is equivalent with the amount of energy consumed per unit of time.
It is measured with wattmeter and its unit is Watt(W) or Joule per second(Js-1).
viii) Kilo Watt-hour (KWh)
It is the unit of energy which is equivalent to the power consumed by 1000 Watt
load in one hour.
2.2 Matching Appliance to the system

Rural development is greatly enhanced by the availability of decent lighting,
pumping, refrigeration and communication tools. There is a wide variety of
equipment available to meet these needs. However, with appropriate power sources is
not always easy or straightforward. Making the wrong choice of appliance or power
system can be expensive, time-consuming or even fatal to the success of community
development activity.
While choosing appliance for the PV system, we must consider the following points:
- The voltage level of supply side (generation side) and the demand side
(appliances of the consumer side) must be matched and are of same type either
AC or DC.
- The power of the energy produced and used must be matched and under safety
level.
- The appliances must be compatible with the type of power and current. The
appliance may be either AC of DC type load so must be supplied with
corresponding type of source signals.
2.3 Electrical Circuit

An electrical circuit is the continuous path made with connecting conductor wires,
loads and sources with other disconnecting means which allows the continuous flow
of charge from source to the load.
The load and the sources can be combined in different ways and the source and load s
are connected by means of conductive wire which allows the flow of cuurent in the
circuit. A simple schematic diagram of an electrical circuit is in figure shown below
which consists of a simple DC source and DC load connect by means of switch K.
12 V Load
Figure 1: Electrical Circuit
2.4 Combination of sources

The sources are combined to get specific voltage and current. In PV system, the major
sources are PV panels and the batteries which are combined in different forms to get
specific power, voltage and current as per requirement of project of work. There are
three type of configuration for the combination of sources:
i) Series combination
ii) Parallel combination
iii) Series-Parallel connection
I. Series connection
A circuit consists of any number of elements joined at terminal points, providing at

least one closed path through which charge can flow. When the sources are joined
end-to-end then they are called in series connection. In other words, when the positive
terminal of one source (panel or battery) is connected with the negative terminal of
another source (panel of battery) then the connection is called series connection of
sources.
In this type of connection, the following conclusions are made:
- Current flowing through the circuit is same as individual source current.
- The total circuit voltage is the algebraic sum of individual source voltage.
- The power is additive. i. e. power of circuit is sum of total power.

The figure below shows the series connection of panel and battery.
II. Parallel connection
When the same terminals are joined at a point i.e. positive terminal of all source
are connected at a point and negative terminals are connected together at a point
then the combination of sources is called parallel connection of source.
In this type of connection,
- Voltage is same as the individual source voltage.
- Current of the circuit is the algebraic sum of individual source current.
- The power of circuit is additive.
III. Series-Parallel connection
This type of connection of source combines both the series and parallel
combination of sources. It is the mixed type connection which includes both series
and parallel combination of sources. The voltage and current of the circuit is
depends upon how the connections are made.
2.5 Combination of loads

The loads are configured to maintain either same voltage across it or same current to
flow through it. Generally, the loads are configured in the following types:
I. Series connection
When the loads are connected end-to-end then the connection of loads is called
series connection of load. In this type of connection, one terminal of load is
connected to other terminal of another load. The current flowing through each
load is same but different voltage.
II. Parallel connection
When the same terminals of each load connected at a point then the connection is
said to be parallel. The voltage across the each load is same but current is
different.
III. Series-Parallel connection
This is the mixed type connection of both series and parallel connection
2.6 Exercise
Problem1. Calculate the total voltages and current in the following cases:
a) Three panels having 12V DC nominal and 1.3A rated current are connected in
series.
b) Three panels having 12V DC nominal and 1.3A rated current are connected in
parallel.
c) Four panels having 12V DC nominal and 1.3A rated current are connected in
series and three types of this connection is connected in parallel.
d) Three panels having 24V DC nominal and 7.2A rated current are connected in
(i) series and (ii) parallel.
e) Combine your system of (c) in series parallel connection.
Problem2. You are given with a panel having 12V DC nominal and 1.3 A rated
current.
a) Design a 12 V DC system with these panels which gives circuit current 13A.
b) Design a 24 V DC system with these panels which gives circuit current 13A.
c) Design a 48 V DC system with these panels which gives circuit current 13A.
d) Connect the four panels to get 24V, eight panels to get 48V system voltages
and calculate the current in each case.
e) How can you design the system voltage as 120 V with these panels?
Problem3. Repeat the above problem2 by replacing the panel with 12V, 13Ah
battery.
SOLAR RESOURCES
3.1 General
The energy that can be received in the form of heat and light is called Solar Energy.
Generally the earth receives the energy from sun as visible light and other forms of
electromagnetic radiation which further divided into following three categories;
i. Active/ Thermal solar system

ii. Passive solar system
iii. Photovoltaic system
Active/ Thermal Solar System:

This is the solar energy in the form of thermal energy. In this technology the heat
trapped from sun is use to heat water or other fluids and can also in cooking system.
Some best examples of active solar system are solar water heating, thermal cooking
stove etc. Residential solar heating system can offer significant consumption of
energy and reductions in a customer’s electricity bill.
Passive Solar System:

Passive solar system is the technology to maximize the sun’s benefits in different
seasons, providing warm to the room in winter, reducing heat and ventilation in
summer and providing daylight all year round. This system utilizes architectural
design of building to circulate solar energy through natural convection.
Photovoltaic System:
A photovoltaic system or PV system is a power system used to supply usable solar
energy in the form of electricity by means of photovoltaic. An arrangement of
different components is designed to perform such task including Photovoltaic Cell to
convert solar energy to electricity, Module to encapsulate substrate, Panel, Array,
Charge Controller to regulate the system voltage, Battery to store electrical energy,
Inverter to convert DC to AC, DC Loads, AC Loads etc.
3.2 Solar Radiation Fundamental
Solar light is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the solar system,
in particular invisible and visible spectrums of light, radiation and more. The radiant
energy emitted by sun is deflects and filters on Earth’s atmosphere, and obvious as
daylight when Sun is above the horizon. In other word, the energy that radiated from
sun is higher than that earth absolves. Majority of the sun’s harmful and poisonous
radiation are filtered by the earth’s atmosphere and our near-perfect positioning in the
solar system allows us to receive the benefits proximity to the Sun without being
broiled.
100%
Reflected
Reflection by
from
Atmosphere
Reflected by
Absorbed by
Atmosphere &
Earth
Solar Radiation mechanism is the important process for human as well as the entire
living beings. The whole life cycle of living beings is dependent on the solar
radiation. Organisms that produce their food from direct sun light use solar energy
along with carbon dioxide and water to produce starch in a process known as
photosynthesis. Similarly, other organisms depend on the explained organisms to
form the bottom level of the food chain. No any living beings exist without the sun, so
life as we know it depends on the solar radiation.
3.3 Gathering Data
3.4 Completing the solar site analysis

It is very important to identify the best location for installation of solar panel. With
the site data and your understanding you have to evaluate the site and locate where the
array will be installed. Since, a small amount of shade on a PV panel can reduce the
panel’s performance, minimizing shading is much more important in PV system
design. So you have to determine the solar access location to improve the efficiency
of solar system and run it with cost effective performance.
Generally, the tall trees, poles, construction, structure etc. play vital role to create
unwanted shadow. To get better performance the PV panel should be placed at such
location where solar access from 9am to 3pm. This optimum time frame is known as
solar window. Similarly, the panel should be placed in such place, where the sun light
strikes directly during winter season too.
During the site selection, following points must be completed:
i. The location should not be shaded from 9am to 3pm.

ii. The location should not be shaded in any month.
iii. Remove the obstacles that shade the panel between 9am and 3pm.
Fig: Solar Window
ELECTRICAL LOAD ANALYSIS
4.1 Efficient Energy Utilization

A photovoltaic system designer must design the PV system so as to minimize the cost
of the PV system. The load sizes directly influence the size and cost of the PV system.
For, the PV system, the professionals must advise to use efficient devices. For
example, use LED light instead of fluorescent or CFL light.
All the loads must not run as peak load. Peoples must aware about load peaking and
efficiency of the appliances. The both peak load and low efficient devices increases
the cost and size of the PV system. The load must shifts peak time to off-peak time for
reduce peak demand of PV system which can reduce the size of PV system and hence
cost.
4.2 Electrical Load Analysis

The load of the consumer is properly calculated for the demand analysis. The hour of
operation of load is also equally important for the load analysis. The type of load also
to be mentioned because the load may be inductive, periodic usable, seasonal loads
which are draws power from the source differently. The load may be be AC or DC
type.
The power rating of load is available in the name plate of the device or manufacturer
provides a manual in which the power rating is given. If the power rating is not given
then the power can be calculated as:
For DC load,
Power = Voltage x Current
The Voltage and current ratings are given in name plate in Volt and Ampere.
For AC load,
Power = Voltage x Current x Power factor
The power factor is taken as 0.8 if not specified.

Some loads consume the low power in standby mode and higher power in active
mode such as computer. Also some loads are running automatically on and off such as
iron, refrigerator etc. These loads are taken into account with their on and off time.
Surge load are also taken into consideration such as motors which takes high current
at starting. A table is given in APPENDIX from which we can calculate the loads and
energy consumption.
4.3 Refrigerators and lighting

Refrigerators are in increasing demand in rural areas for domestic and institutional
requirements. However, powering refrigerators is surprisingly complicated and
expensive. Refrigeration requires relatively constant energy input which is not suited
for off-grid situations. Specially made efficient off-grid refrigerators are available, but
usually cost more.
Refrigerator are automatic and auto power on and off o usually considers total energy
consumption while designing. It is recommended that these loads are used for
minimum time by use of automatic switches.
Quality of light is critical. There are several general categories of lighting and each
requirement is different from person to person. The lights are used for ambient
lighting, general lighting or task lighting. In ambient lighting, person require
minimum light, in general lighting, light require is for viewing objects, reading etc.
and in task lighting, the light is used for specific task which requires excess light.
It is convenient to find the use of light and appropriate device for lighting. Today, a
wide variety of lights at affordable costs are found with better efficiency in the
market. Solar lanterns are used which incorporate a solar module, battery and a light
in a single unit. The DC WLED light used in PV system increases the efficiency and
low size and cost PV system.
4.4 Consideration in load estimation

There are many variables which can affect the load estimation. The load calculation is
not straight forward but is difficult to calculate the loads due to the variables. The
several considerations taken into account in the calculation of loads are:
i) Use of manufacturer’s manual for the energy consumption of load and power
rating of load.
ii) The type of load either it may be AC of DC type loads.
iii) The voltage level required by the load.
iv) The seasonal and daily variation of loads.
v) Efficiency and the use of loads with its life
vi) The duty cycle of load and energy conservation taken into account.
vii) The future expansion of load because of people, social and seasonal change.
4.5 Load estimation

The load calculation requires daily average use of load, quantity of loads and its
electrical specification. The specification includes AC of DC type loads, power rating,
its voltage and current rating. The total average energy consumption by load can be
calculated by multiplying the number of loads, wattage of load and the average
operation of hour.
While calculating these loads, we must consider the seasonal variation of loads, low
efficient loads, and standby power consumption of certain loads. The loads are
variable and under certain conditions some loads are prohibited to use in PV system to
reduce the size and cost of the PV systems. The mixed technology and improved
efficiency technique can be used to replace those loads.
For example, we consider the following loads in a building listed below with the
power rating and operation of hours:
4.6 Exercise
PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE
5.1 Photovoltaic Principle

The photovoltaic principle is based on conversion of light energy to electrical energy
which is explained by the help of photo-electric effect theory proposed by the Albert
Einstein. Behavior of light in terms of a stream of photons where each photon carries
one quantum of energy explains this effect. Each photon is associated with just one
wavelength or frequency. High-frequency photons have more energy than the ones
with low frequency.
Photovoltaic cell is the basic unit of the PV module. A photovoltaic cell comprises P-
type and N-type semiconductors with different electrical properties, joined together.
The joint between these two semiconductors is called the "P-N junction."Sunlight
striking the photovoltaic cell is absorbed by the cell. The energy of the absorbed light
generates particles with positive or negative charge (holes and electrons), which move
about or shift freely in all directions within the cell. Most of PV cell produce 0.5V and
thus 36 PV cells are connected in series to get 18V at STC. This string used for total
12 V nominal in application. The desired current is increased by increasing surface
area of the individual cell. This can be achieved by joining string in parallel.
5.2 Characteristics of module
The output characteristic of any module is characterized by its I-V curve. The most of
the I-V curves are provided at STC condition. This standard test conditions (STC)
relate to the IEC 60904 standards.
 Irradiance G of 1000 W/m2

 Cell temperature T of 25 °C with a tolerance of ±2 °C
 Defined light spectrum (spectral distribution the solar reference
irradiance according to IEC 60904-3) with an air mass AM=1.5
The three points are significant in the I-V curve of module; open circuit voltage
(Voc), short circuit current (Isc) and the maximum power point where both maximum
current and voltages are represented.
The typical I-V characteristic of solar cell is
Figure 2: I-V characteristics of solar panel
Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) is the maximum voltage which can be produced by the
solar panel. At this voltage, the current is zero.
Short Circuit Current (Isc) is the maximum current flows in the wire when the module
terminals are short circuited.
Maximum Power Point is the point in power curve of solar panel I-V characteristics
where the power output by the panel is maximum.
5.3 Module performance
The module performance is determined by the output of the panel
5.4 Factors affecting module performance

The performance of solar PV module is related with its output. The higher of PV
output, the better efficiency and hence better performance. The efficiency of cells
depend on several factors; its ability to capture incoming sunlight, to convey it to
electrons that have the right energy state. Energy efficiency factors must be carefully
considered while designing any solar PV systems.
The major factors affecting solar module PV system are:

i) Temperature
Module output reduces as temperature increases. Solar cells perform better in cold
rather than in hot climate and as things stand, panels are rated at 25˚C which can
be significantly different from the real outdoor situation. For each degree rise in
temperature above 25˚C the panel output decays by about 0.25% for amorphous
cells and about 0.4-0.5% for crystalline cells.
ii) Shading
A shadow on even a small part of the panel can have a surprisingly large effect on
the output. The cells within a panel are normally all wired in series and the shaded
cells affect the current flow of the whole panel. But there can be situations where
it cannot be avoided, and thus the effects of partial shading should be considered
while planning. If the affected panel is wired in series (in a string) with other
panels, then the output of all those panels will be affected by the partial shading of
one panel. In such a situation, an obvious solution is to avoid wiring panels in
series if possible.
iii) Dirt and Dust
Dirt and dust can accumulate on the solar module surface, blocking some of the
sunlight and reducing output.
iv) Solar spectrum influence
The current generated by a solar cell is influenced by the spectral distribution

(spectrum) of sunshine. The solar spectral effect can be empirically related to
absolute air mass, resulting in the Air-Mass (AM) function. This function is
technology specific, depending on the spectral response of the module, and also
site specific, depending on the site’s atmospheric characteristics.
v) Solar angle of incidence
Photovoltaic modules have an angle of incidence dependent optical behavior that

can be measured and used to improve the analysis of array performance. Like
absolute air mass, solar angle-of-incidence is time-of-day dependent. Its affect on
the short-circuit current (Isc) of a photovoltaic module results
vi) Mismatch and wire loss

The maximum power output of the total PV array is always less than the sum of
the maximum output of the individual modules. This difference is a result of slight
inconsistencies in performance from one module to the next and is called module
mismatch and amounts to at least a 2% loss in system power. Power is also lost to
resistance in the system wiring. These losses should be kept to a minimum but it is
difficult to keep these losses below 3% for the system.
BATTERY SIZING AND SPECIFICATION
6.1 General
A battery is a electrochemical device that can store electrical energy in chemical form.
It contains cell and each cell contains a positive terminal, or cathode and negative
terminal, or anode. Electrolyte allows the ion to flow between terminals.
Battery is used in PV system to store the energy produced from PV array because PV
cannot store the charge. The energy produced by PV array stored in battery is used at
night when no sunlight is available or minimal sunlight at day time. In order to use the
energy continuously, the energy storage mechanism should be incorporated with the
solar panel.
6.2 Types and operation of Battery

There are many type of battery used in commercial and residential sector. The
commonly used batteries in PV system are:
i) Lead Acid Battery
The lead-acid battery cell consists of positive and negative lead plates of different
composition suspended in a sulfuric acid solution called electrolyte. When cells
discharge, sulfur molecules from the electrolyte bond with the lead plates and
releases electrons. When the cell recharges, excess electrons go back to the
electrolyte. A battery develops voltage from this chemical reaction. Electricity is
the flow of electrons.
In a typical lead-acid battery, the voltage is approximately 2 volts per cell

regardless of cell size. Electricity flows from the battery as soon as there is a
circuit between the positive and negative terminals. This happens when any load
(appliance) that needs electricity is connected to the battery.
ii) VLRA battery
A VRLA battery (valve-regulated lead-acid battery), is maintenance free battery,

is a type of lead-acid rechargeable battery. Due to their construction, they can be
mounted in any orientation, and do not require constant maintenance. The term
"maintenance free" is a misnomer as VRLA batteries still require cleaning and
regular functional testing.
iii) AGM battery
These are liquid-tight batteries that can operate in any position without leaking
acid. Because of the seal construction, you cannot check cell conditions with a
hydrometer. Vents prevent pressure build-up in case of gassing. Recommended
only for situations where hydrogen gassing during charging cannot be tolerated, or
the battery is going to be moved a great deal, or to be fit in tight spaces. Require
lower voltage charge controls. Most AGM batteries (absorbed glass mat) have a
life expectancy of 2-5 years, and 5-10 years for higher quality Gel cell batteries.
Most sealed batteries are AGM.
6.3 Capacity and discharge
6.4 Specification of Battery
6.5 Sizing
6.6 Configuration of battery
6.7 Safety
6.8 Exercise
Charge Controller
7.1 Introduction
Generally the solar energy generation takes place during day and consumers consume
at evening hours. So, there is requirement of some device that used to store the solar
energy into batteries called PV charge controller. It is similar t the voltage regulator
and regulates the voltage and current that is coming from the solar panels and stored t
the batteries. Most f the batteries are fully charged at 14 to 15 volts. On nest side,
battery’s life time rapidly decreases due to the discharge over the level of 70 to 80%.
At this discharge level the battery voltage goes down to 11.5 volts. Each storage
battery has a certain limit of storage capacity. In this manner the battery life reduces
drastically due to overcharging and deep discharging. Since, battery is one of the
expensive components, it is necessary to protect the battery from being over charged
or deeply discharged. Hence, a device is required to control such voltage level and
called charge controller.
Figure 3: System with Charge controller
The main purpose of charge controller in this system is to prevent the battery from
being overcharged and deeply discharged. Feedback about the battery’s state is
designed to spot conditions that would leave the battery undercharged. The easiest
way to instantly know the state of charge of a battery is to measure the battery’s
voltage. Generally, charge controllers stop charging a battery when they exceed a set
high voltage level, and re-enable charging when battery voltage drops back below that
level. The following table shows a clear idea about the battery status that are generally
used including charging and discharging both.
State of charge Charging Status
Above 13 100%
12 67%
11 34%
Below 10 1%
7.2 Types of Charge Controller

Generally there are two types of charge controller in use:
i. PWM charge controller

ii. MPPT charge controller
PWM Charge Controller:
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) charge controller operate by making a direct

connection from the solar panel to the batteries. When the charging rate is very high,
the panel output voltage is pulled down to the battery voltage. The battery voltage
adjusts slightly up depending upon the current generating by the panel and
characteristics of the batteries. Generally the PWM charge controller rarely operate at
the Vmax of the solar panel, potential energy is being wasted that could otherwise be
used to better charge the battery bank and maintain system power. The greater the
difference between battery voltage and the Vmax of panel, the more energy is wasted
and reduce the efficiency of the system
MPPT Charge Controller:
A maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is an electronic DC to DC converter that

optimizes the match between the solar panels and the battery bank. To put it, they
convert a higher voltage DC output from solar panels down to the lower voltage
needed to charge batteries. Generally it can provide a power boost of up to 33% very
normal controllers, especially in cold but sunny conditions.
Panel tracking; this is where the panel are on a mount that follows the sun. These
optimize output by following the sun across the sky for maximum sunlight. These
increase the total generation of the solar panel by absorbing more energy from sun
and converts it into best voltage such that we can get optimum current into the battery.
The modern MPPT is highly efficient in nature. Normally, the MPPT are most
effective in winter, cold condition when more energy is required t generated.
The MPPT is a high frequency DC to DC converter which takes the DC input from
the resources, change it to high frequency AC and convert it back down to different
DC voltage and current to match the panels to the batteries.
7.3 Controller features

Following are some important features to improve the performance of the charge
controller:
 Electronic Blocking (To protect against reverse polarity connection of PV

panel and block current from battery to PV Panel when battery is over
charged),
 Suitable for PV panels with Open Circuit Voltage from 17 to 23V,
 Rated charging/load current,
 PWM Charging with 3-stage Charge Control (to allow battery be left
unattended for long period),
 User Adjustable Charge Control Settings for different types of batteries,
 User Adjustable Low Voltage Disconnect and Low Voltage Reconnect,
 Build-In Microprocessor for PV charge control to maximize the charging
efficiency,
 Overcharge and Over-discharge Protection,
 Over Temperature Protection,
 Short-Circuit Protection at load terminal & Battery Reverse Polarity
Protection at Battery Connection Terminal,
 Informative LCD Display and Tri-Color LED indication of system and battery
conditions,
 Optional Temperature Sensor for compensated battery charging,
 Optional Remote Signal Terminal.
7.4 Specification of Charge Controller
If maximum charging capacity is only a factor to be considered, MPPT charge
controller will be the best choice. But the two technologies are different to each other
and has own advantages. Normally, the specifying a PV charge controller is depends
on site conditions, system components, size of the panel and load, and finally the cost
for a particular solar power system.
The specifying of charge controller can be explained by showing their comparisons as

below:
PWM CC MPPT CC
Temperature PWM CC is not better in MPPT CC is better suited

case of colder condition for colder conditions
Size of the System Effective in smaller Effective in huge system

systems
Cost Less Cost Expensive
Panel Voltage PV panel & battery PV panel voltage can be

voltages should match higher than battery voltage
Battery Voltage Operates at battery voltage Operates above battery

so it achieve well in warm voltage so it can provide
temperatures and when the boost in cold conditions
battery is almost full and when the battery is
low
OFF- Grid or Grid-Tie Mostly used in OFF-Grid Enable the use of lower
system at low voltage cost/grid-tie PV Modules
system helping bring down the
overall PV system cost
Finally, when we select one of the charge controllers over next one, we evaluate its
reward in the overall system cost. The main goal is to supply the power with high
efficiency and reliability.
7.5 Sizing a Charge Controller
The charge Controller sizing involves the following formula and in this step, calculate
the short circuit current of PV module and then charge controller minimum power
current:
Charge controller Size = short circuit current of PV module*no. of modules in
parallel*Factor of safety
Where Factor of Safety can be taken to be 1.2 to 1.3.
Then, you can select the appropriate charge controller from the market.
INVERTER
8.1 General
The inverter has been widely used in many fields such as the UPS, electronic circuit
and the solar inverter systems. Inverter is the electronic device that operates from dc
voltage source or a dc current source and converts it into ac voltage or current. It is a
balance of system (BOS) component in PV system, allowing the use of ordinary AC-
powered equipment. Generally the inverters use the principle of Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) to produce output, which may be a variable voltage or variable
frequency supply. The modern inverters use power semiconductor devices such as
power transistors, power MOSFETs, IGPTs etc.
DC current or
Inverter AC
lt t
The simplest dc voltage source for a voltage source Inverter (VSI) may be a battery
storage, which may consists number of cells in series-parallel combinations. Solar PV
cells can be taken as next example of dc voltage source. Similarly, an ac voltage
supply, after rectification into dc will also take as dc voltage source.
8.2 Operating Principle

The basic principles of inverter are of following types:
i. Method to convert AC from DC

ii. Method to change frequency
iii. Method to change voltage
iv. Three phase AC
Method to convert AC from DC:

Figure below gives the idea to convert DC to the AC by utilizing a load. When four
switches, S1, S2, S3 and S4 are connected to the DC supply, S1 and S4 and also S2
and S4 are respectively paired and they are alternatively turned ON and OFF, the AC
flows as output.
Fig: Circuit diagram to convert AC from DC
Fig: Output as AC
 When the S1 and S4 are turned ON, the current flows in the bulb in the
direction of A.
 When the S2 and S3 are turned ON, the current flows in the bulb in the
direction of B.
If these operations are done for number of times, the AC is generated since the
direction of the current flowing in the load alters.
Method to change frequency

To change the frequency, the period to turn ON and OFF the switches is changed. E.g.
if the S1 and S4 are turned ON for 0.5 second and this operation is repeated, the AC
with one alternation per second, i.e. the AC with a frequency of 1 Hz is created.
Fig: 1 Hz AC waveform
Generally, if S1/S4 and S2/S3 are respectively turned ON for the same period and
the total time for one cycle is t0 sec, the frequency becomes;
f = 1/t0 Hz
Fig: Frequency
Method to change voltage

The voltage can be changed by turning ON and OFF the switches with a shorter
period. E.g. if S1 and S4 are turned ON for the half period, the o/p voltage is E/2 (half
of the DC voltage).
Similarly, the S1 and S4 are turned ON for longer period to get a higher voltage and
shorter period to get lower voltage.
Fig: Method to change voltage
Three phase AC
The circuitry diagram of the three phase inverter and the method of creation of three
phase AC are shown in figure below:
Fig: Circuitry diagram of three phase inverter
Fig: Method to create three phase AC
To get the three phase AC, the switches S1 to S6 are to be connected and
simultaneously turn ON/OFF all the six switches at the timing shown in second figure
above. If the order of turning ON/OFF six switches is changed, the phase order is
changed between U-V, V-W, W-U and the rotation direction can be changed.
8.3 Types of Inverter

Generally there are two types of inverter depend on source:
i. Current Source Inverter

ii. Voltage Source Inverter
Current Source Inverter
In this type of inverter, the main source is current in which input (DC) current is
chopped to obtain AC output current. Normally they are integrating boost converter,
inverter and charging functionality that enables a low voltage battery to regulate the
control circuit. It performs regulation functions and important to improve fault
tolerance. Generally it includes high inductance value and substantially reduces
capacitor requirements.
Fig: Basic circuitry diagram for Current source Inverter
Fig: output of current source Inverter
Voltage Source Inverter

Voltage source inverters are used to regulate the speed of three-phase squirrel cage
motors by changes the frequency and the voltage and consist of input rectifier, DC
link and output converter. They are available for low voltage range and medium
voltage range. Similarly, it is widely used in solar system, wind system etc. In this
type f inverter, the DC link voltage is varied by a DC to DC converter or controlled
rectifier.
Fig: Basic Block Diagram of VSI
Fig: Output of VSI

• Generate “square wave” output voltage.
• Output voltage amplitude is varied as DC link is varied.
• Frequency of output voltage is varied by changing the frequency of the square wave
pulses.
(+) io and (+) vo: (+) power flow (1)
(-) io and (-) vo: (+) power flow (3)
(+) io and (-) vo: (-) power flow (2)
(-) io and (+) vo: (-) power flow (4)
Positive power flow indicates power transfer from input (Vdc.Idc) to load.
Similarly inverter can produce square wave, sine wave, modified sine wave etc
depending on the design of the circuits. The two dominant commercialized waveform
types of inverters as of 2007 are modified sine wave and sine wave.
Square Wave
This is one of the simplest waveforms an inverter design can produce and is useful for
some applications. The output wave form is of square shape.
Sine Wave
A power inverter device which produces a multiple step sinusoidal AC waveform is

known as a sine wave inverter. To more clearly distinguish the inverters with outputs
of much less distortion than the "modified sine wave" (three step) inverter designs, the
manufacturers often use the phrase pure sine wave inverter. The inverter does not
produce a smooth sine wave, just a less choppy output than the square. The phrases
"Pure sine wave" or "sine wave inverter" are not critical for most electronics as they
deal with the output quite well.
Where power inverter devices substitute for standard line power, a sine wave output is
desirable because many electrical products are engineered to work best with a sine
wave ac power source. The standard electric utility power attempts to provide a power
source that is a good approximation of a sine wave.
Modified Sine Wave
A "modified sine wave" inverter has a non-square waveform that is a useful rough
approximation of a sine wave for power translation purposes.
The waveform in commercially available modified-sine-wave inverters is a square

wave with a pause before the polarity reversal, which only needs to cycle back and
forth through a three-position switch that outputs forward, off, and reverse output at
the pre-determined frequency. Switching states are developed for positive, negative
and zero voltages. The peak voltage to RMS voltage does not maintain the same
relationship as for a sine wave. The DC bus voltage may be actively regulated or the
"on" and "off" times can be modified to maintain the same RMS value output up to
the DC bus voltage to compensate for DC bus voltage variation.
The ratio of on to off time can be adjusted to vary the RMS voltage while maintaining
a constant frequency with a technique called PWM. The generated gate pulses are
given to each switch in accordance with the developed pattern and thus the output is
obtained. Harmonic spectrum in the output depends on the width of the pulses and the
modulation frequency. When operating induction motors, voltage harmonics are not
of great concern; however, harmonic distortion in the current waveform introduces
additional heating and can produce pulsating torques.
8.4 Features of Inverter

The important features of the inverters are:
• Nominal input voltage of DC
• Nominal output voltage of 230V AC
• Designed rating
• Optimally suited range
• Peak efficiency factor of > 98%
• Module and its importance
• MPP range
• Programming facility
• Positioning functionality
• Display of monitored current and voltage
• Compact solution with an overall space and cost
• Data monitoring/ remote control via Ethernet/ network integration/ vector
control etc.
8.5 Inverter System

Generally, there are following types of methods used in energy system:
i. Battery back-up
ii. OFF Grid
iii. Battery back-up Grid Tie
iv. Straight Grid Tie
v. AC Coupled
Battery back-up system
This is the system in which there is battery back-up with no solar/ wind source. This
is one of the most basic systems that used in occasional grid failures. The batteries
are kept at full charge at all times from the national grid supply. This system uses a
sub-panel to power critical loads during a black out. A generator can also be
installed with a transfer switch to recharge batteries and run the critical loads. This
system does not require a grid tie inverter. This system does not require an
agreement with the utility because it cannot sell back to the grid.
Fig: Basic block diagram of Battery back-up system
OFF Grid system

This system does not require a grid tie inverter. It cannot sell back the energy to the
utility, as there is no any connection between the system and national grid. It has an
inverter/ charger so it can recharge the batteries with the help of generator. The
primary charging source here is solar/ wind. The source requires a solar charge
controller to regulate the system.
Fig: Basic block diagram of OFF Grid system

Battery back-up Grid Tie system
This system is very much like an off-grid system with a few differences. It has a
utility connection and that is the primary source of power. It has also a battery based
grid tie inverter and solar panels. During sun shining, the solar panels try to push the
voltage of the batteries up. The grid tie inverter is programmed to only allow the
batteries to go to a pre-set voltage, so all excess power is sent out the AC input
terminals and ff to the utility. This makes the utility meter spin backwards. In such
system the MPPT solar charge controller performs two main functions; it improves
the output of the solar panel over a controller and it is a failsafe in case of the utility
shut down. You still need a regulator to protect the batteries from over charge in the
case of utility shut down.
Fig: Block diagram of Battery back-up Grid Tie system
Straight Grid Tie system

This system is very popular in developed countries, but still not approved in Nepal.
During the sun shines, the grid tie inverter passes the power to the utility from solar
system and reverse in other conditions. Most of these technologies will have a
separate utility bidirectional energy meter so they can indicate how much power you
are buying or selling. There is no any storage battery in this system, since the power
consumption is continuously supplied by solar and grid system. This system will
shut down during a power outage and cannot by law produce any power. The supply
will be out during an outage.
Fig: Basic Diagram of Straight Grid Tie system
AC Coupled system
In this method, the grid system is interconnected with battery based inverter to
increase the reliability of the energy system. It is useful in such condition where the
grid is shut down for number of reason, when grid power is inadequate or
problematic, or when utility power is costly making it advantageous to offset the
grid using solar/ wind generated stored energy. The battery based inverter works
backwards as the battery controller and passes the power to the utility from the grid
tie inverter. When the grid power goes shut down, the battery based inverter
disconnects from the grid and starts powering the backed up critical loads panel.
Fig: Block diagram of AC Coupled system

Photovoltaic system wiring
9.1 Introduction
The PV system is installed must insure that they will be safe and functional with
greater reliability. Reliable power can be achieved with less voltage drop in wire and
avoid leakage current from the wire. The different types of wire used in the electrical
installation. For outer region or in open, UV cable is used which is wire with coated
with UV protection materials and for inner region, normal PVC cables are used.
Direct current (DC) system lines are different from the Alternating current (AC)
system because DC system has lower voltage and current flows through one direction
only. The DC system requires larger size of wire than the AC system.
9.2 Wire Size

Wire sizing is also most important in the PV system installation. Current produced by
the sources (PV array, Battery) are flowing through the wire. So, it is must important
that the wire can handle current flowing through it without heating and insulation
failure.
Basically, in wire sizing, following things are important:
i) the allowable voltage drop
ii) voltage level
iii) current flow through it and
iv) length between two points
In NEPQA, the allowable voltage drop is 3% for PV array to charge controller and
1% for charge controller to battery and battery to inverter.
Cross-section area of the wire can be calculated as:
A (mm2) = ρ(2L)I/(x *V)
Where,
ρ – Resistivity of wire, Ω-mm
L – Length between two points, mm
V – System voltage level, Volt
I – Maximum current flow through the wire, Ampere
x- Percentage Voltage drop, fraction
After calculation of the area of conductor, the conductor of area equal to or greater
than the calculated value can be selected from the table of conductor table (in
APPENDIX).
For example, let us consider, the length between PV array and charge controller is
10m, system voltage be 48V and maximum current flow through it is 43A. The
resistivity of copper at 480C is 1.86*10-5 Ω-mm then wire size can be calculated as:
A = 1.86*10-5*2*10*103*32/(0.03*48)
= 8.27 mm2
Hence wire of size 10mm2 is selected from the table.
9.3 Over current Protection
9.4 Over current Protection Sizing
9.5 Disconnects
9.6 Grounding
9.7 Exercise
STANDALONE PV SYSTEM SIZING
10.1 Introduction
The PV system which supplies utility for the off-grid application, the grid is not
connected at that place, is called stand-alone PV system. In this type of system, whole
energy utilized by the consumer is supplied with PV system. This type of system may
be connected in telecommunications applications, pumping system and solar home
system. This type of system is low maintenance system for supplying power to the
consumer of rural areas where enough exposure of sunlight is available.
PV system has high initial cost and hence greater mind exercise must be involved in
PV system sizing which meets the energy demanded under reliable conditions. PV
system sizing for a home is not complex but there can be some difficulty in sizing the
solar PV system which supplies the more consumers from one generating station with
reliable power.
The system can be made reliable with minimized cost with proper sizing which
involves the following steps:
- Estimate electric load and operation hours
- Estimate the energy consumption
- Battery bank size calculation
- Array size calculation
- Controller and inverter size calculation
- Wire size calculation and grounding methods
10.2 Design Considerations

The high initial cost of solar PV system can move designer towards some limitations
and more exercise in PV system design. Some considerations made in sizing are as
follows:
i) Efficiency
The solar PV system is costly so can be lowered considering maximum system
efficiency which can be achieved by using efficient devices in PV system. It can
also be achieved by replacing efficient load such as fluorescent lamps and
incandescent lamps can be replaced by LED lamps.
ii) Shading
Shading has major effect on panel or array efficiency. One hour shade on array
creates one hour less in peak sun time. For example, the solar peak sun time is 4.5
hours and when there is one hour shading effect then the peak sun is 3.5 which
higher the size of PV system for same output.
iii) Orientation and mounting option
The orientation and mounting of panel facing south in proper inclination

maximize photovoltaic system output. Hence the orientation of PV module must
be with proper direction and inclination.
iv) Modules
The selected PV modules must be according to the system parameter to maximize

the efficiency of the system. For example, if 800 Wp solar installation is required
then we can use eight 80Wp solar PV module or four 200Wp solar module. In
eight 80Wp module requires more wiring and framing but is less in 200 Wp
system. Hence, the selections of size of module in solar PV system also affect the
cost and efficiency.
v) Battery bank storage
In installing the battery bank then careful decision must be taken for ventilation,
place of installation with proper size of battery bank. The improper installation in
battery bank creates unsafe for human health and environment.
vi) Controller
The operation of controller must be efficient and proper working conditions.
vii) Wire calculation
The wire size must be in proper manner so to reduce the voltage drop in the wire.
It also meets all safety conditions.
10.3 Sizing worksheet
The PV system sizing worksheet provides all the information required for complete
sizing of the solar PV system. The sizing involves following steps:
Step1: Load Estimation and consumption
All the loads connected are estimated with their power rating and operation hour. If
the power rating is not provided then the power can be calculated by
For DC load,
Power = Voltage x Current
The Voltage and current ratings are given in name plate in Volt and Ampere.
For example, a DC LED lamp of 12V takes current of 0.25A from battery supply then
the power is
Power = 12 x 0.25 = 3W
If this device operates for 5 hour a day then the energy consumption can be estimated
as,
Energy consumption = 3 x 5 = 15Wh
For AC load,
Power = Voltage x Current x Power factor
The power factor is taken as 0.8 if not specified.
For example, an AC load works on 220V, 50Hz ac supply and current flowing
through it is 1.4 A then the power is
Power = 220 x 1.4 x 0.8 = 246.4W
If this device operates for 5 hour a day then the energy consumption can be estimated
as,
Energy consumption = 246.4 x 5 = 1232 Wh
The energy consumption of the load can be determined by multiplying the power of
device and hours of operation.
The active and passive power is also considered in the load as computer, telephone
etc.
The DC and AC watt-hour cannot be added directly to compute total consumption.

The AC watt-hour is converted to DC by dividing the AC watt-hour by inverter
efficiency. The worksheet for load estimation is provided in APPENDIX.
Step2: Battery Bank sizing
For calculating the battery sizing, the AC energy consumption can be converted in DC
by dividing AC energy consumption by inverter efficiency.
The considerations for battery sizing are autonomy days, depth of discharge (DoD),
efficiency of battery and system voltage at which battery is configured.
The battery Size can be calculated as:
The above formula gives the battery bank size.
To meet the battery bank size, batteries are configured in series and parallel. The total
battery bank size (Ah) is divided by battery Ampere-Hour (Ah) which gives total
number of battery in parallel. Batteries required in series can be calculated by dividing
the system voltage by battery voltage. The total number of battery required is product
of number of batteries in parallel and number of batteries in series.
For example, let the total DC watt- hour is 4500 Wh, autonomy days to be 2 days,
depth of discharge be 80% , system efficiency is 80% and system voltage is 48V, then
= 292.96 Ah
Let we use 12V battery of 150Ah.
Number of battery required in parallel = 292.96/150
= 1.95 = 2 nos.
Number of battery connected in series = 48/12 = 4 nos
Hence total number of battery = 4 x 2 = 8 nos.
Step3: Array Sizing
The solar array sizing results total Wp provided to meet the demand. In sizing the PV
array, the losses due to dust, temperature etc must be considered. The safety factor
and efficiency of panel are also considered. The average daily peak sun time play
major role in sizing the PV system. It may vary with geographic conditions and
location. The average daily peak sun in Nepal is considered to be 4.5 hours by AEPC.
All the losses are included in loss factor which is considered to be 0.6 to 0.7. The
array is required to charge the battery so it must be in such that it provides total
current required to charge the battery.
The array size is calculated in following step calculation.
The rated current of PV panel is given in specification sheet of PV panel. If it is not

given then can be nearly equal to Module power (watt)/17 for nominal 12V panel
system and Module power (watt)/34 for nominal 24V panel system.
Total number of panel = no. of panel in series x no. of panel in parallel.
For Example, we have to charge the battery bank system of 300Ah. So,
= 95.23 A
Let we use the panel of KDP205WP (specification given in APPENDIX) whose rated
current at STC 7.90A and nominal voltage is 24V.
No. of panel in parallel = 95.23/7.90 = 12 nos.
No. of panel in series = 48/24 = 2 nos.
Hence total number of panel =12*2 =24 nos.
Step4: Controller sizing
The controller required must met the system voltage and also controls the charge of
the battery. The controller is sized as:
Controller size = short circuit current x factor of safety
The factor of safety is considered to be 1.2 to 1.3.
The controller sized must meet the rated current also. i.e. I rated of Controller must be
equal or greater than I rated coming from panel.
Step5: Inverter Sizing
The size of inverter does not depend upon the energy consumption rather it depends
on the load. Hence in determining the size of inverter, we use total watt of load
connected. The size of inverter calculated must met the voltage level and acceptable
efficiency. The inverter size can be calculated as:
Let us consider, the connected load is 1400 W and the efficiency of inverter is 0.9
then,
= 1.94 KVA
Therefore we use 2KVA inverter.
Step6: Wire sizing
In wire sizing, length of wire, voltage drop in the wire and current rating of the wire
are the major factors which determines the wire size. The voltage drop in the wire is
in permissible limit which is taken from 1% to 3%.
The increasing in current flow increases the cross-section of the wire. The rating of
current used in calculation for wire sizing is the short circuit current which can flow
in the wire under short circuit condition.
The one way length of wire is used for the calculation.
The wire sizing formula is,
From the calculated X-section of wire, the table is used (given in APPENDIX) to find
the wire size. The wire X-section chosen is equal to or higher than the calculated
value. The resistivity of copper is 1.68 x 10-8 Ω-m at 200C.
For example, the allowable voltage drop is 3% in 48V system where the maximum
current flow in the wire must is 43A in 10m length. So, X-section of wire is,
= 10 mm2
Therefore, the wire of X-section 10 mm2 or greater is used which can be evaluated
from the wire data sheet.
GRID-TIED PV SYSTEM
11.1 Introduction
Most residential photovoltaic (PV) systems consist of PV modules, a battery bank to
store the electricity, a charge controller to regulate the charging of the batteries, and
an inverter to change the solar-generated direct current electricity into the more
commonly used alternating current. People living in remote areas, off the grid, have
been relying on these types of PV systems for years. However, more and more people
who are already connected to the grid are turning to renewable energy for part or all
of their electricity needs. These grid-tied PV systems send solar-generated electricity
back into the already existing utility grid. Grid-tied PV systems typically consist of
PV modules connected in series to string inverters that convert DC power to AC
power, which is then fed directly to the grid. As a building receives this AC energy, it
is distributed to appliances and lighting, or other devices where needed.
The photovoltaic system can be used in many types and when it is used to fed the
energy in the grid utility then called grid-tied PV system. A grid-tied PV system or
grid connected PV system is the PV system which is connected to the utility grid. The
grid-tied PV system ranges from small residential system and commercial rooftop
system to the solar power stations. The grid-connected system rarely uses the
integrated battery system.
11.2 Advantage of Grid-tied PV system

The advantages of grid tied PV system are:
• Grid-connected PV systems are comparatively easier to install as they do not

require a battery system.
• The advantage of effective utilization of generated power because there are no

storage losses involved.
• The constant reliable power can be promised to the consumer when exposure
of sunlight is not available.
• The net metering system in grid connected PV system provides financial

benefit to the consumer as they can fed excess power to the utility.
11.3 System Sizing and economics
The sizing of PV system in grid connected is not complex. Also, it has no battery
bank system so the PV system and inverter sizing is only required for the grid-tied PV
system.
The steps for PV sizing in grid-tied PV system are as follows:
Step I: Determine objective that how much energy, E ac (AC electrical energy in kWh)
is required over one year.
Step II: Calculate or find the average sunshine hours (S) based on location,
geographic conditions etc. It is the peak sun time.
Step III: Calculate overall efficiency (η), from PV to AC grid, also called DC to AC
derate factor.
Step IV:
PV size can be calculated as:
For example, a grid tied system wants to generate 7200 kWh per year energy with
peak sun time 5.44 hours and efficiency 75%.
The size of PV system is
= 4.83 kWp
Thus choosing 5 kW inverter for this system
11.4 Obtaining an interconnection agreement
11.5 Net metering

Grid-tied PV systems interconnect and synchronize with the power grid, and feed
power into the grid when the system is producing more power than the system owner
needs, spinning the meter backwards. The owner then pays only for the net electricity
consumed from the grid (hence the term “net-metering”).
Net Metering is an electricity policy for utility customers who operate their own on-
site "self-generation" power systems such as photovoltaic systems. PV systems are
connected to the utility grid via the customers' main service panel and meter and,
when generating more power than is needed at the site, return excess electricity to the
grid through the power meter, reversing the meter from its usual direction. As a result
of the meter working in both directions – one way to measure power purchased (when
on-site demand is greater than on-site power production), the other way to measure
power returned to the grid and the customer pays the "net" of both transactions.
MOUNTING PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES
12.1 Introduction
There are several ways to install a PV array at a residence. Most PV systems produce
5-to-10 Watts per square foot of array area. This is based on a variety of different
technologies and the varying efficiency of different PV products. A typical 2kW PV
system will need 200-400 square feet of unobstructed area to site the system.
Consideration should also be given for access to the system.
Mounting of the PV module refers to the fixing of PV modules on the base at

appropriate orientation to resist the movement due to external forcing agents. The PV
mounting systems are used to fix solar panels on the surface like roofs, empty plots,
or as a part of structure of building.
12.2 Types of Mounting System

The mounting of photovoltaic system are characterized by its location. The different
types of mounting system are:
i) Roof Mounting
When the PV system is mounted on rooftops, generally on the surface of roof is

called roof mounting of PV system. Roof mount Often the most convenient and
appropriate place to put the PV array is on the roof of the building. The PV array
may be mounted above and parallel to the roof surface with a standoff of several
inches for cooling purposes. Sometimes, such as with flat roofs, a separate
structure with a more optimal tilt angle is mounted on the roof.
Proper roof mounting can be labor intensive. Particular attention must be paid to
the roof structure and the weather sealing of roof penetrations. If the panels are
planned to be mounted before the construction of the roof, the roof can be
designed accordingly by installing support brackets for the panels before the
materials for the roof are installed. Masonry roofs are often structurally designed
near the limit of their weight-bearing capacity. In this case, the roof structure must
be enhanced to handle the additional weight of the PV system.
ii) Ground Mounted
The PV modules are mounted on ground usually in large scale photovoltaic power
stations. The modules are held with racks or frames that are attached to the ground
based supporting structures. In this type of mounting of PV system, the base is
made with concrete or steel structures to fix the structure of PV mounting system.
This mounting system is best suitable but uses land which can be used in other
works (farming, forest etc).
iii) Mounding as a shade structure
Shade structure is an alternative to roof mounting is to mount the system as a

shade structure. A shade structure may be a patio cover or deck shade trellis where
the PV array becomes the shade. These shade systems can support small to large
PV systems. The construction cost with a PV system is a little different than for a
standard patio cover, especially if the PV array is acts as part or the entire shade
roof. If the PV array is mounted at a steeper angle than a typical shade structure,
additional structural enhancements may be necessary to handle the additional
wind loads. The overall cost of this option will likely be higher than roof
mounting, but the value of the shade often offsets the additional costs.
iv) Building-integrated photovoltaic system
Building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) are photovoltaic materials that are used

to replace conventional building materials in parts of the building envelope such
as the roof, skylights, or facades. The detail of this is studied in section 12.3.
12.3 Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BIPV) System

This type of system displaces some of the conventional roofing product with building-
integrated PV modules. Commercially available products currently include roof slates
(similar to masonry roofing) and standing seam metal roofing products. Special
attention must be paid to ensure that these products are installed properly and carry
the necessary fire ratings.
The advantage of integrated photovoltaics over more common non-integrated systems

is that the initial cost can be offset by reducing the amount spent on building materials
and labor that would normally be used to construct the part of the building that the
BIPV modules replace. They are increasingly being incorporated into the construction
of new buildings as a principal or ancillary source of electrical power, although
existing buildings may be retrofitted with BIPV modules as well.
PV APPLICATIONS
13.1 Introduction
As we know, solar energy is converted into electrical energy using PV cells. The cells
are connected and assembled in different combination to absorb the solar radiation
and generates electricity that system designed. Generally, the electricity is required in
different areas and used in regular activities, the PV system can be used in various
applications:
 Agriculture
 Industry
 Telecommunications system
 Public services
 Health
 Residential
 Others
13.2 The need of reliable electricity

As we saw in chapter 8, there are number of inverter systems for connection of the
solar system to generate electricity and feed to the customer as required. In modern
era, solar technology is used as a best energy source to give cheap energy with
reliability. Normally, the solar system contains battery system to store charge or
directly feed to the national grid. This results the reliability of the system when energy
generation is minimized.
Residential PV system can meet the load of most consumers. They can feed excess
power from the grid when they consumed more energy by other appliances. The PV
wattage may be less than average consumption, in which condition consumer tends to
purchase grid energy, but a lesser amount than previously. If PV wattage significantly
exceeds average consumption, the energy produced by panels will be much in surplus
of the demand. In this manner, the total system energy consumption is reduced and
increases the reliability of the whole supply system.
Similarly, the PV system supply the energy during shut down of the grid system.
13.3 Lighting
PV lighting is the lighting that is at least partially powered by electricity generated
from solar panels. For example, house hold PV lighting system, solar garden, pathway
light etc. These PV lighting systems are generally off-grid or stand-alone system
where there only power source is solar energy.
A PV lighting system collects the energy using numbers of cells, stores that energy in
a battery and releases the energy to light load. Typically, PV lighting system
components include PV panels, batteries, converters/ inverters and light loads. The
initial/ maintenance cost for this system are higher as compared to traditional lighting
systems powered by a grid. Designing and installing a PV system are also more
complicated than traditional grid system. As a result, lighting applications suitable for
PV lighting system are currently somewhat limited. However, successful PV lighting
applications can be developed through a carefully planned design procedure and
educated choices between PV power and grid power. PV lighting applications are
normally most used where low light levels and limited electricity are acceptable and
where access to a grid is expensive or difficult. Some experiments are done in
Kathmandu valley at the road side as pilot project.
13.4 Television and Radio

At modern society, the technologies become faster and wider. The communicating
devices, electronic devices become mandatory. To compensate this reason well
designed, complete systems were common, typically from 10 to 120 watts, with one
battery powering four to ten LED lights, radio, computer and television. The devices
used in such systems are mainly DC supplied type to reduce the system cost. Higher
the load demand, system cost will be high. So, in this case low powered DC TV is
connected that does not required inverter. Normally, DC supplied LED TV can be
operated through the solar system.
For example, a system with operate at 12V nominal:
DC Quantity Amps Operation Days/ week Weekly
Loads Hours demand( Ah)
Light 5 5.2 4 4 416
TV 1 3.3 4 6 79.2
Weekly DC 495.2
Load(Ah)
In given condition, the rating of TV is considered as 40W. Then, we found that, the
weekly demand of the whole system is equal to 495.2 Ah. Hence, to supply the
demand, the system should be designed so that it produce and store at least 600 Ah
amount of energy.
13.5 Health care and Refrigeration

In this topic, first you have to identify the possible loads used in health sector.
Generally, the health post, hospital uses the electronic devices and electrical lights to
give good facilities, to protect the medicines in cool and dry condition, to check and
test the causes of diseases, to maintain the room temperature etc. During operation of
such equipments, electricity is required and supplied by different sources. In solar
system, the equipment feeds the energy through solar system. Since, the health sector
is a sensitive area, you have to provide reliable and efficient supply. So to provide
continuous supply, you have to calculate the total demand of the area and conduct the
system properly as designed. Mainly, this type of case is occurred in remote area,
where there is no access of electricity through national grid.
13.6 Water pumping

Solar Water Pumping is the method to pump the water by using electricity generated
by PV panels. The process of solar powered pumps is very popular mainly due to the
lower operating and maintenance cost of the system and has less environmental
impact. Solar pumping technology is widely used in mountainous areas where
drinking water is insufficient. In some area of the world, this method is also used in
agriculture purpose.
Fig: Basic Block Diagram of Solar Water Pumping System
As shown in block diagram, a solar panel is used t generate electricity from solar
energy. The size of PV panel is directly dependent on the size of the pump or the
amount of the required water. The charge controller is used to regulate the system and
increases the efficiency and life time of the system.
The nature of the solar motors may be AC or DC. Generally, DC motors are used for
small applications and AC in large applications.
Some of the basic specifications of solar water pumping system are given below:
 A solar PV water pumping system is available with a PV panel f capacity in
the range of 200 W to 3000 W.
 A solar PV water pumping system is expected to deliver a minimum of 65,000
liters per day with a 900 W panel and 135,000 liters per day with a 1800 W
panel from a depth of 7 m on a clear day.
 In case of deep well submersible pumps, the water output will be about 45,000
liters from a 1200 W system.
 The discharge from the pump station would vary with the intensity of the sun
rays from morning till evening. It would be max around mid day. The water
output from the pumping would significantly drop with the increase in the
depth from which water needs to be pumped.
13.7 Determining solar access with a sun chart
The sun crosses the horizon with regular motions. Its movement is caused by the
regular rotation of the earth. Solar access is the ability of one property to continue to
receive solar radiation across property lines without any disturbance from other
objects. Solar access can be calculated by using a sun chart. The sun chart can be used
to provide the information about the solar patterns at the site:
 Data on the sun’s position at any time
 The quantity of radiation
 Performance data on specific shading device applications
 The extent of shading at a specific location from surrounding site obstacles.
To know how the sun rays will strike a building and how far the rays will penetrate
through the opening, to shade certain areas and irradiate others, to know the effect of
sun on air conditioning capacity and operation, we must have the following data:
 The Angle of the Sun above the horizon
 The direction of the Sun
 The angle of incidence
These data must be known for a particular area, no matter what its orientation, for at
least several hours of each day reported.
Fig: Profile Angle and Direction of Solar Energy

By using the solar charts, the solar access can be calculated in following steps:
1. Determining the Profile Angle:
It is necessary to know the profile angle to establish the position and dimension of
overhangs and also to determine the penetration of the solar radiation.
 Rotate red Overlay to line up the slid line, ”Normal to Window” with the
orientation f the window indicated on the black peripheral scale, “Direction
from True South”.
 Locate the curve black sun path line for the date being considered.
 Follow the sun path line to the right or left until it cross the black sun time line
for the hour desired. The intersection of the sun path and the sun time lines
establishes the position f the sun for that day and hour.
 The curved red line on the overlay nearest the position of the sun is the profile
angle.
2. Direction of the Sun:
The angle of the sun to true south is called Direction or Azimuth or Bearing of the
sun. To find the direction of the sun, rotate the cursor until its centerline cross the
position of the sun.
3. True Altitude:
True Altitude is read on the cursor where the center line intersects the position of
the sun.
4. Angle of Incidence:
The angle of Incidence of sun to a window is calculated by rotating the overlay
1800 to the broken red line and to the same reading on the peripheral scale. The
Angle of Incidence is the broken red line coinciding with the position of the sun.
13.8 Sample installation materials

These are the components that used in installation of the solar system. Some of the
important components are:
 PV panel
 Battery system
 Charge Controller
 Inverter
 PV system Wire
 Loads
 System Grounding
 Fuse/ Disconnecting Switch/ Circuit Breakers
Etc.
The detailed explanation is given in upcoming chapter.
System Installation
14.1 Introduction
In a theoretically well designed system, if the equipment is not installed properly, the
system could fail. Weak communications between installers and system designer can
lead to damage time span and money resulting failure project.
Some of the basic points that should be considered in system design are given below:
1. Pre-assemble as much as possible:

System should be pre-assembled as much as possible, and transported to the site,
ready for installation. This task ensures that all the components are performing
together. If required, finer adjustments can be done at the site as required
2. Site selection:
The main thing is to select the site with proper investigation and detailed study
during the designation of the system.
3. Safe practices and codes:
Safe practices should be followed during the installation. All local codes and
safety measures should be considered during the system design.
4. Inspection:
Each component of the system and the sub-system should be checked before the
installation is considered complete and abnormal operations should be predicted
and correct them.
14.2 Site Valuation

Selecting a good side evaluation is an important step in the successful implementation
of the system. The process of site evaluation is conducted to calculate the potential for
generating energy from the system. This process contains number of considerations
including interconnection, siting of inverter, siting of transformer equipment, zoning
and environmental regulation in order to determine the viability of the site. Proper site
evaluation is the main key to the overall success of the project.
As a PV panel’s orientation or tilt varies from optimal, potential energy yield reduces.
The optimal combination of panel tilt and direction will depend on a few factors such
as geographical location, seasonal weather and system application. During the
designation of the system, you must have the data of tilt and direction. With the
designed components, such as annual insolation tool, you can create a chart for
quickly evaluating potential energy production as it changes with the panel positions.
The results will reveal the ideal panel orientation and till for an unshaded panel in that
particular location.
Normally, the process of site evaluation is completed in following steps:

 First the proper site for the solar power plant is to be located.
 Then, the insolation level at the place is to be calculated. This can be done by
using RET Screen Software. The atmospheric data provided by the software
considers various effects such as atmosphere temperature, humidity, solar
radiation, wind speed, direction etc. on monthly basis.
 Then, the most preferable site is to be selected by comparing the necessary
atmospheric data.
14.3 PV System Installation

The processes for installation of PV Solar system are given below:
1. First, calculate the load demand and system required to compute the
consumption.
2. Select the components as designed
3. Check the list of equipments that all was transported or not and that none was
damaged in transportation.
4. Estimate the length of the wire runs from PV panels to charge controller
5. Check capacity of PV panels to determine the minimum wire size for current
flow. Wire size for run based on maximum short circuit current for each
circuit and the length of the wire run.
6. Size PV panel wiring such that the maximum voltage drop at full power from
the PV modules to the inverter is less than or equal to 3 percentage. If panel
controller box is located remote from the inverter, spread the voltage drop
accordingly between the PV panels to the charge controller wiring and the
controller to the inverter wiring.
7. Estimate length of wire run from inverter to PV panel.
8. Examine main service panel to determine if the panel is adequately sized to
receive the PV circuit breaker or whether the panel must be upgraded.
9. If the system includes a battery standby system, determine which circuits are
critical. These circuits must be adequately designed to handle the anticipated
electrical loads.
10. Determine location of battery standby system, install sub panel and prepare to
move circuits.
11. PV panel is to be installed. The whole system should include detailed
instructions on each phase of the installation mechanism. The process are:
 Prepare foundation for PV panel system.
 Check modules visually and check the system voltage and max current
f each module before installation.
 Use plug connectors as wire among the components to reduce
installation time.
 Mount PV panel on its foundation.
12. The PV panel, inverter/ controller and associated equipment are to be installed
to prepare for system wiring.
13. Connect best wire to each circuit f system and run wire for each circuit to the
circuit controller.
14. Run selected wire from circuit controller to inverter over current/ disconnect
switch.
15. Run selected wire from inverter to utility disconnect switch (main switch).
16. Run selected wire from main switch to main service panel and connected
circuit to the power supply.
17. Use the checklist to ensure proper installation throughout the system
18. Verify that all PV systems are operating properly.
14.4
14.5 Installation Final Checklist
Project Information
Property Address
Brief System
Description
System Capacity
Number of
Modules
Number of Panels
Panel Tilt
Inverter Capacity
Estimated
Capacity Annual
KWh
Designation
Installer
Date
Inspection Checklist
Yes No N/A Prior to the Field Inspection Note
Utility has given permission to interconnect the PV system
System installed by a qualified installer
Inspection have been passed: Permit ……………………. Date
…………………………
As built electrical drawing
Final electrical design has professional engineer's stamp
PV system plans and drawings received (showing panel layout,
BOS locations, components, disconnects, wiring and conduit
specifications)
PV module specifications
Inverter specifications
resource is documented from location where array shading will
be most significant
Total Solar Resource Fraction (TSRF) is 75% or greater at points on
the collector
PV modules are physically installed per plans (number and layout)
Array is optimized for performance without sacrificing aesthetics
Trees and plants will not grow tall enough to shade array
Panel installation is neat and permanent
Roof penetrations are secure and weather tight
PV module model number matches design
PV module warranted
PV panel are new, qualified
Panel is spaced a minimum of 1.5 inches off the roof, or is
properly flashed into roof
String fuses of circuit breakers are DC- rated and no larger than
module fuse rating
PV modules are in good conditions
Module connectors tight and secure
Module interconnection conductors sunlight resist, wet rated
Wire and conduit sizes installed per design
Wiring is installed with shortest distance from PV panels to
inverter or where aesthetically suitable
Wiring is neat and secure
Wiring is not readily accessible
Conductors are not in contact with roof surface
Conduit supported properly
Electrical boxes are accessible and suitable for environment
No potential for wire damage
Confirm metallic PV module frame grounding uses a dedicated
grounding conductor
Proper grounding of all other metallic surface that might possibly
become energize
Dissimilar metals are electrically isolated to avoid galvanic
corrosion
Aluminum is not placed in direct contact with concrete
Protective fencing installed and will not shade array (if required)
Yes No N/A Field Inspection- Inverter and Electrical Note
Inverter is installed per work order
Confirm inverter module number matches plans
Inverter is warranted (recommended 10 years minimum)
Inverter is new and CEC approved
Wire and conduit sizes installed per design
AC disconnect is permanent installed and accessible
Inverter is easily accessible
DC disconnect is DC- rated and permanently installed and readily
accessible
Penetrations to building shell are sealed and fire resistance
maintained
Sum of PV breaker and panel main breaker less than 120% of
panel rating
Utility power connected
Internet connection operational (if applicable)
Yes No N/A Field Inspection- System Labeling Note
All equipment and parts are labeled as required
Label identifies PV power source attributes at DC disconnect
Label identifies AC point of connection
Outdoor labels designed to withstand the elements
Emergency and maintenance contact information
Yes No N/A System Documentation Note
Customer Manual is provided and mounted in a preserved
location near the unit controls
Operation and maintenance instructions including home owner's
responsibilities
Electrical design showing modules and meters
System & contractor warranty
Manufacturer's warranties
Permit
Parts and source list
Emergency and maintenance contact information
Yes No N/A Owner Education Note
Basic system operation
Proper system disconnect sequence and safety procedures
Reading meters and inverter display
Required maintenance
Emergency contact
Yes No N/A Post Inspection- Performance Testing Note
Performance tests performed by:
Date:
Solar irradiance level:
Ambient temperature:
Panel temperature:
Measure and record open-circuit voltage and polarity of each
string
Measure and record short-circuit current of each string
Inverter startup sequence-follow manufacturer's instructions for
initial startup
Owner should check system AC power output monthly near solar
non on a clear day
Maintenance
15.1 Material and Tool List

15.2 Maintaining PV components
15.3 Troubleshooting common system fault
15.4 Use of Multimeter foe troubleshooting Wire problems
15.5 Specific Troubleshooting
INSTALLATION SAFETY
16.1 Introduction
A PV typical system can produce about 3 amperes of current when exposed to full
sunlight. It takes only a fraction of amount to kill a person. If the modules are used to
make array, then produces higher voltage and possesses more of a safety hazard.
Various safety hazards result from PV systems being installed on roofs, or other
higher places.
16.2 Basic Safety

In any business of development activities, including PV system installation, money
won’t matter much if someone gets hurt or killed on the job. Thus it is important to
make safety in first priority. The need of right thing and its indeed is important by
taking right steps in relation to safety is just important.
Basically, the safety hazards come from due to workmanship failure and equipment
failure. Even the best intentioned employers and employees get it wrong. This is due
to either lack of knowledge or they may allow other goals or provide with some
limitations. If one can never have knowledge in PV system then this affects not only
safety but every aspect of the system. The PV system installer must have knowledge
about the installation knowledge with safety needs. Thus with better knowledge, safe
work environment can be acquired. It is also not to underestimate the importance of
planning and communication to establishing safe working conditions. Installer should
plan for safety to avoid or reduce the probability of the accidents likely to be
happened. Communication of those plans with others is also important. For any
change in plan of work then communicate these changes to the team.
Equipments failure means to failing of working of any equipment due to certain

damages in its physical conditions or operating conditions or life failure. The different
types of failure are happened in different equipments which can be measured with
appropriate knowledge.
16.3 Hazards and Safety Equipments
Before learning about the specific hazards working with PV system, personal safety is
most important. The equipments for personal protection should use against
unexpected accidents. A proper planning and preparations ensures for protection
against any specific hazards. The equipments include any equipment designed to
minimize injury resulting from hazards such as protection equipment against chemical
exposure and electrical shock.
The hazard related to PV system is electricity and it’s related. Various hazards are
existing related with electricity and its related work. The electrical hazards related
with installation of PV systems are:
i) Electrical Shock
When a person gets contact with live wire then they get electric shock. Shock and
its effect vary with the amount of current passes through the body. Current can
cause from tingling sensation to the cease of heart and burning of skin by varying
or increasing the amount of current. The cease of heart can lead to instant death.
Non-conductive foot ware, high insulating gloves and proper insulation on

handling equipments provides safety from electric shock.
Generally, when a person get electric shock then separate the person from live
conductor and perform CPR on him/her.
ii) Arc flashes, fires
Arc flash occurs between connections when closed circuit has been opened or
circuit breaker is trip out. Spark, arc flash, results in fire which can damage many
more. Arc flash is more likely to occur in high voltage systems. Arc flash can
damage even eye of a person by emitting UV rays.
The safety goggles, proper clothes are used for the safety from arc flashes.
iii) Batteries
Batteries are most potentially dangerous hazards related to working with PV

system. Batteries can produce high voltage shock, leaks of acids, hydrogen gas
while charging which can cause serious hazard. The high voltage can cause shock
to the person. Acids can burn and hydrogen gas produced serious explosion or
fires. Due to heavy weight of battery, it is difficult to work with it and can cause
injury when dropped.
The safety equipments used regarding to chemical hazards are the personal
protective equipments such as gloves, apron boots made with rubbers that
physically protects the body from leaks of acid. Carrying straps are to be used
properly to lift the battery.
16.4 Site Safety

The site is place where the PV system is installed. The medical and emergency and
facilities, available safety equipments such as first-aid kit, fire extinguisher or other
facilities must found out before working on site. All the mitigation should be done
before starting the work.
It must be care about the place where the system equipments are installed. It must be
checked that the installing of battery bank in room creates threat of fire. For example,
battery bank must not installed near kitchen because hydrogen gas is emitted at
charging condition of battery which cause fire.
When installing the PV system on roof of steel then before installation, check about
the weight bearing of steel that it can bear weight of panels or not and also check
about the steel roof that no other equipments hazards a person. The installation place
of junction box is checked because if it is opened then can be serious place of hazards.
So junction boxes are installed where people cannot touch it easily.
16.5 First Aid

COSTING
17.1 Cost Estimation
17.2 C
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Manual for Solar Technician

Research · November 2015

Ashish Shrestha Ajay Singh

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

1.1 General Background .................................................................................... 7

1.2 Development of PV system ......................................................................... 7

1.3 Current and Emerging Opportunity.............................................................. 9

1.4 Advantages of PV system .......................................................................... 10

1.5 Limitations of PV system .......................................................................... 11

1.6 Environment, health and safety issue ......................................................... 13

1.7 Photovoltaic system components ............................................................... 14

1.8 Photovoltaic system types .......................................................................... 15

PHOTO VOLTAIC ELECTRIC PRINCIPLE.......................................................... 20

2.1 Terminology .............................................................................................. 20

2.2 Matching Appliance to the system ............................................................. 21

2.3 Electrical Circuit ....................................................................................... 21

2.4 Combination of sources ............................................................................. 22

2.5 Combination of loads................................................................................. 23

2.6 Exercise ..................................................................................................... 24

SOLAR RESOURCES ............................................................................................ 25

3.1 General ...................................................................................................... 25

3.2 Solar Radiation Fundamental ..................................................................... 26

3.3 Gathering Data .......................................................................................... 27

3.4 Completing the solar site analysis .............................................................. 27

ELECTRICAL LOAD ANALYSIS ......................................................................... 29

4.1 Efficient Energy Utilization ....................................................................... 29

4.3 Refrigerators and lighting .......................................................................... 30

4.4 Consideration in load estimation ................................................................ 30

4.5 Load estimation ......................................................................................... 31

4.6 Exercise ..................................................................................................... 31

PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE ................................................................................. 32

5.1 Photovoltaic Principle................................................................................ 32

5.2 Characteristics of module .......................................................................... 32

5.3 Module performance ................................................................................. 33

5.4 Factors affecting module performance ....................................................... 33

BATTERY SIZING AND SPECIFICATION .......................................................... 36

6.1 General ...................................................................................................... 36

6.2 Types and operation of Battery .................................................................. 36

6.3 Capacity and discharge .............................................................................. 37

6.4 Specification of Battery ............................................................................. 37

6.5 Sizing ........................................................................................................ 37

6.6 Configuration of battery ............................................................................ 37

6.7 Safety ........................................................................................................ 37

6.8 Exercise ..................................................................................................... 37

Charge Controller .................................................................................................... 38

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 38

7.2 Types of Charge Controller ....................................................................... 39

7.3 Controller features ..................................................................................... 40

7.4 Specification of Charge Controller............................................................. 41

8.1 General ...................................................................................................... 43

8.2 Operating Principle .................................................................................... 43

8.3 Types of Inverter ....................................................................................... 46

8.4 Features of Inverter.................................................................................... 50

8.5 Inverter System ......................................................................................... 50

8.6 Exercise ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Photovoltaic system wiring ...................................................................................... 54

9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 54