1

POWER FLOW ANALYSIS OF NIGERIAN POWER

SYSTEM WITH COMPENSATION ON SOME BUSES

A THESIS PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF PH.D DEGREE IN THE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA.

BY

OGBUEFI UCHE C.
(PG/PH.D/07/43333)

SUPERVISOR: VEN PROF. T.C. MADUEME

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.

AUGUST, 2013.
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APPROVAL PAGE
POWER FLOW ANALYSIS OF NIGERIAN POWER
SYSTEM WITH COMPENSATION ON SOME BUSES

BY

OGBUEFI U. C.
REG. NO. (PG/Ph.D/07/43333)

A THESIS PRESENTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF Ph.D DEGREE IN THE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA NSUKKA.

AUGUST, 2013.

Ogbuefi Uche C. Signature. …………… Date: 6-2-2014

(Student)

Ven. Prof. T.C. Madueme Signature. …………… Date: 6-2-2014

(Supervisor)

Engr. Prof A. O. Ibe Signature. …………… Date: ………..

(External Examiner)

Engr. Dr. B.O. Anyaka Signature. …………… Date: ………..

(Head Electrical. Engineering)

Prof. E.S. Obe Signature. …………… Date: ………..

(Faculty Rep. SPGS)
Dept.)
 3

CERTIFICATION
OGBUEFI UCHE C., a doctorate degree postgraduate student in the department of
Electrical Engineering and with the registration number PG/Ph.D/07/43333 has
satisfactorily completed the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in Electrical Engineering.
The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or in
full for any other diploma or degree of this or any other university.

………………………. …………………….
Ven. Engr. Prof. T.C. Madueme Engr. Prof A. O. Ibe
(Supervisor) (External Examiner)

………………………
Engr. Dr. B.O. Anyaka
(Head of Department)
 4

DEDICATION

To JEHOVAH the ALMIGHTY GOD through His Beloved Son JESUS CHRIST
To my late father Bro/Pa Samuel O. Ogbuefi, and
My beloved mother sister (Mrs.) Gladys A. Ogbuefi.
And to All OGBUEFI’s family
 5

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

TO GOD ALMIGHTY BE THE GLORY

With humility in the LORD, l wish to express my heartfelt appreciation and thanks to these
profound academics. As this research work was carried out in the Department of Electrical
Engineering of the University of Nigeria Nsukka. Firstly my humble thanks to my
amiable/esteemed supervisor Ven. Prof T.C. Madueme for all his support and
encouragement during the period. My thanks to all the academic staff of the Department
led by Dr. B.O. Anyaka (H.O.D Elect. Dept.) for their honest cooperation, advice and
words of encouragement particularly Prof. E.S. Obe whose aggressive and sagacious
criticism woke me up to the best direction. I also wish to appreciate the following people
Engr. S.J. Tolofari – Generation Dept., Engr. Agha Ogbonna – Planning Dept., Engr.
Okorie Innocent – Electrical Dept., Mr. Jumbo V. – System Operation and many others
from same Power Holding Company who space will fail me to mention for their prompt
and quick response in supplying me any information needed during my visits to their
stations. I also pay my loyalty to Engr. M.C. Anaele for guiding me through the course
duration. My in-law Bro (Dr) Modecai Uche Ozughalu for his excellent academic advice
towards the success of this work. Also Ndidi Osagi Emma who helped me in the
simulation of the algorithm.
Finally, to my beloved MOTHER (Mama) GLADYS. A. OGBUEFI (nee Umeakubuike) for
all her caring and understanding during these years, and to all MY SIBLINGS especially
my almost twin Sister Mrs. Esther N. Ezekwobi for all her concern.
 6

ABSTRACT
Management of reactive power and voltage control constitute part of the major challenge in power
system industry. Adequate reactive power control solves power quality problems like voltage
profile maintenance at all power transmission levels, transmission efficiency and system stability.
Power demand increases steadily while the expansion of power generation and transmission has
been severely limited due to the inadequate resources and environmental forces. These give cause
for concern as they contribute to the constant power failure in the Nigeria power system. In this
work the Nigeria 330KV network, 30 bus system is considered. To alleviate/eradicate some of
these problems mentioned, compensation in power system becomes very essential. Compensation
reduces generating MVA and MVAR. The reduction in MVAR helps electrical companies to
transmit more power and absorbing more customers without expanding their power networks.
Newton-Raphson’s solution method was used to carry out the analysis because of its sparsity, fast
convergence and simplicity attribute as compared to other solution methods using the relevant data
as obtained from power holding company of Nigeria (PHCN). MAT LAB/SIMULINK method
was used to carry out the simulation analysis. The results obtained showed that the bus voltages
outside the statutory limit of 0.95 – 1.05p.u that is 313.5 – 346.5KV were buses 14(Jos) with value
0.8171pu, bus 17(Gombe) 0.8144p.u bus 18(Abuja) 0.9402pu, bus 19(Maiduguri) 0.8268pu, bus
22(Kano) 0.7609pu, bus 29(Kaduna) 0.8738pu, and bus 30(Makurdi) 0.8247pu under normal
uncompensated condition. Capacitive shunt compensation because of its advantages was
implemented on these buses, and the results then came up to tolerable values. Results obtained
after compensation reveal acceptable voltage levels at the problem buses. For instance bus 14(Jos)
is now 0.9823p.u, bus 17(Gombe) 1.0242p.u, bus 18(Abuja) 0.9667p.u, bus 19(Maiduguri)
1.0455p.u, bus 22(Kano) which is heavily loaded was linked to Jos and a 60 percent compensation
on Kano bus yielded an increase of 0.7609pu to 0.947p.u. System efficiency improved from 65%
(uncompensated) to 85% after compensation. On the application of 20% over compensation,
overvoltages (>1.05pu) resulted which may cause system collapse if not controlled. From the
results obtained, installing compensation devices, make it possible to control the amount of active
and reactive power flowing through the lines thereby controlling the voltage. It is clear from the
results that the use or incorporation of system compensation will lead to many benefits like
increasing transmission lines loadability which enables electrical company to transmit more power
with the existing transmission lines as well absorb more customers without increasing the network.
 7

TABLE OF CONTENT
Page
Cover Page
Approval Page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Abstract v
Table of Contents vi
List of Symbols and Abbreviations xii
List of Tables xiv
List of Figures xvi

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background of the Study 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 3
1.3 Objective of the Research Work. 5
1.4 Significance of the Study 6
1.5 Scope of the Study 6
1.6 Definition of Terms 6

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE 8

2.1 Historical Development of Power Flow Calculation 13

2.2 Impact of Computer to Power Flow Solution 13
2.3 Compensation in Transmission Network 14
2.4 Power Flow through a Transmission Line 15
2.5 Production and Absorption of Reactive Power 18
 8

2.5.1 Effect of Reactive Power Flow on Line Voltage Drop. 20

2.5.2 Relevance to H.V Transmission System 20
2.5.3 Real and Reactive Power Control 23
2.6 Devices use for Compensation 24
2.6.1 Application to Transmission System 26
2.7 Types of Compensation 27
2.7.1 Series Compensation 27
2.7.2 Shunt Compensation 27
2.7.3 Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) 30
2.7.4 Series Capacitor Compensation 32
2.8 Control of Power Flow 33
2.9 Load Compensation 36
2.10 Line Compensation 36
2.11 Shunt Capacitor Compensation 37
2.12 Effect of Compensation on Line Voltage 37
2.13 Advantage of Compensation 37
2.14 Importance of Capacitor Bank 38
2.15 Line Loadability or Reactive Compensation Technique. 39
2.16 Power System Stability 40
2.17 Review of Power Flow Solution Methods 41
2.18 Gauss Iterative Technique 42
2.19 Gauss-Seidel Method 42
2.20 Rule for the Formulation of Admittance Matrix 45
2.20.1 Acceleration Factor 45
2.20.2 Use of Acceleration Factor 45
2.21 Bus with Q Unspecified and V Specified (I.E. Voltage Control Buses) 46
2.22 General Method for Solving Power Flow Problems 48
2.23 Types of Buses in A Network 50
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2.23.1 Classification of System Buses 51

2.24 Fast Decoupled Power Flow Solution Method (FDPF) 51

CHAPTER 3. POWER FLOW PROBLEMS AND METHOD OF

ANALYSIS
3.1 The Challenges in AC Power System 58
3.2 Methodology 58
3.3 Basis of Power flow Analysis 59
3.4 Formulation of Power Flow Problem (Nodal Admittance Matrix) 62
3.4.1 Observation from Power Flow Equations 65
3.5 Newton-Raphson’s Method 66
3.6 Newton-Raphson’s. Algorithm in Scalar Case 66
3.7 Mathematical Development of Newton-Raphson’s (NR)
Solution Method 68
3.7.1 Newton-Raphson’s Method Applied to Power Flow Problem 68
3.8 Characteristic of Newton-Raphson’s Power Flow
Solution Method 74
3.9 Techniques Which Make the Newton- Raphson’s
Solution Method Competitive In Power Flow 75
3.9.1 Sparsity Programming 75
3.9.2 Convergence Criterion 77
3.10 Decoupled Power Flow Method 77
3.11 Decoupled Newton Method 79
3.12.1Line Flows and Line Losses Calculation 81
3.13 Reactive Power Compensation in the Nigerian 330KV Network 81
3.13.1 Reactive Power Management in Electrical Power Systems 83
3.13.2 Control of Voltage and Reactive Power 83
3.13.3 Methods of Voltage Control 84
3.14 Modeling of Reactive Compensating Devices 85
3.15 Compensation Effect on Maximum Power 85
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3.16 Improvement of Reactive Power by Static Capacitor 85

3.17 Capacitor Rating Calculation 87
3.18 Relationship Between Reactive Power, Voltage and
Capacitor (Q,V& C) AC Power System 89
3.19 Rating of Capacitor Bank 89
3.20 Input Data used for the Analysis 90
CHAPTER 4. NIGERIA POWER SYSTEM AND SIMULATION

4.1 Modeling Effect on Power System Operation 95

4.2 Modeling of Power System Components 96
4.2.1 Generator Modeling 97
4.2.2 Modeling of Transformer 97
4.2.3 Untapped Transformer 98
4.2.4 Tapped Transformer 98
4.2.5 Modeling of Transmission Line 100
4.2.6 Medium and Long Transmission Lines 101
4.2.7 Modeling of Power System Load 103
4.3 Nigeria 330KV 30 Bus Interconnected Power System 104
4.4 Network Description 105
4.5 Power System Data 106
4.5.1 PHCN Network with the Independent Power Producers’
(IPP) or Distributed Generation Contribution 108
4.6 Over view of Nigeria 330KV Transmission Network
Used as the case Study 108
4.7 Constraints in the national Grid 111
4.8 Shunt Capacitor Compensation Algorithm 111

CHAPTER 5. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Presentation of Results 115
5.2 Discussion of Results 136
 11

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion 139
6.2 Contributions of the Thesis 140
6.3 Recommendations 141
References 142
APPENDIX 146
A1 Program M-file 146
A2 Simulation Result 170
A3 Compact Storage Scheme 174
 12

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Pi, Qi Real and Reactive Power flow at bus (i)
Vi,Vk Voltage Magnitude at buses (i) & (k)
Yik Admittance Connecting nodes (i) & (k), (i&k=1,2…..,n)
 i , k Voltage Angles at buses (i) & (k)
 ik Thee (I,k)th Element of theta matrix
 in Thee (I,n)th Element of theta matrix
P & Q Change in real and Reactive Power flow
V Change in voltage magnitude

 Voltage Angle Correction

Q gi , Qi , sch Real Power Generated and Scheduled
Pd&Qd Real and Reactive Power Demanded
Si Complex Power at bus i

S gi Complex Power Generated

S di Complex Power demanded
A,B,C &D Constants

Y,Z & R Admittance, Impedance & Resistance

H,N,M&L Elements of the Partioned Jacobian Matrix

Gik , Bik Real and Imaginary Parts of the Admittance Connecting Buses (i) & (k)
P.F Power Factor
FDPF Fast-Decoupled Power Flow
 Precision Index
V Voltage Magnitude Correction Factor
N Maximum Number of Buses
Ng Number of Generator Buses
Z C'1 Characteristic Impedance
GRNN Generalized Regression Neural Network Architecture
 Electrical Angle
 13

Vi ,acc Acceleration Voltage

Eq Excitation Voltage
 Power Angle
Xq Synchronous Reactance
Vt Generated Terminal Voltage
G Spark Voltage
D Damping Circuit
S Bypass Breaker
N.R Newtom-Raphson’s
NC Amount of Series Capacitive Compensation
NL Amount of Shunt Reactive Compensation
PR Power at the Receiving end
ES Sending end Voltage
ER Receiving end Voltage
PHCN Power Holding Company of Nigeria
NIPP National Independent Power Producers
QC Leading Reactive Volt-ampere Drawn by the Capacitor from the Supply
1 Phase Angle by which the current I 1 lags Behind the Voltage (V)
Q1 Reactive Volt-ampere Taken by the load
Q2 Reactive Volt-ampere Taken from the Supply
 14

LIST OF TABLES PAGE

2.1 Summary of Power Flow Problem 51
3.1 Status of Reactors in the Nigeria Power System 82
3.2 Transmission Line Parameters/Data 91
3.3 Line Data 92
3.4 Bus Data 93
3.5 Bus Data in per unit 94
4.1 Existing Power Stations 107
4.2 Power Stations/Plants under Construction 107
5.1 Per Unit Bus Voltage Value for Compensated & Uncompensated
Condition 115
5.2 Bus Voltage Values for Compensated & Uncompensated KV 116
5.3 Bus Angle, Shunt (Y-shunt) and Powers (Sg) (Uncompensated) 117
5.4 Line Current, Line Flows, and Line Losses (Uncompensated) 118
5.5 Summary of Total loss (Uncompensated) 118
5.6 Bus Voltages in Per Unit 119
5.7 Bus Angle, Shunt (Y-shunt) and Powers (Sg) (Compensated rad.) 121
5.8 Bus Angle, Shunt (Y-shunt) and Powers (Sg) (Compensated deg) 122
5.9 MVAr Compensation Added To Bus demanded Powers (Sg) 122
5.10a MVAr and Capacitor Values at Various Percentage
Compensation levels (in p.u) 123
5.10b MVAr and Capacitor Values at Various Percentage
Compensation levels (in p.u) 124
5.11a Line Current, Line Flows, and Line Losses (Compensated) 125
5.11b Summary of Total loss (Compensated p.u.) 125
5.12 Bus Voltages (Compensated in P.U) 126
5,13a Voltage Value at 20percent Compensation 128
5.13b Cap Values at 20percent Compensation 128
 15

5,14a Voltage Value at 30percent Compensation 129

5.14b Cap Values at 30percent Compensation 129
5,15a Voltage Value at 50percent Compensation 130
5.15b Cap Values at 50percent Compensation 130
5.19 10 Percent Over Compensation 132
5.20 20Percent Over Compensation 134
A2.1 Bus Voltages at Different Levels of Percentage Compensation 170
A2.2 Bus Voltages at Different Levels of Percentage Compensation 171
 16

LIST OF FIGURES PAGE

2.1 Two Bus System Network 10
2.1b System Network Curve 12
2.2 Two-Bus System of Transmission Line 15
2.3 Protection Scheme 21
2.4 Equivalent Circuit of Synchronous Motor 24
2.5 Phasor Diagram of Over Excitated Generator 24
2.6 One Line Diagram of Capacitor Bank Connection 26
2.7 Different FACTS Controller 31
2.8 Generator Thevenin Equivalent Circuit 34
2.9 Effect of Adding a Shunt Capacitor Bank (Compensation) 36
2.10 Compensated Transmission Line Section 39
2.11 Power Flow Illustrative Diagram 49
3.1 One Line Diagram of 5 Bus System 60
3.2 Three Bus System 63
3.3 Flow Chart Diagram of The Basic Newton Raphson’s Power Flow
Solution Algorithm 74
3.4 Circuit Diagram of Synchronous Generator 85
4.1 Circuit Diagram of Synchronous Generator 97
4.2 Series Leakage Reactive For Untapped Transformer 98
4.3 Tapped Transformer Circuit 90
4.4 Equivalent Circuit of Tapped Transformer 100
4.5 Transmission Line Model 101
4.6 Nominal π Circuit of Medium and Short Length of
Transmission Line 101
4.7 Representation of Transmission Line Model 102
4.8 PHCN Network Map 109
4.9 One-Line Diagram of the PHCN 330KV 30 Bus
 17

Interconnected Network/Grid 110

4.10 Flow Chart Algorithm for the Analysis of Shunt Capacitor
Compensation 112
4.11 Determination of Capacities of Shunt Capacitors 113
5.1 Plot of Bus Voltage under Normal Condition 120
5.2 Graph of Bus Voltage under Normal Condition 120
5.3 Graph of Bus Voltages after Compensation 127
5.4 Bar Plot of Bus Voltages after Compensation 127
5.5 Graph of Voltage at 20percent 128
5.6 Graph of Voltage at 30percent 139
5.7 Graph of Voltage at 50percent 130
5.8 One-Line Diagram of the PHCN 330KV 30 Bus Interconnected
Network/Grid with Compensated Voltage Values 131
5.9 Graph of10 Percent Over Compensation 133
5.10 Graph of 20 Percent Over Compensation 135
A2.1 Plots of Voltage Vs Bus No. at Different levels of
Percentage Compensation 172
A2.2 Plots of Voltage Vs Bus No. at Different levels of
Percentage Compensation 173
 18

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
The current incessant power failure in Nigeria has reached an
unprecedented level that the public is almost demanding for a state of
emergency in respect of electricity supply. The projected power demand for
the year 2009/2010 was 10,000 MW but the actual available supply was
3,500 MW. The various efforts made to rescue the power short fall did not
yield any meaningful outcome [1].
The research work is to provide a reversal of the above previous situation
by looking into the problems and proffer a solution that will minimize if
not completely eradicate the problems. In power flow study the frequency
should remain nearly constant, because considerable drop in frequency
could result in high magnetizing currents in induction motors and
transformers [2]. The flows of active and reactive powers in a transmission
network are fairly independent of each other and are influenced by
different control actions. Active power control is closely related to
frequency control, and reactive power control is closely related to voltage
control [3]. Since constancy of frequency and voltage are important factors
in determining the quality of power supply, then the control of active and
reactive power is vital to the satisfactory performance of power system [2].
In this work, the Nigeria integrated power network system is presented in
its current state and its parameters are tabulated and examined. After
compiling the generators, lines, load data, and other parameters,
equations for the power flow analysis are then formulated incorporating
these parameters. These equations are solved using MATLAB/SIMULINK
[3, 4].
Because electrical energy is normally generated at the power stations far
away from the urban areas where consumers are located and are delivered
 19

to the ultimate consumers through a network of transmission and

distribution, the terminal voltage vary substantially. Wider variation in
voltage may cause erratic operation or even malfunctioning of consumers’
appliances.
The main cause for voltage variation is the variation in load on the supply
system. With the increase in load on the supply system the voltage at the
consumer premises falls due to increase in voltage drop in:
(i) Alternator synchronous impedance
(ii) Transmission lines
(iii) Feeders and
(iv) Distributors [5].
A power system is said to be well designed if it gives good quality and
reliable supply. By good quality is meant the voltage levels being within
reasonable limits. Naturally all the equipment on the power system are
designed to operate satisfactorily only when the voltage levels on the
system correspond to the rated voltage or at the most the variation are
within ±5% of rated value. When the voltage variation is more than a
normal value, the performance of the equipment suffers and the life of
most of the equipment will be at risk. Due to variation in bus voltages, the
fluorescent tube refuse to glow, the picture on a television set starts rolling
if the voltage is below a certain level. The torque of an induction motor
(which forms about 70% of the total load on power system) varies as the
square of the terminal voltage and so on. Thus controlling the voltage on
the power system becomes very vital [5, 6].
For reduction of cost and to improve reliability, most of the world’s electric
power systems are interconnected. This takes advantage of diversity of
loads, availability of sources and fuel prices to supply power to loads at
minimum cost.
 20

These days, greater demands have been placed on the transmission

network by way of continual addition of load and it will continue to rise
because of the increasing number of consumers.
Increased demands on transmission, absence of long-term planning, and
the need to provide open access to generating companies and consumers
have resulted in less security and reduced quality of supply.
To alleviate/eradicate some of these problems mentioned, compensation in
power system becomes very essential. A Compensator can be connected in
the power system in two ways that is in series and in shunt at the line
ends or even in the midpoint between buses. It is necessary to regulate the
voltage of the system at various buses within prescribed limits; else the
voltage decreases in magnitude due to the load and the phase angles
displaced as a result of the nature of the load (reactive) and the system
characteristics.
Control of voltage at each bus is essential for several reasons, some of
which include:
 The control of the kilowatts and kilovar flows over a line
interconnecting two generating stations.
 The adjustment of consumers’ voltage within the statutory limits.
 Seasonal (5-15%), daily (3-5%) or short period (1-2%) regulation of
the voltage at various parts of the system [5, 6].
Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS), Static Synchronous
Compensator (STATCOM), Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) are
among the newest technology for carrying out compensation in power
system to maintain stability.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Power flow problem is the inability to have the required voltage values and
angle at each bus in a power system under balanced three-phase steady-
state conditions. Power flow studies involve the computation of voltage
 21

magnitude and phase angle at each bus in a power system. They are
essential in planning the future expansion of the system because
satisfactory operation of the system depends on knowing the effects of
interconnections with other power stations and to have an idea of the
effect of new transmission lines before they are installed. It also involves
the determination of the voltage magnitude and angle at each bus of the
power system network under specified operating conditions. Main
consideration in this project will be focused on delivering the reactive
power directly to buses in a transmission system, by installing sources of
reactive power. The reason is that transmission lines can be operated with
varying load and nearly constant voltage at both ends if adequate sources
of reactive power are available at both ends.
We are required to find the voltage at all the buses and the real and
reactive power that flow in all the branches, the losses etc. The voltage

magnitude must lie between 0.95  Vi  1.05 pu and the angle should be very

small for a balanced steady state 50Hz power station to achieve the
desired result from the system. So in an interconnected power system of
n-buses the power injected into the nodes is given by a set of 2n nonlinear
simultaneous equations represented in Eqs.1.1 &1.2 below.
N
Pi   ViVk Yik cos( ik   k   i ) 1.1
n 1

N
Qi   ViVk Yik sin( ik   k   i ) 1.2
n 1

Which is to be solved [7, 8 & 9]

Where = real and reactive power of each bus i
= voltage magnitude at bus i
= voltage magnitude at bus k
= admittance connecting nodes i & k, i = 1, 2 . . . n
 ik = (I,k)th element of theta matrix
 22

In order to address the problem due to:

(i) reactive & real Power (loads) in-balance that makes the power
system not stable
(ii) causes of constant power failure that de-stabilize Nigeria power
system.
We develop a model-based simulation using MATLAB/SIMULINK that will
be used to solve the network problem.
Also the assessment of individual buses to make sure that based on the
demand imposed on it that the voltage lies within  5% of the normal
voltage.

1.3 Objective of the Research Work

Electricity generation and consumption have always been a basic platform
for economic growth and development of any nation. It has been generally
accepted that the economy of any nation depends very much on the level
of industrialization attained by that country. So to sustain industrial
output and ensure rapid growth, there is a great need for a reliable and
efficient supply of electrical energy. With the introduction of micro-
computer into the market, computations of varying complexities can easily
be carried out. It is now the concern of the system engineer or designer to
generate a fast method to solve the power flow problem to ensure efficient
and durable service.
The main objective of the study is to generate a reliable algorithm using
MATLAB 2010 version with Newton-Raphson’s method that will be used to
solve power flow calculations, generating the voltage magnitude and
angles at each bus for both on-line and off-line applications.
The assessment of the power flow result to find out those buses that are
outside the stipulated range, that need to be compensated. The specific
objectives of this thesis are;
 23

(i) To develop a fast power-flow program using MATLAB/SIMULINK

network that will be used to solve large network of Nigeria power system
with Newton-Raphson’s solution method.
(ii) To assess the voltage limit at each bus detecting those that are outside
the tolerance level. Identification of weak buses in the network.
(iii) Also the provision of compensation on those buses to improve the
system efficiency.
(iv) To access the limit of compensation that can go with system.
1.4 Significance of the Study
Power flow is used for line loading, generation adequacy, economic
dispatching and unit commitment, all for planning and stability of power
system. The implementation of this work would be beneficial to the
following group of people.
 Power holding company of Nigeria,
 The Research students
 The ministry of power and energy for policy formulation
It will also offer some economic benefits by way of reducing fault level and
improve steady state performance for expansion alternative.

1.5 Scope of the Study

This research work is limited to the study of 330KV, 30 bus system of the
Nigeria network in order to alleviate some of the problems hampering the
grid network.
1.6 Definition of Terms
 Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) is defined as alternating
current transmission systems incorporating power electronics-based and
other static controllers to enhance controllability and increase power
transfer capability [7].
 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC): It is a compensator that
consists of STATCOM and static synchronous series compensator (SSSC)
 24

which are coupled via a dc link to allow a bidirectional flow of real power
between the series output terminals of the SSSC and the shunt output
terminals of the STATCOM. It has the unique ability to control real and
reactive power flow independently [7, 8].
 Stability: It is the ability of the power system to remain at stable
operation after being subjected to a sudden power change [9].
 FACTS controller: This is a power electronics-based system or other
static equipment that provides control of one or more AC transmission
system parameters [7].
 Static synchronous compensator (STATCOM): Is a static synchronous
generator operated as a shunt connected static Var compensator whose
capacitive or inductive output current can be controlled independent of ac
system voltage. It is based on a voltage source or current-sourced
converter [7].
Transient stability limit refers to the maximum flow of power through a
point without loss of stability when sudden disturbance occurs [9].
 25

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The origin of the formulation of the power-flow problem and the solution
based on Newton–Raphson and Gauss Seidel techniques are dated back to
the late 1960’s [10, 11] Since then a huge variety of studies have been
presented about the solution of the power flow problems addressing the
starting initial guess [12], computation efficiency [13, 14] robustness and
ill-conditional cases [15]. Power flow problems are classified into the
following categories;
I. Well-conditioned case. Here the power flow solution exists and is
reachable using a flat initial guess (like all load voltage magnitudes equal
to 1 and all bus voltage angles equal to 0o ) and a standard Newton-
Raphson’s method. This is the most common case.
II. Ill-conditioned case. Here the solution to the power flow problem
exists but standard solution method fails to get this solution starting from
a flat initial guess. This situation is due to the fact that the region of the
power flow solution is narrow or far away from the initial guess. In this
case, the failure of standard power flow solution method is due to
instability of the numerical method, not of the power flow equations.
Robust power flow methods have proved to be effective for solving this
case.
III. Bifurcation point: The solution of the power flow exists but it is
either a saddle-node bifurcation or a limited induced bifurcation [16].
(a) Saddle –node bifurcations are associated with the maximum loading
condition of a standard or robust power flow method since the power flow
Jacobin matrix is singular at the solution point
(b) Limited induced bifurcations are associated with a physical limit of
the system and as a shortage of generator reactive power although limit-
induced bifurcation can in some cases lead to the voltage collapse of the
 26

system, the solution point is typically a well conditioned case and does not
show convergence issues [16]. However encountering a case whose
solution is exactly a bifurcation point is quite uncommon in practice.
IV. Unsolvable case: the power flow solution does not exist naturally;
the issue is that the loading level of the network is too high. A
continuation method or optimal power flow problems allow defining the
maximum loading level that the system can supply. Robust power flow
methods provide a solution close to the feasibility boundary rather than
diverging.
In power flow analysis the transmission system is modeled by a set of
buses or nodes interconnected by transmission links (lines). Generators
and loads connected to various nodes of the system inject or absorb power
from the transmission system. A given power system subjected to a given
set of power demand can be operated in an infinite number of states and
still satisfy the given demand. The system engineer is to select the best
possible state out of the various options available to ensure the smooth
operation of the system [9]. There may be problems that have no solution
or multiple solutions. Figure 2.1 represents a network with V1 and S2
known. If we have V1 & S 2 and are to find S1 and V2 we consider the
solution as a function of D 2 , for D 2  0 [17] where S1  S G1  S D1 and

S 2  S G2  S D2 .
 27

QG2 = j1.0
SG1
V1  1.00 0
V2
ZL=j0.5
SD2 = PD2+j1.0
SD1 12
11 jQ2=j1.0
V1  1.00 0
V2

PD2=j1.0

Fig.2.1(a)Two bus System Network

The capacitor in this case injects a specified power in the system, while
the voltage is now controlled. Bus (2) is a PQ (load) bus [18].
S 2  SG 2  S D 2  D 2

So S 2  jQ2  D 2   j1.0
2  jQ2  V2 *2  j1.0  D 2  j1.0  D 2 2.0(a)
1
2  V  (V2  V1 ) I1
 j 0.5

 j 2.0[ V2  2  1]
  j 2.0[ V2 (cos  2  j sin  2 )  1]
  j 2.0[ V2 (cos  2  j V2 sin  2  1]
 2[ V2 sin  2  j (2  2) * V2 cos  2 ]

 *2  2[ V2 sin  2  j (1  V2 cos  2 )]
2.0(b)
but
S 2  2  jQ2  V2 (cos 2  j sin  2 )(2V V2 sin  2  j 2[1  V2 cos 2 )]

Equating real and imaginary parts

 28

V2 cos  2  2 V2 sin  2  V sin  2  2(1  V2 cos  2 )  D 2

2
2 V2 cos  2 sin  2  2 V2 sin  2  2 V sin  2 cos  2  D 2
2

2 V2 sin  2  D 2 2.1

 V2 cos  2  2(1  V2 cos  2 )  2 V2 sin 2  2  0

2

 V2 cos  2  2 V2 cos 2  2 )  2 V2 sin  2  0

2 2

 V2 cos  2  2 V2 (cos 2  2  sin 2  2 )  0

2

2 V2 cos  2  2 V2
2
(divide by 2V2 )

cos  2  V2 2.2
Squaring both side of Eqs. 2.1 & 2.2 we get
PD22
4 V2 sin 2  2  PD22  sin 2  2  2.3
2
2
4 V2

cos2  2  V2 2.4
2

4 V2  4 V2  PD22  0
4 2

1
This implies that  (1  1  PD22 )
2
V2
2
Thus, if D 2  1  imaginary solution (i.e. no solution)

if D 2  1, V2  1 
2
1
 0.707
2

If 0  D 2  1, there are two real solution,

So we can determine V2  12 [17]
 29

V2 pu Bifurcation
Point

0.5 V2 pu

0
D 2 P

Fig.2.1(b) System Network Curve

This shows that the power system voltage problems may be classified as
follows
1) Excess voltage
2) Low voltage
3) No voltage ( or voltage collapse, bifurcation)
In conclusion, there is the possibility of no solution or at least no unique
solution to the mathematical problem. But, nevertheless, we expect that
most problems that arise in engineering practice have solutions and even
if non unique, we can identify the practical solution. Usually, the practical
solution is the one with voltage closest to 1.0p.u. Just as seen in Fig 2.1b,
suppose D 2  0.5 , we find two solutions for V2  0.97  15 0 and

V2  0.26  75 0 .

From operational point of view the first solution is satisfactory, whereas

the second is not. Actually the first value is what has to be expected on
the actual power system because of the way a power system is normally
operated, that is not dynamic. In most cases, however, the solution cannot
be found analytically, and the use of iterative methods implemented by
digital computer is indicated [19, 20, 21]
 30

The purpose of a transmission system is to deliver the power the

customers require in real time on demand within acceptable voltage and
frequency limits and in a reliable and economic manner.
Some difficulties in meeting system requirements may be expected and
some of these difficulties may be that the voltage magnitudes are not
within the acceptable limits, or one or more links are overloaded, or that
the stability margin for a transmission link is too small (i.e. the power
angle across a transmission link is too great) or that a particular generator
is overloaded. Some buses that are supplied by generators we called
generator buses. Other buses without generators are called load buses.
Power flow equations represent the fundamental balancing of power as it
flows from the generator to the loads through the transmission links.

2.1 Historical Development of Power Flow Calculation

Most of the problems associated with analysis of electrical machines,
control systems and of power systems can be expressed in the form of
either a set of linear simultaneous algebraic equations – (for the steady
state) or a set of linear differential equations with constant co-efficient –
(for the transient state). However, the system equations usually contain so
many variables that their direct solution becomes too tedious for practical
calculation. For many years prior to the advent of digital computer the
only practical method of calculating large power systems were by means of
simulator or network analyzer [19, 22]. With the introduction of micro and
fast speed compact computers into the market, computations of varying
complexities can now be done with ease.

2.2 Impact of Computer to Power Flow Solution

The development of digital computer technology has contributed
immensely to the power system engineering industry. Among the
advantages are:
 31

 It has provided a better utilization of engineering talent by relieving the

engineer from tedious hand calculation and permitting him to spend more
time on technical work.
 It has provided more efficient and economic means of performing
routine engineering calculations required in the planning, design and
operation of a power system.
 It has provided the ability to perform more efficient engineering studies
by applying calculating procedures to obtain a number of alternative
solutions for a particular problem to provide a broad base for engineering
decision.
 It has also provided the ability of performing studies which were not
possible because of the volume of calculations involved.
The declining cost of computing equipment and the development of
efficient computational techniques are the two major factors which have
contributed to the realization of these benefits [22].

2.3 Compensation in Transmission Network

Compensation in transmission line means, providing a way to balance or
to reduce the excess voltage/current so as to avoid damage to the utility
centers. Compensation of transmission networks results in improving the
system stability and voltage control, increasing the efficiency of power
transmission, facilitating line enengization and reducing temporary and
transient over voltages. The performance of long extra high voltage (EHV)
AC transmission systems can be improved by reactive compensation of
series or shunt type. Series capacitors and shunt reactors are used to
reduce artificially the series reactance and shunt susceptance of lines
respectively and thus they act as line compensators.
The extent of the effect of compensating depends on the number, location
and circuit arrangement of shunt reactor and series capacitor stations.
During planning of long distance lines, it is required to find out the most
 32

appropriate location of the reactors and capacitor banks, the number of

intermediate stations and the optimum connection schemes. To find the
operating conditions along the line, the ABCD constants of the portion of
the line on each side of the capacitor bank may first be found and the line-
capacitor line constants of the series combination of line-capacitor-line
can be arrived at using the formula as in section 2.4
2.4 Power Flow through a Transmission Line
The performance of transmission line equation is normally presented in
the form of voltage and current relationship between the sending- and
receiving-ends. Since loads are more often expressed in terms of real and
reactive powers then, from the single line diagram of a two bus
transmission line shown in Fig. 2.2 [6, 20]

VR  
Generator V R 0 0
ABC
D

S S  PS  jQS Load

SR  PR  jQR
Fig 2.2: A Two-Bus System of Transmission Line

If we take the receiving-end voltage as a reference phasor i.e. (VR  VR 0 )

0

and the sending end voltage (VS  VS  ) which leads by an angle  . The

angle δ is torque angle or load angle.  mainly determines the power

delivered by the generator and the magnitude of E f (i.e. excitation voltage)

determines the VARs delivered by it [5, 20].

Complex power leaving the sending-end and entering the receiving-end of
the transmission line is expressed (in per phase) as;

S S  PS  jQS  VS I * S 2.5
 33

Receiving- and sending-end current expressed in terms of receiving- and

sending-end voltage can be written as:
1 A
IR  VS  V R
B B 2.6(a)
D 1
IS  VS  V R 2.7(a)
B B
If A, B, D constants are written as
A  A  , B  B  , D  D  , (since A =D)

Then the above Equations can be written as,

V S      V R    
1 A
IR  2.6(b)
B B

D 1
IS  VS        VR    2.7(b)
B B
Substituting for I R in Eq.2.5 we get

1 A 
S R  V R 0  VS      V R    
B B 
V V A
 S R      V R    
2

B B 2.8

Similarly S  D V 2      VS VR    

S S
B B 2.9

S R and S S are per phase complex volt-amperes (in per phase volts). If VR

and VS are expressed in KV, then the three-phase receiving-end complex

power is given by [6]
 VS VR 10 6 A VR
2

S E 3  phaseVA  3      10 6    
 3  3 B B 3 
V V      A
S E 3  phaseMVA  S R VR    
2

B B 2.10

Eq.2.9 is same as Eq.2.8 and the same result holds for S i . If we express
Eq.2.8 in real and imaginary part we have for real and reactive powers at
the receiving –end as:
 34

VS V R A
PR  cos     cos(   )
2
VR 2.11
B B

VS VR
sin     
A
QR  VR sin(    )
2

B B 2.12

Similarly, for real and reactive power at sending-end we have:

D VS V R
PS  cos(   )  cos   
2
VS 2.13
B B

D VS V R
QS  sin(    )  sin    
2
VS 2.14
B B

From Eq. 2.11 we can see that the receiving power PR will be maximum at
   that is,
2
V V A VR
PR max  S R  cos   
B B 2.15
2
A VR
And corresponding QR is, QR max   sin     2.16
B
This means that the load must draw much leading MVAR in order to
receive the maximum real power. If we consider a case where we have a
short line with a series impedance Z, that is,   D  10; B  Z  Z 0

Substituting these in Eqs. 1.11 and 2.14 we get the simplified results for
2
VS VR VR
the short line as; PR  cos     cos
Z Z 2.17

And
2
VS V R VR
QR  sin      sin  2.18
Z Z

For the receiving-end and from the sending-end;

2 2.19
VS VS V R
PS  cos  cos(   )
Z Z

2
VS VS V R 2.20
QS  sin   sin     [6]
Z Z
 35

The above short line equation will also apply for a long line when the line
is replaced by its equivalent -∏ or nominal- ∏ and the shunt admittances
are lumped with the receiving-end load and sending-end generation.

From Eq. 2.16 the maximum receiving-end power is received when  

2
V V V
PR  max   S R  R cos
Z Z

We replace cos with R that is,



2
VS VR VR 2.21
PR max   2
R
Z Z

Usually the resistance of a transmission line is small compared to its

reactance (since it is necessary to maintain a high efficiency) [20]. So that,

  tan 1  90 0
R
Where, Z  R  jX .Eqs.2.16 and 2.19 can be approximated as
VS V R
PR  sin  2.22
X
2
VS V R VR
QR  cos   2.23
X X
For a very long line voltage cannot be raised beyond the limits placed by
present day high voltage technology. To increase power transmitted in
such cases, the only choice is to reduce the line reactance. This is
accomplished by adding series capacitors in the line. Series capacitors of
course increase the line severity of line over voltages under switching
condition [20].

2.5 Production and Absorption of Reactive Power

Synchronous generators can absorb or generate reactive power depending
on the excitation pattern. If the system is overexcited, they supply reactive
power and as well absorb reactive power when under excited. The capacity
 36

to continuously absorb or supply reactive power is limited by the field

current and armature current. Synchronous generators are normally
equipped with automatic voltage regulators which continually adjust
the excitation so as to control the armature voltage [2].

Loads normally absorb reactive power. A load bus supplied by power

system is composed of devices which the composition changes
depending on the day, season weather conditions. The composite
characteristics are normally such that a load bus absorbs reactive
power. Both active and reactive powers of the loads vary as a
function of voltage magnitude. Compensating devices are normally
added to supply or absorb reactive power and thereby control the
reactive power balance in a desired form [23, 24].

• Loads normally absorb reactive power. Both active power and reactive
power of the composite loads vary as a function of voltage magnitudes.
Loads at low-lagging power factors cause excessive voltage drops in the
transmission network and are uneconomical to supply.

• Transformers always absorb reactive power regardless of their loading; at

no load, the shunt magnetizing reactance effects predominate; and at full
load, the series leakage inductance effects predominate.

The capability to continuously supply or absorb reactive power is limited

by the field current, armature current, and end-region heating limits [23].
Reactive power compensation in transmission systems improves the
stability of the ac system by increasing the maximum active power that
can be transmitted. It also control steady-state and temporal over voltages.
This results in an improved functionality of the power system.
 37

2.5.1 Effect of Reactive Power Flow on Line Voltage Drop.

The voltage variation is due to imbalance in the generation and
consumption of reactive power in the system. If the generated reactive
power is more than the consumed power, the voltage levels go up and vice
versa. However, if the two are equal, then the voltage profile becomes flat
and it happens only when the load is equal to the natural load.
Unfortunately the reactive power in the system keeps varying because of
different types of load and if the reactive power generation is
simultaneously controlled, a more or less flat voltage profile could be
maintained. Too wide variation of voltage causes excessive heating of
distribution transformers thereby reducing the transformer capacity [2,
25].
2.5.2 Relevance to HV Transmission System

Since series capacitors permit economical loading of long transmission

lines, their application to HV transmission has grown. They have been
primarily used to improve system stability and to obtain the desired load
division among parallel lines.

It is not practical to distribute the capacitance in small units along the

line but rather lumped capacitors are installed at a few locations along the
line. The use of lumped series capacitors results in an uneven voltage
profile. Since series capacitors operate at line potential they must be
insulated from ground. A widely accepted practice is to mount the
capacitors on platforms insulates from ground [2, 24, 25, and 26]. Some of
the key considerations in the application of series capacitor bank are:

i. Voltage rise due to reactive current; voltage rise on the capacitor

may be excessive when the line reactive current flow is high as might
occur during power swings or heavy power transfers. The system design
 38

must limit the voltage to acceptable levels, or the equipment must be rated
to withstand the highest voltage that might occur.

ii. Bypassing and reinsertion; the series capacitors are normally

subjected to a voltage which is of the order of the regulation of the line i.e.,
only a few percentage of the rated line voltage. If the line is short circuited
by a fault beyond the capacitor, a voltage of the order of line voltage will
appear across the capacitor. Therefore provision is made for bypassing the
capacitor during faults and reinsertion after fault clearing. Speed of
reinsertion may be an important factor in maintaining transient stability.

Normally, bypassing was provided by a spark gap across the capacitor

bank or each module of the bank. The present trend is to use nonlinear
resistors of zinc oxide which have the advantage that reinsertion is
essentially instantaneous. Fig 2.3 shows alternative bypass schemes [24,
26]. Fig 2.3a consists of a single spark gap (G) which bypasses the
capacitor bank when the capacitor voltage exceeds a set value usually
about three or four times the capacitor rated voltage. The damping circuit
(D) limits the discharge current and takes up the capacitor. When a gap
current is detected, the bypass breaker (S) is closed diverting the current
from the gap. When the current returns to normal, the breaker is operated
thereby reinserting the capacitor into the line. This scheme is designed to
provide a reinsertion time of 200 to 400ms

C C

D D C=capacitor
G G1
D= Damping Circuit
S S2 G2 G= Spark gap
S= Bypass breaker
S1
(a) G1= Spark gap, high-set
(b) G2= Spark gap, low-set
S1=Bypass breaker
Fig. 2.3 Protection Scheme (a) Single-gap, (b) Double-gap S2= Reinsertion breaker
 39

A dual-gap scheme with reinsertion time on the order of 80ms as in

fig.2.3b has an extra spark gap (G2) which is set low so that it will spark
over first. Breaker S2 is normally closed [2]. In the event of a fault, gap G 2
bypass the capacitor bank, breaker S2 opens immediately after the line
fault has been cleared and reinserts the capacitor bank into the line. As a
result, reinsertion is not delayed due to the de-ionization time G1 gap,
which is high-set, and the bypass S1 serves as backup protection.
iii. Location: a series capacitor bank can theoretically be located
anywhere along the line. Factors influencing choice of location include
cost, accessibility, fault level, protective relaying considerations, voltage
profile and effectiveness in improving power transfer capability. The usual
locations considered are at- midpoint of line, line terminal, one third or
one quarter points of the line. In practice all of the above arrangements
have been used. The midpoint location has the advantage that the relaying
requirements are less complicated if compensation is less than 50%. In
addition, short circuit current is lower. However, it is not very convenient
in terms of access for maintenance, monitoring, security, etc. [27, 28].
Splitting of the compensation into two parts, with one at each end of the
line, provides more accessibility and availability of station service. The
disadvantages are higher fault current, complicated relaying, and higher
rating of the compensation. The effectiveness of the compensation scheme
depends on the location of the series capacitors and associated shunt
reactors [27, 28].
Shunt capacitor and reactors and series capacitors provide passive (not
active) compensation. They are either permanently connected to the
transmission and distribution system or switched. They contribute to
voltage control by modifying network characteristic.
Synchronous condensers and SVCs provide active compensation. The
reactive power absorbed/supplied by them is automatically adjusted so as
to maintain voltages of the buses to which they are connected [20, 24].
 40

2.5.3 Real and Reactive Power Control

As synchronous machine is connected to infinite buses, its speed and
terminal voltage are fixed. The control variables are the field current and
the mechanical torque on the shaft. The variation of the field current
( I f ), referred to as excitation system control is applied to either a

generator or a motor as represented in Fig. 2.4 with the phasor diagram

as in Fig 2.5 to supply or absorb a variable amount of reactive power.
Since the synchronous machine was at a constant speed, the only means
of varying the real power is through control of the torque imposed on the
shaft by either the prime mover in the case of a generator or the
mechanical load in the case of a motor.
The complex power delivered to the system by the generator is given in per
unit by
S  P  jQ  Vi I a* | Vi || I a | (cos  j sin  ) 2.24

And for real and imaginary quantities we obtain

P | Vi || I a | cos ; Q  Vi I a sin  2.25

Q is positive for lagging power factors since the angle is numerically

positive. If we decide to maintain a certain power delivery P from the
generator to the constant voltage system, it is seen from Eq.2.25 that

must be constant. Normal excitation is defined as the condition

when (generated voltage E) i.e. | Ei | cos | Vi | [24]. 2.26

and the machine is said to be either overexcited or under excited

according to whether | Ei | cos | Vi | or | Ei | cos | Vi |

 41

R R
+ +

Ei  E  Ei  E 
- -

Fig 2.4 Equivalent Circuits for (a) the Synchronous generator and
(b) Synchronous motor




Va  Ei  I a Ra  jI a X d
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.5 Phasor diagram of (a) overexcited generator delivering lagging current
, (b) under excited motor drawing lagging .

2.6. Devices used for Compensation

The device commonly used for voltage and reactive power control includes:
shunt reactors, shunt capacitors, synchronous generators, synchronous
condensers, FACTS etc.
Shunt Reactors. Shunt reactor are inductive current element connected
between lines and neutral to compensate for inductive load/ (current) from
transmission lines. Shunt reactors are used to compensate for the effects
of line capacitance, particularly to limit voltage rise on open circuit or
light load [2, 6]. They are usually required for EHV overhead lines longer
than 200km. A shorter overhead line may also require shunt reactors if
the line is supplied from a weak system (low short circuited).
A shunt reactor of sufficient size must be permanently connected to the
line to limit fundamental frequency temporary overvoltage to about 1.5pu
 42

for duration of less than 1 second. It also helps to limit energization over
voltages (i.e. switching transients). Additional shunt reactors required to
maintain normal voltage under light-load condition may be connected to
the EHV bus to improve the voltage. During heavy loading conditions some
of the reactors may have to be disconnected and it is achieved by using
circuit-breakers [2, 6].

Shunt Capacitors. Capacitors supply reactive power and boost local

voltages. They are used throughout the system and are applied in a wide
range of sizes. The principal advantages of shunt capacitors are their low
cost and their flexibility of installation and operation [2].
They are readily applied to various points in the system, thereby
contributing to efficiency of the power transmission and distribution. The
disadvantage is that their reactive power output is proportional to the
square of the voltage. The reactive power output is reduced at low voltages
when it is likely to be needed most [20, 24, 29]. Shunt capacitors alleviate
the excess loading of system and enable further active loads to be drawn
from the same system. The reduction in line currents results in reduction
of system losses. It is economical to draw reactive power compensation
from capacitors ideally located in the vicinity of reactive load e.g. motors
and low voltage side of transformers.

The shunt capacitors are used across an inductive load so as to supply

parts of the reactive VARs required by the load so that the reactive VARs
transmitted over the lines are reduced, thereby the voltage across the load
is maintained within certain desired limits. Similarly, the shunt reactors
are used across the capacitive loads or lightly loaded lines to absorb some
of the leading Vars again to control the voltage across the load to maintain
certain desired limits. In both cases, the effect is to supply the requisite
reactive power to maintain the value of the voltage [30].
 43

Synchronous Condenser: It is a synchronous motor operating with no

load (mechanical load), and depending on the value of the excitation can
absorb or generate reactive power. It is this property that makes it to take
lagging KVA when the field current is below a certain value, and leading
KVA when the field current is above this value. When used with a voltage
regulator the compensator can automatically run over excited at times of
high load and under excited at light load.
The change in the excitation of synchronous machines plays a key role in
controlling the reactive power output of a machine. This in turn affects the
ability to maintain the terminal voltages of the machines and as a result
the voltage profile in the power system [29, 30].
2.6.1 Application to Transmission System
Shunt capacitors are used to compensate for the XI 2 losses in
transmission system and to ensure satisfactory voltage levels during heavy
loading conditions [2]. Capacitor banks of appropriate sizes are connected
either directly to the high voltage bus or to the tertiary winding of the main
transformer as shown in Fig. 2.6. They are breaker-switched automatically
by a voltage relay. Switching of capacitor banks provides a convenient
means of controlling transmission system voltages. They are normally
distributed throughout the transmission system so as to minimize losses
and voltage drop [2, 20, 24].

(b) HV Capacitor bank

(a) Tertiary connected Capacitor Bank

Fig. 2.6 One Line Diagram of Capacitor bank connection [2]

 44

2.7 Types of compensation:

2.7.1 Series Compensation: Reactive power compensation in

transmission systems improves the stability of the ac system by increasing
the maximum active power that can be transmitted. It also control steady-
state and temporal over voltages. Series compensation system is one of the
methods of reactive power compensation that is the use of capacitors to
decrease the equivalent reactance of a transmission line or power line at a
rated frequency level. The connection of series capacitor generates reactive
power that balances a fraction of the line’s transfer reactance [7, 8]. This
results in an improved functionality of the power system through:
 Increase in the steady state power transfer capability of a line.
 Reduction in the voltage drop and hence improvement in voltage
regulation.
 Better power distribution between parallel lines.
 Reduction in system losses
 Improvement in voltage stability throughout the line
Series compensation is not just a capacitor bank in series with the line,
but requires control, protection and monitoring facilities to enhance its
functionality as an integrated part of any power system. It also needs to be
fully insulated to ground since it is working at the same level as the rest of
the system. The introduction of series capacitor on transmission line
present a number of technical challenges when setting distance relays, as
a result of the combined effect of the series capacitor’s compensating
reactance and the series capacitor’s own protective equipment, on the
measured impedance to a short circuit fault [8, 24].

2.7.2 Shunt Compensation – Static-Var Compensation:

Shunt compensation is the use of shunt capacitor or and shunt reactors
in the line to avoid/reduce voltage instability [24, 31]. Shunt
compensation are connected in shunt either directly to a bus bar or to the
 45

tertiary winding or to the main transformer and sometimes at mid-point of

the lines (but not in Nigeria) to minimize the voltage drop and the losses.
Shunt compensators are installed near the local terminals in factory
substations, in the receiving substations, at switching substations etc to
provide leading volt ampere-reactive (MVar) and thus to reduce the line
current and total KVA loading of substation transformer. It reduces line
drop and the voltage regulation is improved [6, 5, 32]. It serves the
purpose of voltage control and load stabilization. Shunt compensators
raise the load power factor (p.f) which greatly increases the power
transmitted over the line. As a result of installation of shunt compensators
in the system, the nearby generators operate at near unity power factor
and voltage emergencies mostly do not arise. The two types of shunt
compensator are:
(1) Static Var compensator (SVC0). They are bank of capacitors (or
Inductors also for use under light load conditions).
(2) STACOM; (static synchronous compensators, (iii) Synchronous
condenser.
Though shunt compensations are expensive but they control voltage
directly and also control temporary over voltage rapidly.
It is used in many high voltage transmission and distribution systems.
Shunt Compensation equipment may consist of static compensating
devices (using capacitors and reactors) or Synchronous compensation
(using synchronous phase modifier). Shunt compensation has the
advantages of high speed of response, greater stability and lower
maintenance & low cost because of these reasons and others static
compensation [shunt compensation] is being increasingly preferred to
series or synchronous compensation.
The most typical function/advantage of shunt compensation includes;
- Increased stability – interconnected systems consist of two or more
areas connected by tie line. System faults and loss of generation causes
 46

system stability problems. Studies show that by varying the Vars supply at
a stable point in the network, system stability is improved. The thyristor
switched shunt capacitors are useful for this purpose.
- Control of over voltage – shunt compensation can control over
voltages under transient and dynamic conditions thereby allowing a
reduction in designed insulation levels (thyristor controlled reactor is used
for this purpose).
- Reduction of Vars. flows - The provision of shunt compensation leads
to a reduction in the unnecessary circulation of Vars in the network
leading to reduction of system losses and increased availability of
equipment rating.
It controls temporary over voltage rapidly.
Disadvantages of shunt compensation are as follows:
- They are expensive
- It has limited over voltage capability
- at light load or no load, the receiving-end voltage may considerably
exceed the sending-end voltage
Shunt compensation has limit to which transmitted power can be
increased. For increasing power transmitted over the line, other better
means like series compensation can be adopted.

Though various types of compensator can provide highly effective power

flow control, their operating characteristics and compensating features are
different. These differences are related to their inherent attributes of their
control circuit, they also exhibit different loss characteristics. The specific
kind of compensator to be employed depends very much on a particular
application [5, 6].
 47

2.7.3 Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)

FACTS is defined as flexible alternating current transmission systems

incorporating power electronics-based and other static controllers to
enhance controllability and increase power transfer capability [33]. FACTS
is a new technology that has the role of enhancing controllability and
power transfer capability in ac systems. With the increasing demand of
power, the power system network is becoming more complex from the
point of view of operation and control. FACTS devices can be effectively
used for power flow control, load shearing among parallel corridors,
voltage regulation, enhancement of transient stability and mitigation of
system oscillations [6, 32].

FACTS controllers can enable a line to carry power close to its thermal
rating. The existing networks are mostly mechanically controlled. Micro
electronics, computers and high-speed communications are widely used
for protection and control of transmission systems. Mechanical switching
has to be supplemented by rapid response power electronics. It may be
noted that FACTS is an enabling technology, and not a one-on-one
substitute for mechanical switch [6] that wears out quickly as to be
compared to static devices. FACTS employs high speed thyristors for
switching in or out transmission line components such as capacitors,
reactors or phase shifting transformer for some desirable performance of
the systems

Since 1990, a number of control devices were developed under the term
FACTS technology. FACTS technology opens up new opportunities for
controlling power and enhancing the usable capacity of existing and new
lines [32, 33]. FACTS technology is not a single high-power controller, but
rather a collection of controllers which can be applied individually or in
coordination with others to control one or more of the system parameters.
 48

The development of FACTS controllers has followed two different

approaches. The first approach employs reactive impedance or a tap
changing transformer with thyristor switches as controlled elements, and
the second approach employs self-commutated static converters as
controlled voltage sources.

FACTS controllers can be divided into four categories, (i) Series (ii) Shunt
(iii) Combined series-series (iv) Combined series-shunt controller [6, 32].
The general symbol for a FACTS controller is given in fig.2.7a which shows
a thyristor arrow inside a box. The series controller of Fig. 2.7b could be
variable impedance such as capacitor, reactor etc, or a power electronics
based variable source. All series controllers inject voltage in series with the
line. If the voltage is in phase quadranture with the line, the series
controller supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase
relationship will involve real power also. The shunt controller of Fig.2.7c
may be variable impedance, variable source or combination of these. All
shunt controllers inject current into the system at the point of connection
[6, 33].
FC
Line Line

i
(a) General Symbol for
FACTS Controller (FC) (b) Series Controller
FC
FC

(c) Shunt Controller

dc Power
Line AC Line
V
Line
(d) Unified Series-series
Controller

Coordinated
Controller
Fig 2.7. Different FACTS Controller (e) Coordinated Series and Shunt Controller
 49

The group of FACTS controller employing switching converter-based

synchronous voltage sources includes the Static Synchronous Series
Compensator (SSCC), the unified power flow controller (UPFC).

STATCOM (Static Synchronous Compensator) is a static synchronous

generator operated as a shunt connected static var compensator whose
capacitive or inductive output current can be controlled independent of ac
system voltage [6]. STACOM is one of the key FACTS controllers. It is
based on a voltage source or current-sourced converter. It controls
transmission voltage by reactive shunt compensation.

Interline Power flow Controller (IPFC). The IPFC is a recently introduced

controller. It is a combination of two or more static synchronous series
compensators which are coupled via a common dc link to facilitate bi-
directional flow of real power between the ac terminals of the SSCCs, and
are controlled to provide independent reactive series compensation for the
control of real power flow in each line and maintain the desired
distribution of reactive power flow among the line [6, 33]. It also manages
a comprehensive overall real and reactive power management for a multi-
line transmission system

2.7.4 Series Capacitor Compensation

Series Capacitors are connected in series with the line, usually located at
the midpoint and are used to reduce the series reactance between the load
and the supply point This results in improved transient and steady-state
stability more economical loading and minimum voltage dip on load buses.
It has the characteristics that their reactive power production varies
concurrently with the line loading. Addition of series capacitor on EHV
transmission lines can double the transient stability loads limit of long
lines (at a fraction of the cost of a newly line consolation). They are used
for line reactive compensation for increasing the steady state transmission
capability, enhancing stability and improving voltage regulation. One
 50

major drawback with series capacitor compensation is that special

protective devices are required to protect the capacitors and bypass the
high current produced whenever short circuit occurs [24, 25].
Problems associated with series capacitor compensation include:
1. Series Capacitor introduces a sub-synchronous frequency (proportional
to the square root of the compensation) in the system, i.e. sub-
synchronous resonance which may call for expensive countermeasure.
2. It can lead to mal-operation of the distance relays if not properly
installed.
3. Series capacitor compensation produces high recovery voltages across
the circuit breaker contacts.
4. During heavy loading, the voltage on one side of the series capacitor
may be out of range [8, 32, 34].
Synchronous Condenser: It is a synchronous motor operating with no
load (mechanical load), and depending on the value of the excitation can
absorb or generate reactive power. It is this property that makes it to take
lagging KVA when the field current is below a certain value, and leading
KVA when the field current is above this value. When used with a voltage
regulator the compensator can automatically run over excited at times of
high load and under excited at light load.
The change in the excitation of synchronous machines plays a key role in
controlling the reactive power output of a machine. This in turn affects the
ability to maintain the terminal voltages of the machines and as a result
the voltage profile in the power system [29, 30].

2.8 Control of Power Flow

Power flow in a system can be controlled by the following means;
 Prime mover and excitation control of generators,
 Switching of shunt capacitor banks, shunt reactors and static var
systems,
 51

 Control of tap-changing and regulating transformers

A simple model of a generator operating under balanced steady-state
conditions is shown in Fig. 2.8 in its’ Thevenin equivalent form. Vt is the

generator terminal voltage, E g is the excitation voltage,  is the power

angle and Xg is the positive-sequence synchronous reactance. The

generator current is given by
E g e j  Vt
I 2.27(a)
jX g

And the complex power delivered by the generator is

 E g e j  Vt 
S  P  jQ  Vt I  Vt  * 
  jX g 
 
Vt E g (cos  j sin  )  jVt 2
 2.27(b)
Xg

The real and reactive power delivered are given as; [2, 35]
Vt E g
P  RS S  sin  2.28
Xg

Vt
Q  Im S  ( E g cos  Vt ) 2.29
Xg

Q Reactive Power Flow

jX g
E g  E g  Vt  Vt 00
P Real Power Flow

Real Power Flow

Fig.2.8 Generator Thevenin Equivalent Circuit.

Equation 2.28 reveals that the real power P increases when the power
angle  increases. From the operational point, when the prime mover
increases the power input to the generator while the excitation voltage is
 52

held constant, the rotor speed increases also. And as the rotor speed
increases, the power angle  also increases, causing an increase in
generator real power output P. This causes a decrease in reactive power
output Q given by Eq.2.29 [35]. An increase in prime-mover corresponds
to an increase in P at the constant bus voltage to which the generator is
connected.
Equation 2.29 shows that reactive power output Q increases when the

excitation voltage E g increases. From the operational point, when the

generator exciter output increases while holding the prime-mover power

constant, the rotor current increases. As rotor current increases the

excitation voltage E g also increases, causing an increase in generator

reactive power output Q. There is also a small decrease in  required to

hold P constant in Eq. 2.28. From power flow standpoint an increase in
generator excitation corresponds to an increase in voltage magnitude at
the constant-voltage bus to which the generator is connected. The power
flow program computes the increase in reactive power Q supplied by the
generator along with the small change in angle  .
The effect of adding a shunt capacitor bank (compensation) to a power
system bus as modeled by its Thevenin equivalent circuit is as shown in
Fig. 2.9. Prior to the connection of capacitor bank, the switch ‘sw’ is open

and bus voltage equals ETH . After the bank is connected, the switch (sw.)
is closed, and the capacitor current leads the bus voltage Vt by 900. The

phasor diagram shows that Vt is larger than ETH when ‘sw’ is closed.
From the power flow stand point the addition of a shunt capacitor bank to
a load bus leads to or corresponds to the addition of negative reactive load,
since capacitor absorbs negative power. Also the addition of shunt reactor
corresponds to the addition of positive reactive load.
 53

b1 SW

+ jX TH j
+
ETH

(b) Phasor diagram with SW

(a) Equivalent circuit closed
Fig.2.9: Effect of adding a shunt capacitor bank (compensation) to
a power system bus [2, 35]

Tap-changing and voltage-magnitude-regulating transformers are used to

control bus voltages as well as reactive power flows on lines to which
they are connected [35].

2.9 Load Compensation

Load compensation is the management of reactive power to improve power

quality that is voltage profile and power factor (p.f). The reactive power
flow is controlled by installing shunt compensating devices
(capacitors/reactors) at the load end and bringing about proper balance
between generated and consumed reactive power [6].
This is most effective in improving the power transfer capability of the
system and its voltage stability. It is economically and technically valuable
to operate the system near unity power factor. Another way of improving
the system performance is to reduce the flow of negative sequence
currents thereby increasing the system’s load capability and reducing
power loss [6].
2.10 Line Compensation: Modification of the characteristics of a line is
known as line compensation. In power system analysis, ideal voltage
profile for a transmission line is flat, which can only be achieved by
loading the line with its surge impedance loading. Where this cannot be
achieved, the characteristic of the line can be modified by line
compensation so that Ferranti effect (excessive voltage rise) is minimized
 54

and the power transfer capability of the line is enhanced. Compensating

devices are;
 capacitor/inductors:
 Active voltage sources i.e. synchronous generator or condenser
 Combination of capacitors and inductors
2.11 Shunt Capacitor Compensation

They are used for lagging power factor circuits created by heavy loads. The
effect is to supply the requisite reactive power to maintain the receiving
end voltage at a satisfactory level. The capacitors are connected either
directly to the bus bar or to the tertiary winding of the main transformer
and are disposed along the route to minimize the losses and voltage drops
along the line.
The values can be calculated as
I R  VC 2.30

Where   2f , IR = reactive component of current or (Isinα)

IR IR
C  2.31
V V  2f

2.12 Effect of Compensation on Line Voltage

Under light load conditions, a flat voltage profile is achieved by inductive
shunt compensation. With K sh  1 (i.e. degree of shunt compensation) is
'
100% inductive compensation, and Po are reduced to zero and Z C' is
increased to infinity. This results in a flat voltage at zero loads.
Then under heavy load conditions, a flat voltage can be achieved by adding
shunt capacitive compensation. Obviously step changes in voltage occur at
points where the series capacitors are applied. They however improve
voltage regulation at any given points i.e. voltage changes with load are
reduced.
 55

2.13. Advantages of Compensation

1. Reactive power compensation in transmission systems improve the
stability of the a.c system by increasing the maximum active power that
can be transmitted.
2. It also helps to maintain a substantially flat voltage profile at all levels
of power transmission.
3. It increases transmission efficiency.
4. It improves high voltage direct current (HVDC) conversion terminal
performance.
5. It controls steady-state and temporary over voltages and can avoid
disastrous blackout [31, 36].
The installation of a capacitor bank can avoid the need to change a
transformer in the event of a load increase.
2.14 Importance of Capacitor Bank
When a number of capacitors are connected in parallel to get the desired
capacitance it is known as a capacitor bank [6, 32]. Capacitor banks are
used for voltage regulation and power factor correction. To boost the
voltage at the customers’ end, a capacitor bank is used as a regulating
device. The main purpose of shunt capacitor banks is to produce reactive
power near enough to the point of consumption in order to reduce losses,
increase the voltage, and improve the power transmission capacity of the
line. It is connected in parallel across the line to increase voltage by
reducing the inductive VArs and is generally a lagging power factor.
Capacitive compensation is required to obviate the following ill effects of
uncompensated power system.
1. Increase voltage drop resulting in poor regulation.
2. Undesirable losses rendering the line efficiency to go down to a value
less than the designed.
3. Unnecessary utilization of thermal capabilities and burdening of lines,
transformers and cables due to higher currents.
 56

4. Extra cost reduction due to the above factors i.e. 1, 2, & 3.

5. There are large amounts of harmonics introduced in the system due
to pulsating loads and saturating system components, which cause
distortion in waveforms detrimental to certain consumer equipment, etc.
2.15 Line Loadability or Reactive Compensation Technique.
Line loadability is used to describe the load carrying ability of a
transmission line operating under a specified set of operating condition. In
practice transmission lines are not operated to deliver their theoretical
maximum power, which is based on rated terminal voltages and an
angular displacement, across lines. Inductors and capacitors are
used on medium length and long transmission lines to increase line load
ability and to maintain voltage near rated values. Shunt reactors
(inductors) are commonly installed at selected points along EHV lines from
each phase to neutral as illustrated in Fig. 2.10. The inductors absorb
reactive power and reduce over voltages during light load conditions. They
also reduce transient over voltages due to switching and lightning surge.
In addition, shunt reactors can reduce line loadability if they are not
removed under full load conditions. Shunt capacitors are sometimes used
to deliver reactive power and increase transmission voltages during heavy
load conditions [23, 24].
Series capacitors are sometimes used on long lines to increase the
loadability. Capacitor banks are installed in series with each phase
conductor at selected points along a line. Their effects is to reduce the net
series impedance of the line in series with the capacitor bank, thereby
reducing line voltage drops and increasing the steady-state stability limit
[23, 24].
 57

X'  NC  X '  NC 
Series compensation j j
2 100 
  2 100 
+ IS + R'
+ + + +
j IR

Y '  NL  Y '  NL 

+
Y'

+
 Y' 
2 100    2 100 
Shunt compensation 2 2
VS VR
(a) Schematic (b) Equivalent circuit
Fig.2.10. Compensated Transmission Line Section

Note NC is the amount of series capacitive compensation; NL is the

amount of shunt reactive compensation.

2.16 Power System Stability

The stability of a system of interconnected dynamic components is its
ability to return to normal or stable operation after having been subjected
to some form of disturbance. The study of the stability is one of the main
concerns of control engineer to be applied to electric power systems [16,
37].

Stability and Stability limit are defined by ‘American Standard Definition

and Electrical Terms” published by the American Institute of Electrical
Engineers as:

Stability: with reference to power system, is that attribute of the system

or part of the system , which enables it to develop restoring forces between
the elements there of equal or greater than the disturbing forces so as to
restore a state of equilibrium between the elements.

A stability Limit is the maximum power flow possible through some

particular point in the system when the entire or the part of the system to
which the stability limit refers is operating with stability.

The stability and stability limit are applied to steady-state and transient
conditions of power system. Steady-state stability limit refers to the
 58

maximum flow of power possible through a particular point without the

loss of stability when the power is increased very gradually. Then
transient stability limit refers to the maximum flow of power through a
point without loss of stability when sudden disturbance occurs [37, 38].
Stability of power transmission system can be increased or maintained by
various ways including by installing compensator in the system.

2.17 Review of Power Flow Solution Methods

Types of power-flow solution methods include: general method for solving
power-flow problem, Gauss iteration, Gauss-Seidel, Newton-Raphson,
Decoupled, Fast-decoupled method e.t.c.
Power flow calculations are performed in power systems to determine the
steady-state operating characteristics of the power transmission system
for a given set of bus bar loads. Active power generation is normally
specified according to economics dispatching practices and the generator
voltage is normally maintained at a specified level by the automatic voltage
regulator acting on the machines excitation.
The solution is expected to provide information on voltage magnitudes and
angles, active and reactive power flow in the individual transmission units,
losses and the reactive power generated or absorbed at voltage controlled
buses.
The choice of a solution method for practical application is usually
difficult. It requires a careful analysis of the comparative merits and
demerits of the many available methods. The best method to be considered
fit must possess the following properties or characteristics

 Low computer storage like where minicomputer are used for on-line
application

 High computational speed

 Fast convergence characteristics

 59

 Simplicity- that is, the algorithm can easily be coded in the computer

 Reliability of solution – that is for ill conditioned and for real time
application solution will be possible.

 Versatility – to have the ability to handle conventional and social

features like the adjustment of tap ratios on transformers and different
representation of power system apparatus.

The problem or difficulty is that no one method possesses all the desired
features or characteristics. Newton-Raphson’s method has gained more
popularity since the introduction of compact storage scheme. It assumes
an initial starting voltage that is used in computing the mismatch power.
This method is excellent for large systems but does not take advantage of
the radial structure of distribution. However the method fails when the
Jacobian matrix is singular or when the system becomes ill-conditioned as
in the case where the distribution of X R ratio is low [13].

Fast Decoupled Power-Flow (FDPL) simplifies the Jacobian matrix by using

small-angle approximations to eliminate relatively small elements of the
Jacobian. The FDPF method is one of the effective techniques used in
power system analysis. However, it exhibits poor convergence for a system
with a high X R ratio [19, 39, 40].

2.18 Gauss Iterative Technique

It is a simple iterative method that was very popular in the early days of
digital computer-based power-flow analysis. It is used because of its
simplicity, and it is for small power system. It is also used in many cases
of large-scale system to obtain the first approximation solution for the
Newton-Raphson (NR) methods.
 60

The Gauss-seidel method solves the power-flow equations in rectangular

(1  j ) coordinate until differences in bus voltages from one iteration to
another are sufficiently small.

2.19 Gauss-Seidel Method

Gauss-seidel method is used in solving non-linear power flow equation.
Iterative method of solutions is usually adopted by assigning the estimated
values to the unknown bus voltages, and by calculating new values for
bus from the estimated values at the other buses and the real & reactive
power specified. As the corrected voltages are found at each bus, it is used
in calculating the corrected voltage at the next bus. Each calculation of a
new set of voltage is called iteration. This process is repeated at each bus
consecutively throughout the network (except at swing bus) to complete
the first iteration. The procedure is repeatedly carried out until the
changes at each bus are less than a specified minimum precision index
value.
To derive the power flow equations, we consider a four bus system with
bus (1) designated the swing bus; we then start computation from bus (2).

If P2 and Q2 are the scheduled real and reactive powers entering the
system at bus (2)

Eq. 2.4 can be written as S i  Pi  jQi  Vi I i

*

Pi  jQi
Si  Pi  jQi  Vi I i* ; I i  2.32
Vi*

Pk  jQk N
Ik  | Yik Vk |  Yik Vk
Vk* k 1

P2  jQ2
I2  2.33
V2*
 61

1  Pk  jQk N 
Vk   *
  Yik k 
V
y kk  Vk k 1 
And from Eq.2.32, we know that current can be expressed in terms of self-
and mutual admittances, we then express

Solving for therefore gives

1  P2  jQ 2 
V2    (Y V
21 1  Y V
23 3  Y 24 4 
V ) 2.34
Y22  V2* 
Where are scheduled real and reactive powers and can be
written as

1  P2, Sch  jQ 2, Sch 

V2    (Y 21V1  Y 23V 3  Y 24V 4 )  2.35
Y22  V2* 
If bus (3) & (4) are load buses with real and reactive power specified, we
have for as

1  P3  jQ3 
V3    (Y V
31 1  Y V
32 2  Y34 4 
V ) 2.36
Y33  V3* 
1  P4  jQ 4 
V4    (Y V
41 1  Y V
42 2  Y 43 3 
V ) 2.37
Y44  V4* 
If we equate real and imaginary parts, we have six equations in six state

variables (i.e. ) this process of solving non-liner

algebraic equation is known as the Gauss-seidel iterative method. If the
same set of voltage values is used throughout a complete iteration (instead
of immediately substituting each new value obtained to calculate the
voltage at next bus), the process is called Gauss iterative method. [20, 39]
For a system of N-buses, the calculated voltage at any bus K where and
are scheduled is given as
 62

 
1  Pk  jQk N
Vk    Yik Vk 
y kk  Vk *
k 1
 2.38
 k i 
The values for the voltages on the RHS of the equation are the most
recently calculated values for the corresponding buses (or the
scheduled/estimated voltage if no iteration has been done at that
particular bus)

2.20 Rules for the Formulation of Admittance Matrix

To obtain the Y-matrix, the diagonal element Yii is the algebraic sum of all

the admittances incident to node I, the off-diagonal element Yik  Yki are
obtained as the negative of the admittance connecting node I and k.

Yii = summation of the entire admittance incident to it.

Yik  Yki = negative of the admittance connecting I and k [40, 41]

2.20.1 Acceleration Factor

It is the multiplier that accomplishes the improvement in
convergence of power flow solution. For any system, values of
acceleration factor exist, and poor choice of acceleration factor may
result in less rapid convergence or make convergence impossible. An
acceleration factor of 1.6 for both the real and imaginary components
is usually a good choice but studies may be made to determine the
best choice for a particular system [20].
 63

2.20.2 Use of Acceleration Factor

The Gauss-Seidel (G.S) solution method of power-flow problems requires
many numbers of iteration before the voltage correction fall within an
acceptable precision index. The number of iterations can be considerable
reduced by the use of acceleration factor ( ) Here the difference between
the newly calculated voltage and the best previous voltage at a bus is
multiplied by the appropriate acceleration factor to obtain a better
correction to be added to the previous value.

For bus (2) in the first iteration, we have the acceleration value V2,acc
defined by the straight line formula;

V2(,1acc
)
 (1   )V2(0)  V2(1)
V2(,1acc
)
 V2(,0acc
)
  (V2(1)  V2( 0) ) 2.39
Where ‘ is acceleration factor. In power flow studies ‘  ’ lies between 1.4
and 1.6 and cannot exceed 2 if convergence is to occur [11, 42]
Generally

Vi ,(acc
r)
 (1   )Vi ,(acc
r 1)
 Vi ( r )
r 1)
 Vi ,(acc   (Vi ( r )  Vi ,(acc
r 1)
) 2.40

2.21 Bus with Q Unspecified and V Specified (i.e. Voltage Control

Buses)

(a) Voltage Controlled Buses

In the polar form of the power flow equations, voltage controlled buses are
taken into account. For instance if we have a four-bus system in which

bus (4) is voltage controlled bus, then | V4 | has a specified constant value
 | V4 |
and its voltage correction must always be zero. Furthermore, since
| V4 |
 64

Q4 is not specified, the mismatch Q4 cannot be defined and of course, Q4

can only be calculated after the power flow solution becomes available. In
general case, if there are Ng voltage-controlled (PV) buses, a row and
column for each such bus is omitted from the polar form of the system
Jacobian.

From the equation 2.38 (when i=k)

 
1  Pi  jQi N
Vi    YikVk 
Yii  Vi *
k 1

 k i 

If Q is unspecified, to get its value we solve as follows

N
Pi  jQi  [YiiVi   YikVk ]Vi*
k 1
k i
If we let i=k then
N
Pi  jQi  Vi *
Y V
k 1
ik k 2.41

Thus
N
Qi   Im{Vi *
Y V }
k 1
ik k 2.42

Eq. 2.42 is used to evaluate Qi for the best previous voltage value at the

bus. To normalize the value at bus 4, we solve with;

 
1  P4,sch  jQ4
(1) N
V4(1)    Y4 kVk(1) 
yii  V4*
k 1

 k i 
So normalized
 65

(1)
V4
V (1)
4 ,cor  V4 2.43
V4(1)
We then proceed to the next step with V4,cor as the stored value of voltage

at bus (4) [11, 42].

2.22 General Method for Solving Power-Flow Problem

Since we know that Ibus = Vbus[Ybus] for an n-bus system, Ibus is an nx1
vector with general entry Ii, Vbus is an nx1 vector with Vi as general entry.
[Ybus] is an nxn matrix with entries Yii and Yik. Current entering the ith
bus of an ‘n’ bus system is given by

I  Y11V1  Y12V2  .....  YiiVi ....YinVn

N
  YiK Vk 2.44
K 1

N
  YiK VK ( K   iK ) 2.45
K 1

But Yii  V K  K , and YiK  YiK  iK

The complex power injected into ith bus is

S i  Pi  jQi  Vi I i* 2.46
But the power-flow computation is handled more conveniently by using
rather than . Taking the complex conjugate of equation 2.46.

Si  Pi  jQi  Vi* I i* 2.47

N
S i  Pi  jQi  Vi *
Y
K 1
iK Vk 2.48

Since Vi  Vi  i , Vi*  Vi    i , and YiK  YiK  iK

We have
N
Pi  jQi | Vi |  | YiK Vk |( ik   k   i ) 2.49
K 1
Equating real and imaginary parts of equation 2.49
 66

N
Pi | Vi |  | YiK Vk | cos( ik   k   i ) 2.50
K 1
N
Qi   | Vi |  | YiK Vk | sin( ik   k   i ) 2.51
K 1
These equations (i.e. Eqs. 2.50 & 2.51) are known as static or balanced
equations of real and reactive powers of bus (i). They are none-linear and
therefore only a numerical solution is possible. For each of the n-bus
system we have two of such equations giving a total of 2n equations.
Equation 2.48 can be expanded using rectangular | 1  j | or | cos  j sin  |

and polar (10 0 ) formulation.

If we denote Pgi, sch as the scheduled power being generated at bus (i) and

Pdi denote the scheduled power demand at bus (i), then

Pi ,sch  Pgi  Pdi.

Pi,calc denote calculated power at bus (i). We can now define mismatch ' Pi '

as the scheduled value Pi ,sch minus the calculated value Pi ,calc

i.e Pi  Pi ,sch  Pi.calc 2.52

and for reactive power at bus (i) we have

Qi  Qi ,sch  Qi.calc 2.53

These two equations 2.52 and 2.53 can be represented using arrow flow
diagram as in Fig 2.11 below

Q gi
gi i,Sch
Qi ,sch

i Qi

di Qdi
(b)
(a)
Fig. 2.11 Power Flow Illustrative Diagram (a) Active Power, (b) Reactive Power
 67

Mismatches occur in the course of solving a power flow problems when

calculated values of Pi and Qi do not match with the scheduled values.

When Pi ,calc and Qi ,clc match the scheduled values Pi , sch and Qi ,sch , we say

that the mismatch Pi and Qi are zero at bus (i).

Introducing a mismatch Pi which is the difference between the scheduled

value Pi , sch and the calculated value Pi ,calc i.e.

Pi  Pi,sch  Pi.calc  ( Pig  Pid )  Pi ,calc 2.54

Qi  Qi,sch  Qi.calc  (Qig  Qid )  Qi,calc 2.55

2.23 Types of Buses in a Network

Buses can be load buses, generator buses or swing buses. A load bus is
also called PQ bus since the real and reactive are specified ( i and Qi ) and

it does not have a generator. A load bus need not have load; it may simply
be an interconnection point for two or more lines. The specified real i and
reactive Qi powers enable the voltage to be calculated. Real and reactive
powers supplied to the bus are positive quantities while that consumed
from power system are negative.
A generator or voltage controlled bus (PV bus) have a generator connected
to it and the generated power g i and voltage Vi are specified. The voltage

is kept constant by adjusting the field current of a synchronous generator

to the bus.
The “swing or slack or reference bus is a special type of generator bus
that is needed by the solution process. The swing generator adjusts its
scheduled power to supply the system MW and MVar losses that are not
otherwise accounted for. There is normally only one swing bus. Usually in
 68

utility studies, a large generator is picked as the swing bus. The generator
at this bus supply the difference between the specified real power injected
into the system at other buses and the total system output plus losses.
Since the voltages throughout the system must be close to 1pu, we specify
the voltage at the swing bus equal to 1pu.

2.23.1 Classification of System Buses

There are three class of buses; the slack or reference bus, voltage
controlled (PV) bus and load (or P.Q) bus.

The load-flow problem is to determine values for all the state variables by
solving an equal number of load-flow equations based on the input data
specifications. If there are Ng voltage-controlled buses (excluding the slack

bus) in the system of N buses there will be 2 N  N g  2 equations to be

solved for 2 N  N g  2 state variables as shown in Table 2.1. Once the

state variables have been calculated, the complete state of the system is
known and all other quantities which depend on the state variable

( i , | Vi |) can be determined.

Table 2.1 Summary of Load Flow Problem

Bus type No of buses Quantities specified No of available No of
equation state variables
Slack i=1 1 0 0
Voltage controlled

Load
)

Total
N 2N
 69

2.24 Fast Decoupled Power flow Solution Method (FDPF)

FDPF solution method is a very fast technique for computing the power
flow solution. In this method both speed and sparsity are exploited. This
method was developed by B. Stott & G Alsac in 1974. It is formulated in
polar coordinate with certain approximations made to save storage space
in the computer memory that resulted into a fast algorithm for power flow
solution. But Newton-Raphson solution method converges faster and
better since the innovation of compact computer system with large
memory space in the market [9, 30].
In this case, the following approximations are made for evaluating the
elements of Jacobian matrix.
 The line susceptances BiK are many times larger than the line
conductance Gik so that

GiK sin  K   i   BiK cos K   i 

but cos K   i   1 2.56

so GiK sin  K   i   BiK 2.57

 the angular difference ( k   i ) between buses of the system are

usually so small that
cos K   i   1 sin  K   i   (   i ) 2.58
,

 The reactive power Qi injected into any bus (i) of the system during
normal operation is much less than the reactive power which would flow if
all lines from that bus were short circuited to reference; that is
Qi  Vi 2 Bii 2.59

These approximations are used to simplify the elements of Jacobian

matrix [17, 20] given by Eqs.2.60(a) & 2.60(b);
 70

Qi
LiK  V K  ViV K YiK sin  iK   K   i  2.60(a)
 VK

H iK  LiK  ViV K  GiK sin  K   i   BiK cos K   i  ), 2.60(b)

The off-diagonal elements LiK  H iK are given by

i Qi
 VK   ViV K YiK sin  iK   K   i  (b)
 i V K

Recall that

YiK sin  iK  BiK

2.61
YiK cos iK  GiK

Simplifying further equation (b) becomes

i Qi
 VK   ViVK {BiK cos( K   i )  GiK sin( K   i )} 2.62
 i VK

Which boils down to

LiK  H iK   ViVK BiK 2.63(a)

Then, the diagonal element Lii and H ii , [9, 30] given by

Lii  Qi  Vi 2 Bii 2.63(b)

H ii  Qi  Vi 2 Bii

and by applying the inequality constraint (i.e. Qi  Vi Bii )

2

Lii | 2Vi 2Yii | sin  ii  Qi  Vi 2Yii sin  ii ) 2.64

yields.
Lii  H ii   Vi Bii 2.65(a)
2

LiK  H iK   ViVK BiK for i ≠ k

Lii  H ii   Vi Bii
2
for i = k 2.65(b)

Substituting
 71

Pi  Pi ,sch  Pi.calc into the Jacobian equations given by

P  H   & 2.66(a)

 V 
Q  L   2.66(b)
 V 

becomes

Pi   Vi VK Bik'  k  2.67(a)

Q   V V B '' | Vk |

i i K ik 2.67(b)
| Vk |
Where B ik and Bik are the elements of the [-B] matrix [9, 30]
' ''

The following assumptions are made for further decoupling and the final
algorithm for the fast-decoupled method
1. Omit from B′ the representation of those network elements that
affect MVAr flows, that is shunt reactants and set taps ‘i’ of off-nominal
transformers equal to 1
2. Omit from B″ the angle-shifting effects of phase-shifters (by setting
t  1  00 0
3. Divide equations 2.67(a) and 2.67(b) by V i and assume Vk  1 p.u

and also neglecting the series resistance in calculating the elements of B′

[9, 20, 42].
with these assumptions, equations 2.67(a) & 2.67(b) for FDLF solution
take the form
Pi   B '  
i 2.68(a)
Vi

Pi   B ''  

k 2.68(b)
Vi

If we substitute the approximation of Eq.2.65b in the coefficient matrix L11

and H 11 we obtain for a 4-bus system Eqs. 2.69 & 2.70.

 72

 V2V2 B22  V2V3 B23  V2V4 B24    2  2 

     
     
  V2V3 B32  V3V3 B33  V3V4 B34   3   3  2.69
  
  
     
 V2V4 B42  V4V3 B43  V4V4 B44    4  4 
     
 
and
 V2V2 B22  V2V3 B23  V2V4 B24    V2  Q2 
     
   V2   
  V2V3 B32  V3V3 B33  V3V4 B34    V3   Q3  2.70
  V  
   3   
 V2V4 B42  V4V3 B43  V4V4 B44    V4  Q4 
   V   
   4 

The voltages can be removed from the entries of the coefficient matrix of
  |V | 
Eq. 2.70 by multiplying the first row by the correction vector  k
 and
 | Vk | 
then divide the resultant by│V2│ that is
V2V2 B22 V2 Q2 and so on, to obtain
 
V2 V2 V2

Q2
 B22  V2  B23 V3  B24  V4  2.71
V2

Q3
 B32  V2  B33  V3  B34  V4 
V3

And so on
Each row of Eq. 2.70 can be treated similarly by representing the reactive
mismatch at bus ‘i’ by the quantity Qi . The coefficients in Eq. 2.71 are
Vi

constants equal to the negative of the susceptance in the row of bus which

correspond to bus 2. All the entries in the coefficient matrix of Eq. 2.70
become constants given by the susceptance of bus
 73

 B22  B23  B24   V2   Q2 

     
     V2 
 B32  B33  B34    V3   Q3 
    2.72
 B    V3 
 42  B43  B44   V4   Q4 
     V 
   4 

B″ Decoupled system equation

Equation 2.69 can be modified as well by multiplying the first row by the
 i
vector of angle corrections i.e.
Vi

 2 
 V2V2 B22  ;  V2V3 B23  3 ; etc
V2 V3
And rearranging the result to obtain
2
 V2 B22  2  V2 B23  3  V2 B24  4 
V2 2.73
3
 V3 B32 2  V3 B33 3  V3 B34 4 
V3

If we set │V2│, │V3│ and │V4│ equal to 1.0 p.u in the left-hand side of the
expression, we have constant coefficients as those in Eq. 2.71. The other
rows of Eq. 2.69 are treated in a similar manner to get the decoupled
system of equations for the four-bus network. Note that 2 represent
V2

real power mismatch.

 B22  B23  B24   2   2 

    V 
     2 
 B32  B33  B34    3   3  2.74
 
     V3 
 B  
 B43  B44   4   4 
 42   
     V4 

B″ Decoupled system equation

 74

In Eqs. 2.68(a) & 2.68(b), both B′ and B″ are real and sparse and have the
structure as [H] & [L] respectively. Since they contain only network
admittances, they are constant and need to be triangularized or inverted
only once at the beginning of the iterations and then used in all successive
iteration.
If phase-shifters are not present, both [B′] and [B″] are always
symmetrical, and their constant sparse. Upper triangular factor are
calculated and stored only once at the beginning of the solution. This
algorithm results in a very fast solution of ∆δ and ∆V and hence the name
fast-decoupled method [20, 43, 44].
As earlier stated Newton-Raphson solution method converges faster with
fewer iterations and better since the innovation of compact computer
system with large memory space in the market.
 75

CHAPTER 3

POWER FLOW PROBLEMS AND METHOD OF ANALYSIS

3.1 The Challenges in AC Power System.

Management of reactive power and voltage control constitute part of the

major challenges in power system industry, ranging from poor power
quality problems, voltage profile violation, transmission line efficiency
and system instability. Also voltage drop, overloaded lines, long
transmission lines, thermal limit extension, and overloading of available
generator. These are system problems and not as a result of human being
like vandals. Power demand increases steadily while the expansion of
power generation and transmission has been severely limited due to the
inadequate resources and environmental forces, thus causing constant
power failure in the Nigeria power system. As electrical energy is generated
at the power stations far away from the urban area and are delivered to
the consumers through a network of long transmission line and
distribution system, the terminal voltages varies as a result of increased
voltage drop. Compensation techniques help to address most of these
challenges. In this work, the Nigeria 330KV network 30 bus system was
used as case study. Mat-lab SIMULINK program was written using
Newton-Raphson’s solution method

3.2 Methodology

Detailed study of the Nigeria integrated power network system presented

in its current state was carried out. Using single-line diagram of the
existing 330KV 30 bus system of Nigeria transmission network of which
the Egbin power station was chosen as the slack bus, its parameters
comprising the generators, lines data, load data, and other parameters
were examined. Equations for the power flow analysis are then formulated
 76

incorporating these parameters. The algorithm for the Newton-Raphson’s

method was developed and used to carry out the analysis because of its
sparsity, fast convergence and simplicity attribute as compared to other
solution methods using the relevant data as obtained from power holding
company of Nigeria (PHCN). Most of the solutions oriented to the analysis
of power systems require the implementation of sophisticated algorithms
which need a considerable amount of calculations that must be carried
out with digital computers. These tools facilitate the development of
solution algorithms for any engineering problem, by taking into account
the mathematical formulations which define the solution of the proposed
problem, such as MATLAB, Python, JAVA etc. MATLAB is proprietary
software engineering tools. It is a high-performance numerical computing,
modeling, object-oriented and fourth-generation programming language. It
integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy to use
environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar
mathematical notation. It is one of simulation software which has become
a good option for many researchers in different science and engineering
areas because it can allow the creation, manipulation and operation of
sparse or full matrices; it also allows the user the simulation of any
mathematical algorithm by means of an ordered sequence of commands.
For these, MATLAB m-file program and SIMULINK model were used to
obtain the power flow base solutions with Newton-Raphson’s algorithm.
Other functions like fphase, fvgen, compensation etc. were developed and
used for the simulation analysis. The procedure for the solution method
shall be discussed in section 4.8.

3.3 Basis of Power flow Analysis

Power flow analysis is one of the most important methods of solving

problems in power system studies. The solution is of fundamental
importance in power system analysis and design. Power flow problem is
 77

the computation of voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus in a

power system under balanced three-phase steady state condition. The
main information obtained from this study comprises the magnitudes and
phase angles of bus voltages real and reactive power flow in the
equipment such as transmission lines, transformers and other variables
being specified. This information is essential for the continuous
monitoring of the current state of the system and for analyzing the
effectiveness of alternative plans for future system expansion to meet
increased load demand. One line diagram of power system shown in Fig.
3.1 is considered. The systems considered by power engineers would be
larger, with as many as thousands of buses and transmission links.

Sg1 Sg2 Sg3

V2 V5
V1
Sd3
Sd1
V4 V5
Sd5
Sd4

Fig.3.1 One–Line Diagram of 5 Bus System

From Fig. 3.1 is the injected (Complex) generator powers and the
the complex load powers. The V1 is the complex (phasor) bus voltages.
Transformers are assumed to have been absorbed into the generator.

S i  Pi  jQi  ( Pgi  Pdi )  j (Qgi  Qdi ) 3.1

Complex power supplied by generators is

S gi  Pgi  jQgi 3.2

and the complex power drawn by the loads is

S di  Pdi  jQdi 3.3
 78

S i  S gi  S di
N
S i   S ik ,  i  1,2,........,n 3.4
k 1

Where we sum over all the transmission links connected to the ith bus
and also define the bus current
N
I i  I gi  I di   I ik ,.i  1,2,.......,n 3.5
k 1

Ii is the total phase current entering the transmission system

Using I  YbusV , we get the ith component

N
I i   YikVk 3.6
k 1

The ith bus power is given as

N
S i  V I  Vi ( YikVk )
*
i i 3.7
k 1
N
  Yik*Vk* .i  1,2,......N
k 1
If we define

Vi  Vi e j  Vi e j
 ik . i   k

Yik .Gik  jBik

Note we use a polar representation for (complex) voltage but a rectangular

representation for (complex) admittance, Gik is conductance while Bik are
called susceptance.
The Eq. 3.7 becomes
N
S   ViVk e jik (Gik  jBik )
k 1
 79

N
  ViVk (cos ik  j sin  ik )(Gik  jBik ) 3.8
k 1

Equation 3.7 & 3.8 are the equivalent form of (complex) Power flow
equation. Eqn.3.8 can be splitted into real and imaginary part as,
N
Pi   | Vi || Vk |(Gik cos ik  Bik sin  ik ) 3.9a
k 1
N
Qi   | Vi || Vk |(Gik sin  ik  Bik cos ik ) 3.9b
k 1

3.4 Formulation of Power Flow Problem (Nodal Admittance Matrix)

The current flowing through a network component can be related to the
voltage drop across it by either an admittance or an impedance matrix

(i.e. I  VY , or V  IZ ) . The steady-state behaviour of all the components

acting together as a system is given by the nodal admittance matrix
analysis.
The nodal admittance matrix of a power system is large and sparse, and
can be constructed in a systematic building-block manner. This building-
block approach provides insight for developing algorithm to account for
network changes. Because the network matrices are very large, sparsity
techniques are needed to enhance the computational efficiency of
computer programs employed in solving many of the power system
problems.
Using a 3-bus system to develop the physical model as shown in Fig 3.2.
 80

Sg1  g1  jQg1 S g 2  g 2  jQg 2

V1 | V1 |  1 V2 | V2 |  2
PL3  jQL3 Z12
PL 2  jQL 2
Z 23
Z 31

V3 | V3 |  3
PQ

PL3  jQL3
Fig. 3.2 Three bus system

Complex power injected into the bus from the generators is given by

S i  ig  jQid 3.10a

And at the ith bus, the net complex power injected into the bus is given by
S i  Pi  jQi  gi  di   j Qgi  Qdi  3.10b

While the real and reactive power injected into the ith bus are thus:
i  gi  di
Qi  Qgi  Qdi For i = 1, 2, …………..n

The total phasor current (Ii) entering the transmission line is given by
1   gi   di 3.11

The nodal equations of the 3-bus network are; at bus 1, current entering
into the node is

1  Y12  Y13  jb12  b13 V1  Y12V2  Y13V3 3.12

At bus 2,
 81

 2  Y12V1  Y12  Y23  j b21  b23 V2  Y23V3 3.13

At bus 3  3  Y12V1  Y23V3  Y12V1  Y23V3  jYC  jb12  b23 V3 3.14

Where

11  12  13  j b12  b13 

22  12  23  j b12  b23 
33  13  23  j b13  b23  c 
1
12  21 
12

23  32  1
 23
13  31  1  C  1
13 C
But complex power ‘S’ into the system is

S    jQ VI *

* 
  jQ ; 
  jQ 
*

V V*
  jQ
:.  3.15
V*
1  jQ1
*
 12  13  j b12  b13 V1  12V2  13V3 3.16
V1
2  jQ2
*
 12V2  12  23  j b12  b23 V2  23V3 3.17
V2
3  jQ3
*
 13V1  23V2  [13  23  jC  j b13  b23 ]V3 3.18
V3

Equations 3.16 to 3.18 can be put in matrix form as in Eq3.19

 82

 1  jQ1   11  12  13  V1 

 *     
 V1     
 2  jQ2    12 22  23   V2 
 V*      3.19
 2
     33  V3 
 3  jQ3   13 23

 V3*     

  jQ
 V   
V
I
Z V*

So   jQ   VV * 3.20
Equating real and imaginary part of Eq. 3.19
We find that

1  Re 11V1V1*  12V2V1*  13V3V1*  (i)

2  Re 12V1V2* 22V2V2*  23V3V2*  (ii)

3  Re13V1V3*  22V2V3* 33V3V3*  (iii)

Q1   Im11V1V1*  12V2V1*  13V3V1*  (iv)

Q2   Im12V1V2* 22V2V2*  23V3V2*  (v)

Q3   Im13V1V3*  23V2V3* 33V3V3*  (vi)

So for each bus we have

Bus 1: P1 , Q1 , V1 ,  1
Bus 2: 2 , Q2 V2 ,  2 Gives 12 variables from
three equations.
Bus 3: 3 , Q3 V3 , 3

3.4.1 Observation from Power flow Equations

1. Equations are non-linear therefore numerical computation
techniques will be used.
2. The unknown (variables) are twice the number of equations,
therefore for an n-bus system we will have 4n variables and 2n equations.
etc
 83

To obtain a solution for the load-flow problems, we should specify a priori

the value of the two of the variables and compute the other two variables.
This makes the number of equations equal to the number of the variables.
This concept of fixing some of the variables leads us to bus-type
classification as means of implementing the idea.

3.5 Newton-Raphson’s Method

The Gauss-Seidel iterative algorithm (technique) is very simple but
convergence becomes increasingly slow as the system size grows. The
Newton-Raphson’s (N.R) technique converges fast in less than four to five
iterations irrespective of system size.
The N.R method solves the polar form (10 0 ) of the power flow equation
until the P and Q mismatches in all the buses fall within specified
tolerance.

3.6 N.R Algorithm in the scalar Case

From the knowledge of circuit theory that is Taylor’s series expansion for a
function of two or more variables is the basis for the N.R method for
solving the power flow problem. Starting the discussion by taking a
problem involving only two equations and two variables, and then extend
the analysis to the solution of power flow equation afterwards. Considering

the equation of a function h1 of two variables X 1 and X 2 equal to a

constant b1 written as

g1 ( x1 , x2 , u)  h1 ( x1 , x2 , u)  b1  0 3.21
And another function such that
g 2 ( x1 , x2 , u)  h2 ( x1 , x2 , u)  b2  0 3.22
b1 & b2 - constant
U – independent control and also a constant,
 84

g1 & g1 -- are introduced for convenience to discuss the difference

between the calculated values of h1 & h2 and their respective specified

value b1 & b2
For a specified value of U, we can estimate the solution of these equations

to be X 1(0) and X 2(0) . The zero superscripts indicate the initial estimates,
X 1(1) & X 2(1) actual solution.
X 1( 0 ) & X 2( 0 ) are the correction values to be added to X 1( 0) & X 2( 0) to

yield the corrected solution X 1(1) & X 2(1) so equation 3.21 and 3.22
becomes

g1 ( X 11 , X 21 , U )  g1 ( X 1(0)  X 1(0) , X 2(0)  X 2(0) , U )  0 3.23

g 2 ( X 11 , X 21 , U )  g 2 ( X 1(0)  X 1(0) , X 2(0)  X 2(0) , U )  0 3.24

The problem is to solve X 1( 0 ) and X 2( 0 ) and it is achieved by expanding

Eqs3.23 and 3.24 in Taylor’s series about the assumed solution to give

g1 (0) g
g1 ( X 11 , X 21 , U )  g1 ( X 1(0) , X 2(0) , U )  X 1(0) | X 2(0) 1 |(0) .....  0
x1 x2
3.25(3.37)
g 2 (0) g
g 2 ( X 11 , X 21 , U )  g 2 ( X 1(0) , X 2(0) , U )  X 1(0) | X 2(0) 2  .....  0 3.26
x1 x2
Neglecting the partial derivatives of the order greater than 1, the term
g 2 0
| indicates that the partial derivatives is evaluated at X 1( 0) and X 2( 0) .
x1

The matrix form of Eqs.3.25 and 3.26 is as follow;

 g 1 g 2 
 0  g 1 ( X 11 , X 21 , U )   b1  h1 ( X 1 , X 2 , U ) 
(0) (0)
 x 
x 2 X 1    
(0)
 1   (0)     3.27
 g 2 g 2  X 2   
   b2  h2 ( X 1 , X 2 , U )
 
1 1 (0) (0)
 x1 x 2   0 g 2 ( X 1 , X 2 , U )
 85

Equation 3.27 indicates square matrix called JACOBIAN J 0 , the zero

superscript indicates the initial estimate X 1(0) and X 2(0) which is used to
compute the numerical values of the partial derivatives. The mismatch

g1( 0 ) is the specified value of g1 minus the calculated value of g1 .

X 1(0)  g1(0) 

J  ( 0)    ( 0) 
( 0)
3.28
X 2  g 2 

We determine X 1( 0 ) and X 2( 0 ) by solving the mismatch equation either

by triangular factorization of the Jacobian or by finding its inverse (for
very small problem). However since we truncated the series expansion,
these values added to our initial guess do not determine the correct
solution and we must try again by assuming new estimates X 1(1) and X 1( 2)
where.

X 1(1)  X 1( 0)  X 1( 0)
3.29
X 2(1)  X 2( 0)  X 2( 0)

We repeat the process until the corrections become so small in magnitude

that satisfy a chosen precision index   0 that Is | X 1 | & | X 2 | are less

than  .

3.7 Mathematical Development of Newton-Raphson’s (NR) Solution

Method

3.7.1 Newton-Raphson’s Method Applied to P.F Problem.

The general non-linear algebraic equations of power flow are transformed

into a set of linear algebraic equations relating the changes in power (i.e.
error in power) to the change in real and reactive components of bus
voltages with the help of the Jacobian matrix. To apply N.R method to the
 86

solution of power flow equations, we express bus voltages and admittances

in polar form. From Eqs. (2.50 & 2.51), when n (i.e. no of buses) is set
equal to ‘I’ and the corresponding terms are separated from the
summations, we have
N
Pi | Vi | Gii   | ViVk Yik | cos( ik   k   i )
2

K 1
3.30
K i

N
Qi   | Vi | Bii   | ViVk Yik | sin( ik   k   i )
2

K 1
3.31
K i

Gii and Bii are the conductance and susceptance of a line joining two
transmission stations. Since transmission lines connect bus (i) to another

bus k which has its admittance expressed as y ik .

yik | yik |  ik | Yik | (cos ik  j sin  ik )

Yik  Gik  JBik 3.32(a)
This gives the voltage at a particular bus (k) to be

Vi | Vi |  i | Vi | (cos i  j sin  i ) 3.32(b)

So that

Gii | Yii | (cos ii ) When i=k 3.33

Bii | Yii | (sin  ii )
Yii  Gii  jBii , and  k   i  0 (k=i) 3.34

Let us assume that all buses are load buses except the slack bus (which

must be a generator bus) with known demand Pdi and Qdi . The slack bus

has specified values of | Vi | and  i , at each of the non-slack buses,

estimated values of | Vi | and  i corresponding to the estimate X 1( 0) and

 87

X 2(0) in the proceeding section corresponds to the mismatch. The complex

power mismatches for a typical bus (i) is giving thus;

Pi  Pi , sch  Pi ,calc 3.35

Qi  Qi ,sch  Qi ,calc

Writing the mismatch equation for the 4-bus system and then extend it to
n-bus system. For real power P we have, (bus 1 is a slack)
Pi P P Pi P Pi
Pi   2  i  3  i  4   | V2 |  i  | V3 |   | V4 | 3.36
 2  3  4  | V2 |  | V3 |  | V4 |

i.e. P  j ( 2 ,  3 ,  4 ,V2 ,V3 & V4 )

The last 3-terms can be multiplied and divided by their respective voltage
magnitude without altering their values, and we obtain,
Pi P P Pi  | V2 | Pi  | V3 | Pi  | V4 |
Pi   2  i  3  i  4  | V2 |  | V3 |  | V4 |
 2  3  4  | V2 | | V2 |  | V3 | | V3 |  | V4 | | V4 |

3.37
A similar mismatch equation can be written for reactive power Q,

Qi Q Q Qi  | V2 | Qi  | V3 | Qi  | V4 |

Qi   2  i  3  i  4  | V2 |  | V3 |  | V4 |
 2  3  4  | V2 | | V2 |  | V3 | | V3 |  | V4 | | V4 |
3.38
These Eqs.3.37 & 3.38 can be put into matrix form to produce the
Jacobian matrix as presented below [9].
 P2 P2 P2 P2 
   
 P2    2  4  | V2 |  | V4 |    2 

             
   P4 P4 P4 P4  
  
 P4   
    4  | V2 |  | V4 |    4 

 
2
          3.39
 
Q2   Q2 
Q2

Q2

Q2
  | V2 |
     4  | V2 |  | V4 |  
    2        
Q   Q Q4 Q4 Q4   | V4 |
 4 4
    
  | V 2 |  | V4 |  | V2 |  | V4 |
 88

In the above equation, bus 1 is assumed to be the slack bus. The

Jacobian matrix gives the linear relationship between small changes in

voltage angle  i(k ) and voltage magnitude  | Vi (k ) | with the small changes

in real and reactive power Pi (k ) and Qi(k ) . Elements of the Jacobin

matrix are the partial derivatives of 3.30 and 3.31 evaluated at  i(k ) and

 | Vi (k ) | . In short form it can be written as;

 P   J 11 J 12      P   H N    
Q    J   OR     3.40
   21 J 22   | V | Q   M L   |V |

The partioned form of Eq.3.39 shows the four different types of partial
derivative contained in the Jacobin matrix
For voltage-controlled buses, the voltage magnitudes are known.
Therefore, if ‘m’ buses of the system are voltage-controlled, ‘m’ equations

involving Q & V and the corresponding columns of the Jacobian

matrix are eliminated accordingly. There are n-1 real power constraints
and n-1-m reactive power constraints, and the Jacobin matrix is of order
(2n-2-m) x (2n-2-m).
The diagonal and the off-diagonal elements of J 11 are

Pi N
  | Vi || Vk || Yik | sin( ik   k   i )
 i K 1 3.41
K i

Pi
  | Vi || Vk || Yik | sin( ik   k   i )
 k k i 3.42

The diagonal and the off-diagonal elements of J 12 are

Pi N
 2 | Vi || Yii | cos ii   | Vi || Vk || Yik || cos( ik   k   i )
 | Vi | K 1
3.43
K i
 89

Pi
| Vi || Yik | cos( ik   k   i )
 | Vk | k 1 3.44

The diagonal and the off-diagonal elements of J 21 are

Qi N
  | Vi || Vk || Yik | cos( ik   k   i )
 i K 1
K i

Qi
  | Vi || Vk || Yik | cos( ik   k   i )
3.45  k 1
k
3.46
The diagonal and the off-diagonal elements of J 22 are
Qi N
 2 | Vi || Yii | sin  ii   | Vi || Vk || Yik || sin( ik   k   i ) 3.47
 | Vi | K 1
K i

Qi
  | Vi || Yik | sin( ik   k   i ), k  1
 | Vk | 3.48

The term Pi k and Qik are the difference between the scheduled and the
calculated values, known as the power mismatch (residuals), given by

Pi ( k )  Pi , sch  Pi ,cal 3.49

Qi( k )  Qi , sch  Qi ,cal 3.50

Then the new estimates for the bus voltages are

 i(k 1)   i(k )   i(k ) 3.51

Vi ( k 1)  Vi ( D )   Vi ( k ) 3.52

The following steps are the Newton-Raphson’s procedures used in solving

power flow problem [9]

1. Estimate the values of  i( 0) and | Vi |(0) for the state variables

 90

(0) (0)
2. Use the estimate to calculate Pi ,calc and Qi ,calc using Eqs.3.30 and

3.31 then the mismatches Pi (0) and Qi( 0) using Eqs.3.35 and 3.36.
3. Evaluate the elements of the Jacobian matrix ( J11, J12 , J 21, J 22 )
using Eqs 3.43 – 3.48
Solve Eq.3.51 for initial corrections  i and  | Vi |
( 0) ( 0)
4. directly using
optimally ordered triangular factorization and Gaussian elimination
method.
5. The new voltage magnitudes and phase angles are computed using
Eqs.3.51 & 3.52.
 i(1) and Vi
(1)
6. Use the new values obtained as a starting values for
the next iteration and so on.
The process is continued until the mismatches Pi and Qi
(k ) (k )
7. are
less than the specified tolerance i.e.
Pi (k )  
3.53
Qi(k )  

These steps are as represented in Fig. 3.3.

 91

Input Data : Read all

input data,form System
admittance matrix.
Initialize voltage and
angle at al buses

Calculate Real and Reactive

Power Mismatch

Has it
Yes
Converged

No

Form Jacobian Matrix

Output
Solve Jacobian Equation for Result
Voltages and Angle Update

Update Voltages and Angles

Fig.3.3 Flow Chart for Newton-Raphson’s Basic Powerflow Solution Algorithm

3.8 Characteristics of Newton-Raphson’s Power flow Solution Method

The application of sparse programming techniques and the optimally

ordered triangular factorization to Newton-Raphson’s method has made it
become faster than other methods for large system. With good
programming the time per iteration rises almost linearly with the number
of system buses N. the success of this method is critical on the
formulation of the problem.
 92

The coefficient of the Jacobian matrix are not constant, they are functions
of the voltage variables V and  and hence vary for each iteration.
However, after a few iterations as V and  tends to their final values the
coefficients will tend to final values. The modification of the Newton’s
algorithm is to calculate the Jacobian for the first two iterations and then
use the final value for all the following iterations. On the other way, the
Jacobian can be updated every two or more iterations. None of these
affects the convergence of the algorithm, but much time is saved (but not
storage)

3.9 Techniques Which Make the Newton-Raphson’s solution method

Competitive In power-flow

The efficient solution of Eq.3.51 (Jacobian equation) at each iteration is

crucial to the success of the N-R method. For most power system networks
the admittance matrix is relatively sparse and in the N.R method of power-
flow the Jacobian matrix has the same sparsity.

The techniques which have been used to make the Newton-Raphson

competitive with other power-flow methods involves the solution of the
Jacobian matrix equation and the preservation of the sparsity of the
matrix by ordered triangular factorization.

3.9.1 Sparsity Programming

In sparsity programming only the nonzero elements are stored, in one or

more vectors plus integer vector for identifications.

Triangular Factorization –To solve the Jacobian matrix Eq.3.51

represented here as

   J V 
 93

For increments in the voltage, the direct method is to find the inverse of J 

and solve for V  from V   J 1   .

In power system J  is usually sparse but J 1 is a full matrix. The method
of triangular factorization solves for the vector V  by eliminating J  to an
upper triangular matrix with a leading diagonal and then back-
substituting for V  , i.e. eliminate    U V 
1
and back-substitute

U 1    V  Triangulation of the Jacobian is best done by row. This
means that the maximum storage is that of the resultant upper triangular
and diagonal.

The N-R method is a powerful method for solving non-linear algebraic

equations. It is the practical method of power solution of large power
networks. Its only drawback is the large requirement of computer memory
which has been overcome through a compact storage scheme. [as in
appendix A3]. (Convergence can be considerably speeded up by performing
the first iteration through the Gauss Seidel and use the value obtained for
starting N.R iteration). During the iteration, the elements of the Jacobian
are calculated since they depend upon the latest voltage estimate and
calculated power. The process is continued until the error in power

becomes very small, that is | Pi | and | Qi |  where  is very small
number.

Summarily; the Newton-Raphson’s method of power-flow analysis has a

very good convergence rate. The computation time increases linearly with
system size. However, convergence becomes difficult when initial voltages
are significantly different from their true value. Newton-Raphsons method
may not be suitable for a flat voltage start, thus many power-flow
programs start with Gauss-Seidel method and then switch over to Newton-
Raphson’s. It is particularly suitable for large system. The number of
 94

iteration required by N-R method using bus admittance is particularly

independent of the number of buses. On the other hand, computing the
elements of the Jacobian is time consuming, but when sparsity matrix
techniques are employed, it has the advantage of shorter computer time.

3.9.2 Convergence Criterion

During the iteration, the elements of the Jacobian matrix are calculated
since they depend upon the latest voltage estimate and calculated power.
The process is continued until the error becomes very small, that is
P , and Q   where  is a very small value.

3.10 Decoupled Power flow Method

We noticed a potentially very useful property of the Jacobian matrix that

the off-diagonal sub-matrices J12 and J 21 were quite small. Since
transmission links are mostly reactive, the conductance of these are very
small and under operating normal conditions the angle  corresponding
to them is very reasonably small (less than about 10 0 .). However, if we look

at the nonzero terms in the diagonal sub-matrices J11 and J 22 , they are
not very small. The implication is that active power flow depends mostly
on the  (and not very much on the | Vi | ), while reactive power flow

depends mostly on the | Vi | (and not very much on the  ). That is, there is
fairly good decoupling between the equations for active and reactive
powers.

This decoupling feature is used in simplifying the N-R algorithm for solving
the power flow equations. So in the general iteration formula 3.52, instead
of picking

J J 12  J 0 
A( x1 )   11 , we chose A( x 1 )   11
 J 21 J 22   0 J 22 
 95

  J 11 3.54

Q  J 22  | V | 3.55

It is also important to note that a very good characteristic of any practical

electric power transmission system operating in steady state is the strong
inter-dependence between real power and bus voltage angle, and between
reactive powers and voltage magnitude. This property of weak coupling
between P-δ and Q-V variables gave the motivation in developing the
decoupled power flow (DLF) method in which P-δ and Q-V problems are
solved separately [7].
The principle is based on two observations.
1. The first observation states essentially that i is much larger
 K

than Qi which we now consider to be approximately zero.

 K

2. The second observation states that Qi is much larger than

 VK

i which is also considered to be approximately zero.

VK

Incorporation of these approximations into the Jacobian equation of

Eq.3.39 takes the elements of the sub-matrices J12 and J 21 to zero. We
are then left with two separate systems of equations for 4-bus system as

 2 2 
 
   4   2  2 
 2
   
  J 11       

           3.56
 4 4     
    4  4
  2  4 
 96

 Q2 Q2   V2 
 V2   V4   Q2 
 V2  V4   V2  
  
   J 22       
           3.57
 Q4 Q4  V4   
 V2   V4    Q4 
  V2  V4   V4 

The equations are decoupled in the sense that the voltage-angle
corrections  are calculated using only real power mismatch  , while the
voltage-magnitude corrections are calculated using Q mismatch.

3.11 Decoupled Newton Method

The decoupling feature is used in simplifying the N-R algorithm for solving
the power flow equation. In any conventional Newton method, half of the
Jacobian elements (or elements in Jacobian matrix) represent the weak
coupling and therefore may be ignored. This approximation reduces the
true quadratic convergence to geometric one (that is reduces iteration
numbers). With a compensating computational benefit. With this N-R
equation (3.40) reduces to.

 P   H 0    
Q    0  | V | 
L   | V | 
3.58
    
This is the Decoupled Newton Method
It can be further factored out as;

P  H   3.59

 V 
Q  L   3.60
 V 
H ik  Lik  ViVk (Gik sin  ik  Bik cos ik ) i≠k

The elements of the Jacobian Equation 3.58 can be simplified as

 97

i Vi
H iK  and LiK  Qi
 K  Vi
From Eq. 2.50 & 2.51
Pi N
 Pi | ViVk Yii | cos ii  | ViVk Yik | cos( ik   k   i ) 3.61
 k K 1, K i

N
Qi | ViVk Yii | sin  ii  | V V Y
K 1, K i
i k ik | sin( ik   k   i ) 3.62

Using Eqs. 3.61 and 3.62, the elements of the Jacobian matrices H & L are
obtained as follow:
Off-diagonal elements of H (i.e. when i≠k) are
i
H ik   ViVK Yik sin  iK   K   i 
 K
Expanding by trigonometric function yields,
= ViV K YiK  sin  iK cos K   i   sin YiK cos iK sin  K   i 

We know that YiK sin  iK   BiK

and YiK cos iK  GiK

then YiK  GiK  jBiK 

 iK  ViV K  BiK cos K   i   GiK sin  K   i  3.63

Likewise, the off-diagonal element of L (i.e. normalized form) is

Qi
LiK  V K  ViV K YiK sin  iK   K   i  3.64a
 VK

LiK  ViVK  BiK cos K   i   GiK sin  K   i  3.64b

From Eqs 3.63 and 3.64b we can see that

H iK  LiK  ViV K  GiK sin  K   i   BiK cos K   i  3.65

The diagonal elements of H are given as

Pi N
Hi   | ViVk Yik | sin( ik   k   i )
 k K 1, K i
 98

N
 | V V Y
K 1, K i
i k ik | sin( ik   k   i ) | ViVk Yik | sin  ik

 { ik  ViVk Yik sin  ii }

H ii  Qi  Vi 2 Bii 3.66

Similarly the diagonal element of L are given as

Pi N
Lii  Vi | 2Vi Yii | sin  ii  | ViVk Yik | sin( ik   k   i )
2

Vi K 1

N
Lii | 2Vi Yii | sin  ii   | ViVk Yik | sin( ik   k   i )  ViVk Yik sin  ii
2

K 1

| 2Vi 2Yii | sin  ii  Qi  Vi 2Yii sin  ii 3.67

Lii | Vi 2Yii | sin ii  Qi , but {Yii sin  ii   Bii

 Vi 2 Bii  Qi

Lii  Qi  Vi 2 Bii 3.68

3.12 Line Flows and Line Losses Calculation

At the end of the iterative solution of the bus voltages, then the calculation
of the line flows and losses for both compensated and uncompensated
conditions were carried out. The following formula are used considering a
two bus system labeled 1&2 (or I & j), first the Line current is given as;

I12  y (V1  V2 ) , I 21  I12 3.69

I 13  y13 (V1  V3 ) , I 31   I 13 3.70

Line flows are calculated using

S12  V1 I 12* ; S 21  V2 I 21* 3.71

S13  V1 I 13* ; S 31  V3 I 31* 3.72

Line losses

S L12  S12  S 21; S L13  S13  S 31 3.73

 99

Slack Bus Power

S1  P1  jQ1  V * [(V1 ( y12  y13 ))  ( y12V2  y13V 3)]

3.13. Reactive Power Compensation in the Nigeria 330kv Network

VAr compensation is defined as the management of reactive power to
improve the performance of a.c power systems. The concept of VAr
compensation embraces a wide and diverse field of both system and
customer problems, especially related with power quality issues, since
most of power quality problems can be attenuated or solved with an
adequate control of reactive power.
System voltage is highly dependent on the flow of reactive power. The long
transmission lines in the National Grid generate considerable reactive
Mvars which constitute serious problems in maintaining system voltages
within statutory limits especially during light loads, system disturbance
and or major switching. The Nigerian PHCN has many reactors in various
locations in the country, some of which are shown in Table 3.1. Some of
these reactors were incorporated in the system to carry out the
compensation to control the effect of reactive MVAr.
Table 3.1. Status of Reactors in the Nigeria Power System
PHCN
Station330KV system.
Reactor Rating Remarks
Nomenclature KV MVAr
Kaduna 3R3 330 75 Good
Jebba 2R1 ,, 75 Good
Kano R1 ,, 75 ,,
Gombe R1 ,, 50 ,,
R2 ,, 50 ,,
Oshogbo 4R1 ,, 75 ,,
Benin 6R2 ,, 75 ,,
Ikeja-west R1 330 75 Good
*Makurdi R1 330 75 Good
Maduguri 2R1 330 75 Good
Source: [33]
Enenmou]
In general, the problem of reactive power compensation is viewed from two
aspects; (i) load compensation and (ii) voltage compensation.
 100

The major cause of voltage variation/drop in the line is the flow of

reactive power, more of over reactive currents causes I R losses in the
2

system but produces no revenue.

Most loads absorbs positive (i.e. lagging) VARs to supply the magnetizing
current of transformers. The shunt capacitance of the line absorbs
leading VARs [i.e. generators lagging VARs].
3.13.1 Reactive Power Management in Electric Power System
An important factor in the control of voltage in a power system is the
reactive power produced or absorbed in the system. Reactive power is
required to excite consumer’s equipment and transmission network which
consists of capacitive and inductive elements. It is important that a
balance of reactive power be obtained in the operation of a system because
control of voltage can be lost if this is not achieved.
Reactive power balance can be obtained by excitation control of
generators to cause it to generate or absorb VARs.
Control of voltage and reactive power should satisfy the following
objectives:
1. Voltages at the terminals of all equipment in the system are within
acceptable limits.
2. The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce RI2 and XI2 losses
to a practical minimum. This ensures that the transmission system
operates efficiently.
The basic need of reactive power is for creating and maintaining the
magnetic field/excitation field in the induction motors. Thus the necessity
of controlling the voltage on the system is very strong.

3.13.2 Control of Voltage and Reactive Power

For a short line the magnitude of voltage drop is
V  VS  Vr
 101

1
V  IR cos r  IX sin  r  [(Vr I cos r ) R  (Vr I sin  r ) X ]
Vr
RPr  XQr

Vr 3.74
Then for a transmission line where X>>R and R is negligibly small,
therefore
XQr Vr
V  , Qr  r
V 3.75
Xr X
This relation shows that the reactive power Qr is proportional to the
magnitude of the voltage drop in the line. Thus voltage control and
reactive power control are interrelated. The voltage at the consumer’s
terminals must be maintained constant within prescribed limit irrespective
of the type and magnitude of the load. The maintenance of a constant
voltage is a complicated problem due to the fact the system is supplied
from many sources and it as well supplies many loads at several voltage
levels. In order to maintain the voltage at their prescribed values at all
times, it is necessary to maintain the balance of reactive power in the
system. That is the reactive power generated should be exactly equal to
the reactive power consumed (absorbed). Any mismatch in the reactive
power balance affects the bus voltage magnitudes.

3.13.3 Methods of Voltage Control

The voltages at different buses of the power system vary with the changes
in load. The voltage is normally high at light-load conditions and low at
heavy-load conditions. To keep network voltages within permissible limits,
means must be provided to control the voltage that is to increase the
circuit voltage when it is too low and to reduce it when it is too high.
This is accomplished by controlling the production, absorption, and flow
of real and reactive powers at all levels in the system. The generating units
provide the basic means of voltage control. The automatic voltage regulator
controls field excitation to maintain a scheduled voltage level at the
 102

terminals of the generators. Additional means are usually required to

control voltage throughout the system. Like;
(a) Line reactance compensators such as series capacitors,
(b) Sources or sinks of reactive powers such as shunt capacitors, shunt
reactors, synchronous condensers and static var compensators (SVC).
(c) Regulating transformers, such as tap-changing transformers.
Series Capacitors: series capacitors are connected in series with the line
conductor to compensate for the inductive reactance of the line. This
reduces the transfer reactance between the buses to which the line is
connected, increases maximum power that can be transmitted, and
reduces effective power (I2R) loss. They are not installed for voltage control
as such but they do contribute to improve voltage control and reactive
power balance.
3.14 Modeling of Reactive Compensating Devices
In power flow and stability studies, the passive compensating devices (like
shunt capacitors values, shunt reactors and series capacitors) are
modeled as admittance elements of fixed values. They are included in the
network admittance matrices along with the other transmission
network/passive elements.

3.15 Compensation Effect on Maximum Power

Power transferred by a line with compensation is given by
ES ER
PR  sin  3.76
Z C' sin 

The maximum power corresponding to   90 0 can be increased by

decreasing either Z C' or ,  or both. The characteristic impedance Z C' can
be decreased with capacitive shunt compensation, but it is accompanied
by an increase in the electrical length  . On the other hand, inductive
shunt compensation decreases  , but increases Z C' . Only series capacitor

compensation contributes to the decrease of both Z C' and  .

 103

3.16 Improvement of Reactive Power by Static Capacitor

Fig.3.4 below represents an inductive load consisting of a resistor R and

an inductor L connected to a supply source

I1 R 1 V
V
L
I1

(b)
(a)

Fig. 3.4a. (a) Circuit diagram, (b) Phasor diagram of an Inductive Load

V = supply voltage, I 1 = load current,  1 = phase angle by which the

current I 1 lags behind the voltage V, while cos  1 = original power factor. If
a capacitor C is placed in parallel (shunt) with the load, it will take a
leading current I C from the supply as represented in Fig. 3.4(c) and Fig.

3.4(d).

m n IC
k
I2 I1
IC R
0
C
V
2
1
V C L I2 b
I
I 1 aC
(d)
(c)

Fig.3.4. (c) Circuit diagram, (d) Phasor diagram, of an Inductive Load

and Shunt Capacitor

From Fig.3.4c above the total current drawn from the supply will be equal
to the phasor sum of I 1 and I c that is, I 2  I 1  I C 3.77
Then from the phasor diagram of Fig.3.5d, 0c  I 1 cos1  I 2 cos 2
 104

cos1
The new supply current is given by I 2  I 1 3.78
cos 2

Since cos 2  cos1 , I 2  I1 . Hence the new current drawn from the supply is
less than the load current I 1 as can be seen from the phasor diagram.
Also I 2 cos 2  I1 cos1
Therefore, VI 2 cos 2  VI1 cos1 , Or P2=P1 3.79
This relation shows that the power taken from the supply has not altered.
So by connecting a capacitor in parallel (shunt capacitor) with an
inductive load, the power factor is improved and the current taken from
the supply is reduced without altering either the current or the power
taken by the load.
3.17. Capacitor Rating Calculations.

From the phasor diagram of Fig. 3.5(d)

ab = ac – bc
I C  I 1 sin 1  I 2 sin  2 3.80

Multiplying both sides of Eq.3.80 by V we obtain

VI C  VI1 sin 1  VI 2 sin  2 3.81

Or QC  Q1  Q2 3.82(a)

QC  P(tan 1  tan  2 ) 3.82(b)

Where Q1  VI1 sin 1 3.83
= reactive volt-amperes taken by the load
Q2  VI 2 sin  2 3.84
= reactive volt-amperes taken from the supply
QC  VI C 3.85
= leading reactive volt-amperes drawn by the capacitor from the supply.
Equation 3.82(b) or Eq.3.85 is used to determine the VAr rating of the
capacitor, and QC is obtained in KVAr or MVAr.
To calculate the capacitor rating then:
 105

1
Capacitive Reactance X C  3.86
jC

10 6
C 3.87
2 fX C

Calculation of C:
The value of capacitor (C) can also be calculated by simplifying Eq. 3.85:
QC  VI C

V
And I C   VC
XC

Therefore QC  V 2C 3.88(a)

QC
And C  3.88(b)
V 2

Equation 3.88b shows that the capacitance required to improve the

system efficiency is inversely proportional to V 2 . Note, at high voltages
power capacitors or capacitor bank values are rated in Kilo Volt-Ampere
Reactive (KVAr or MVAr). For three phase system, the equation for the
capacitor in delta connection since VP  VL is given by
QC Q
C   C2 3.89(a)
VP VL
2

1
And for star connection where VP  VL is given by
3

QC QC 3QC
CY    3.89(b)
VP  (VL ) 2 VL2
2

Compensation added to the net work [37]

P P
QC   sin(cos 1 ( pf1 ))  sin(cos 1 ( pf2 ) 3.90
Pf1 Pf2

Where P = real power specified at the buses

 106

Pf1 = 0.85 power factor

Pf2 = 0.95 power factor
Qc = value of shunt capacitance to be added to the n/wk to boost the
system voltage
Hence the capacitor required per three phase in star connection is equal to
three times the capacitance required per phase when the capacitors are
connected in delta. Also, the capacitors for the star-connected bank have a
working voltage equal to 1 times that for the delta-connected bank.
3
For this reason, the capacitors are connected in delta in three-phase
system for improvement of the system stability.
The installation of a capacitor bank can avoid the need to change a
transformer in the event of a load increase

3.18 Relationship Between Reactive Power, Voltage and Capacitor

(Q,V & C) in AC Power System
In an ac circuit, current ‘I’ leads voltage in a capacitive circuit and I lags
voltage in an inductive circuit. A capacitor is used to generate Var and an
inductor is used to reduce reactive power. In power system analysis there
is a strong inter relationship between the real power & angle and also
between the reactive power & the voltage magnitude which aids us in
compensation analysis. These relationships below exist for real and
reactive powers flow.
V2 V2
S  P  jQ , P  VICos or P  I R 
2
, and Q  VISin or QI X 
2

R X
1
And X C  with low Var in a system the voltage becomes low and vice
jC

versa [21]. These relationships were used for the result analysis.
 107

3.19 Rating of Capacitor Bank

The rating of capacitance values can as well be gotten using the following
equations;
1 1
KVAR  KW  [ 2
1  2
 1]
PForig Pf new

KVAR  KW  [tan( orig )  tan( new )] 3.91

KVAR Rating = KW[tan 1  tan  2 ] 3.92

Where KVAR rating is the size of the capacitor needed, KW is the average
power drawn,  1 is the trigonometric ratio for the present power factor and
 2 is the trigonometric ratio for the desired power factor.  1 = Existing (cos-
1 PF1) and  2 = Improved (cos-1 PF2). Note, at high voltages power capacitors
or capacitor bank values are rated in Kilo Volt-Ampere Reactive (KVAr or
MVAr).

3.20 Input Data Used For the Analysis

The input data for the power flow analysis include the bus data that is real
and reactive powers of the generator buses, transmission line data
(impedance of lines), voltages and transformer/load data obtained from
Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) are as presented in Tables 3.2
to 3.5. They are used to carry out the analysis.

Table 3.2 Transmission Line Data (of Bison, two conductor per phase &
2x350 mm2 X-section Conductor) for 330KV Lines.

S/N Bus Name Length R1(P.U) X1(p.u) Shunt

(km)
y
From To ( p.u )
2
1. Akamgbe Ik-West 17 0.0006 0.0051 0.065
2. Ayede Oshogbo 115 0.0041 o.o349 0.437
3. Ik-West Egbin 62 0.0022 0.0172 0.257
4. Ik-West Benin 280 0.0101 0.0799 1.162
5. Oshogbo Jebba 249 0.0056 0.477 0.597
6. Oshogbo Benin 251 0.0089 0.0763 0.954
7. Jebba Ts Jebba Gs 8 0.003 0.0022 0.033
8. Jebba TS Shiroro 244 0.0087 0.0742 0.927
 108

9. Jebba TS Kainji 81 0.0022 0.0246 0.308

10. Kainji B.Kebbi 310 0.0111 0.942 1.178
11. Shiroro Kaduna 96 0.0034 0.0292 0.364
12. Kaduna Kano 320 0.0082 0.0899 0.874
13. Jos Gombe 265 0.0095 0.081 1.01
14 Benin Ajaokuta 195 0.007 0.056 0.745
15. Benin Sapele 50 0.0018 0.0139 0.208
16. Benin Onitsha 137 0.0049 0.0416 0.521
17. Onitsa N.Heaven 96 0.0034 0.0292 0.0355
18. Onitsha Alaoji 138 0.0049 0.0419 0.524
19. Alaoji Afam 25 0.009 0.007 0.104
20. Sapele Aladja 63 0.0023 0.019 0.239
21. Delta Aladja 30 0.0011 0.0088 0.171
22. *Kainji GS Jebba TS 81 0.0022 0.0246 0.308
23. Ayede lk West 137 0.0049 0.0416 0.521
24. Egbin TS Aja 27.5 0.0022 0.0172 0.257
25 Egbin TS Aja 27.5 0.0022 0.0172 0.257
26. Kaduna Jos 197 0.007 0.0599 0.748
27. Jos Makurdi 275 0.0029 0.0246 0
28. Oshogbo lk West 252 0.0049 0.0341 0.521
29. Benin Delta 107 0.0022 0.019 0.239
30 Onitsha Okpai 80 0.009 0.007 0.104
31. Geregu Ajokuta 5 0.0022 0.0172 0.257
32. Shiroro Kaduna, 96, 0.0034 0.0292 0.364

Source: [1]

Line Data
1 1
Converting line impedance to admittance Y  
z R  jX
MW  jMVAr
The load and generation expressed in per unit values is given as .
base.value
Slack Bus = Egbin GS

Table 3.3 Line Data

S/N CIRCUIT (BUSES) LENGHT IMPEDANCE ADMITTANCE SHUNT
FROM TO (KM) Z.( p.u.) Y (pu) y
( p.u )
2
1. Akamgbe Ik-West 17 0.0006+j0.0051 22.75-j19.32 0.065
2. Ayede Oshogbo 115 0.0041+jo.o349 3.333-j38.37 0.437
3. Ik-West Egbin 62 0.0022+j0.0172 7.308-j57.14 0.257
4. Ik-West Benin 280 0.0101+j0.0799 1.637-j12.626 1.162
5. Oshogbo Jebba 249 0.0056+j0.477 0.0246-j3.092 0.597
6. Oshogbo Benin 251 0.0089+j0.0763 1.508-j12.932 0.954
7. Jebba Ts Jebba Gs 8 0.003+j0.0022 3.174-j1.594 0.033
 109

8. Jebba TS Shiroro 244 0.0087+j0.0742 1.559-j13.297 0.927

9. Jebba TS Kainji 81 0.0022+j0.0246 3.607-j40.328 0.308
10. Kainji B.Kebbi 310 0.0111+j0.942 1.235-j10.478 1.178
11. Shiroro Kaduna 96 0.0034+j0.0292 3.935-j3.379 0.364
12. Kaduna Kano 320 0.0082+j0.0899 1.657-j14.17 0.874
13. Jos Gombe 265 0.0095+j0.081 1.923-j15.456 1.01
14 Benin Ajaokuta 195 0.007+j0.056 1.429-j12.180 0.745
15. Benin Sapele 50 0.0018+j0.0139 3.194-j17.555 0.208
16. Benin Onitsha 137 0.0049+j0.0416 2.8-j33.771 0.521
17. Onitsa N.Heave 96 0.0034+j0.0292 3.935-j3.379 0.0355
n
18. Onitsha Alaoji 138 0.0049+j0.0419 2.754-j33.553 0.524
19. Alaoji Afam 25 0.009+j0.007 59.230-j53.846 0.104
20. Sapele Aladja 63 0.0023+j0.019 5.284-j51.913 0.239
21. Delta Aladja 30 0.0011+j0.0088 13.995-j1.119 0.171
22. *Kainji GS Jebba TS 81 0.0022+j0.0246 3.607-j40.328 0.308
23. Ayede lk West 137 0.0049+j0.0416 2.8-j33.771 0.521
24. Egbin TS Aja 27.5 0.0022+j0.0172 7.316-j57.2036 0.257
25 Egbin TS Aja 27.5 0.0022+j0.0172 7.316 –j57.2036 0.257
26. Kaduna Jos 197 0.007+j0.0599 1.924 –j16.469 0.748
27. Jos Makurdi 275 0.0029+j0.0246 4.726-j40.093 0
28. Oshogbo lk West 252 0.0049+j0.0341 4.128-j28.732 0.521
29. Benin Delta 107 0.0022+j0.019 6.013-j51.935 0.239
30 Onitsha Okpai 80 0.009+j0.007 59.230-j53.846 0.104
31. Geregu Ajokuta 5 0.0022+j0.0172 7.316-j57.203 0.257
32. Shiroro TS Kaduna 96 0.0034+j0.0292 3.935-j3.379 0.364
Source: [1]

Table 3.4 Bus Data

B Bus Name Generation Load V Angle Remarks
No
P (MW) Q (MVar) P (MW) Q (MVar) (volts) (degree)
1. Egbin - - 0,0000 0.0000 1.02 0.0000 Slack
2. Delta Ps 55.000 28.160 - - 1.0000 0,0000 PV Bus
3. Okpai 220.000 112.700 - - 1.0000 0.0000 PV Bus
4. Sapele 75.000 38.420 - - 1.0000 0.0000 PV Bus
5. Afam 479.000 245.390 - - 1.0000 0.0000 PV Bus
6. Jebba 322,000 164.960 - - 1.0000 0.0000 PV Bus
7. Kainji 323.000 165.490 - - 1.0000 0.0000 PV Bus
8. Shiroro 280.000 143.440 - - 1.0000 0.0000 PV Bus
9. Geregu 200.000 102.440 - - 1.0000 0.0000 PV Bus
10. Oshogbo - - 120.370 61.650 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
11. Benin - - 160.560 82.240 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
12. Ikj-West - - 334.000 171.110 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
13. Ayede - - 176.650 90.490 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
14. Jos - - 82.230 42.129 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
15. Onitsha - - 130.510 66.860 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
 110

16. Akamgbe - - 233.379 119.560 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus

17. Gomgbe - - 74.480 38.140 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
18. Abuja(kat - - 200.000 102.440 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
amkpe)
19. Maiduguri - - 10.000 5.110 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
20. Egbin TS - - 0.000 0.000 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
21. Aladja - - 47.997 24.589 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
22. Kano - - 252.450 129.330 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
23. Aja - - 119.990 61.477 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
24. Ajaokuta - - 63.220 32.380 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
25. N.Heaven - - 113.050 57.910 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
26. Alaoji - - 163.950 83.980 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
27. Jebba TS - - 7.440 3.790 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
28. B.Kebbi - - 69.990 35.850 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
29. Kaduna - - 149.77 76.720 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
30. ShiroroTS - - 73.070 37.430 1.0000 0.0000 Load Bus
Source: [1]

Base value = 100MVA

Base voltage = 330KV
MVA
Per Unit Value =
BaseValue

Table 3.5 Bus Data In Per Unit

B Bus Name Generation Load
No
P (p.u) Q (p.u) P (p.u) Q (p.u)
1. Egbin - - 0,0000 0.0000
2. Delta Ps 0.55 0.2816 - -
3. Okpai 2.20 1.127 - -
4. Sapele 0.75 0.3842 - -
5. Afam 4.79 2.4539 - -
6. Jebba 3.22 1.6496 - -
7. Kainji 3.23 1.6549 - -
8. Shiroro 2.80 1.4300 - -
9. Geregu 2.00 1.0244 - -
10. Oshogbo - - 1.2037 0.6165
11. Benin - - 1.6056 0.8224
12. Ikj-West - - 3.340 1.7111
13. Ayede - - 1.7665 0.9049
14. Jos - - 0.8223 0.42129
15. Onitsha - - 1.3051 0.6686
16. Akamgbe - - 2.33379 1.1956
17. Gomgbe - - 0.7448 0.3814
18. Abuja(katamkpe) - - 2.000 1.0244
19. Maiduguri - - 0.1000 0.0511
 111

20. Egbin TS - - 0.000 0.000

21. Aladja - - 0.47997 0.24589
22. Kano - - 2.5245 1.2933
23. Aja - - 1.1999 0.61477
24. Ajaokuta - - 0.6322 0.3238
25. N.Heaven - - 1.1305 0.5791
26. Alaoji - - 1.6395 0.8398
27. Jebba TS - - 0.0744 0.0379
28. B.Kebbi - - 0.6999 0.3585
29. Kaduna - - 1.4977 0.7672
30. ShiroroTS - - 0.7307 0.3743
Source: [64]
 112

CHAPTER 4

NIGERIA POWER SYSTEM AND SIMULATION

4.1 Modeling Effect on Power System Operation
Power system consists of an interconnection of hundreds of electrical and
mechanical devices, and the phenomena exhibited by a particular power
system are enormous because of the equipment connected. The following
description includes only the relevant characteristics of which only a
subset will be retained by the thesis model. A typical power system can be
seen as a nonlinear electric circuit, this implies that the model should
retain the fundamental characteristics of an electric circuit and the
dependent of state variable on circuit parameters [45].
The model should have the ability to partially account for the response of
interconnected generators to fluctuating demands. As load increases the
rotational speed and frequency of individual generator decreases. When
the system is unstable or marginally stable, a small disturbance may
propagate and grow, eventually causing cascading operation of protective
devices. Even when the system is stable, large random disturbance such
as lightning can propagate and trip protective devices. These phenomena
though very essential to power system operation are not included in the
model used in this work. This is because this work has considered
including in its model those generation parameters and characteristics
that can reasonably be controlled or forecasted. For instance, it did not
account for the steady state evaluation of power system due to the
protective device and system operation including generator limits, but
ignored the transient effects caused by the operation of the protective
devices. Also the transient behavior, protective devices co-ordination, or
instantaneous limits were not considered in the model. The characteristics
of changing system equipment and structure as a function of system state
is a feature to be incorporated in system model for assessment. When
 113

power demand and generation increases, so do the flow and losses on the
transmission lines as well as the flow and losses on the circuits and
devices that make up each generating unit. As the power flow on
transmission line increases this cause temperature rise of the conductors,
which results in loss of mechanical strength and increased sag.
Extended operation of a line beyond its thermal rating can permanently
reduce the strength of the line. Once lines become overloaded, generation
is re-dispatched to relieve the overloads, and in some cases, the lines are
interrupted to prevent permanent damage. This implies that every change
in load or generation, switching off a device, or tap change at a
transformer would be a disturbance to the entire power system. The
disturbance may also be as random events like lightning strike and short
circuit. If the system is stable, the control and dynamics will behave in
such a way as to move the system state towards a new equilibrium after
the disturbance.

4.2 Modeling of Power System Components

Modeling means converting physical events into a mathematical model.
Any mathematical equation that depicts a physical behavior of a system is
a model. By modeling we can forecast what the future load could be and
what it was year’s back [34, 46].
The system behavior is affected by the characteristics of every major
element of the system. The representation of these elements by means of
appropriate mathematical models is critical to the successful analysis of
system behavior [19, 47]
Power systems have grown in both size and complexity, and as the
number of firms i.e. power ties between systems have increased, the
nature of the system stability problems has changed. Furthermore, there
is also a demand for more accurate engineering analysis of these complex
problems. For the purpose of controlling the system, the model should
 114

show how the system output is affected by changes in the system input
because the aim of controlling the system is to reduce the error in output
by means of change in system input. Power flow analysis is a steady-state
problem and the modeling of system components like transformer,
generator, lines, and load will be carried out under steady-state conditions
[13, 48].

4.2.1 Generator Modeling

Generators supply complex power to the loads through the transmission
line system. The generator bus model presents a p-v model in which the
turbine control hold the generator active power at a fixed level and the
machine voltage regulator maintains fixed bus voltage magnitude. Fig. 4.1
shows a simplified circuit diagram of the generator. To increase | Vt | the

field current is increased such that ( E f ) increases. Under constant

generated power condition, the torque angle (δ) decreases slightly, but the
phase of the armature current Ia will rotate such that the power factor
angle δ increases. Thus more reactive power is injected into the bus
(Q  VI a sin  )

The limit on the control of | Vt | occurs primarily due to the limit on the field
current (hence the limit on reactive power Q).
Ia Ra Ia

Ef
+
+ E f  E a cos(ot   )
Ef Vt
-
-

(b)
(a)

Fig.4.1 Circuit Diagram: (a) Synchronous generator, (b) Generator model

circuit
 115

4.2.2 Modeling of Transformer

Transformers are the link between the generators of the power system and
the transmission lines, and between lines of different voltage levels. We are
to develop a model that will predict electrical performance with reasonable
accuracy and suitable for integration into the total power system.
We are going to consider transformer on nominal setting of
 Untapped transformer
 Tapped
 Regulating transformer
4.2.3 Untapped Transformer
Untapped transformers is represented by its series leakage reactance as
shown in Fig.4.2
Ip Is
+
jX
Vp

Fig. 4.2 Series leakage reactance for untapped transformer

Vp Vs
Ip   4.1
jX jX

Vp Vs
Is    4.2
jX jX

The shunt branch of the transformer is omitted because it draws negligible

current compared to the load current.

4.2.4 Tapped Transformer

Transformers with tap-changing facilities constitute an important means
of controlling voltage throughout the system at all voltage levels.
 116

• The taps on transformers provide a convenient means of controlling

reactive power flow between subsystems.
• Coordinated control of the tap changers of all the transformers
interconnecting the subsystems is required if the general level of voltage is
to be changed.
• During high system load conditions, the network voltages are kept at the
highest practical level to minimize reactive power requirements and
increase the effectiveness of shunt capacitors and line charging.
• During light load conditions, it is usually required to lower the network
voltages to reduce line charging and avoid under excited operation of
generators.
• Transformers with off-load tap-changing facilities as in Fig. 4.3 can also
help maintain satisfactory voltage profiles. Vq=Vs and Is=Iq

Ip a:1 aI p Is
+ +
Vp = =
Vp a
Vt Vs

`Fig 4.3 Tapped Transformer circuit

Vp
aI p  y  yVa 4.3
a
Vq
Iq  y  pVq 4.4
a
From Eq. 4.3
y V p y Vq
Ip  
a a a a
Vp
Iq  y  yV p
a
It can be further simplified as
 117

Vp Vp
Ip  y y 4.5
a2 a2
y
I q   V p  yVq 4.6
a
Considering the coefficients of Eqs. 4.5 and 4.6, and in matrix form.

I p   y 
y  V 
    a2 a2    
p

   y   
 I q   y  Vq 
 a   
We can represent or draw the equivalent circuit of tapped transformer as
in Fig 4.4 below and the shunt element is got by adding the admittance.
y y (1  a)
2
 y
a a a2
y (a  1)
y y
a a
Ip IS +
+ A
y
a
VP B y 1  a  C y
a  1 VS
2
a 2
a

Fig.4.4 Equivalent circuit of tapped transformer

4.2.5 Modeling of Transmission Line

The performance of transmission lines is assessed by the determination of
efficiency and regulation of lines. The regulation of a line is the change in
receiving end voltage, expressed in percent of full load voltage from no load
to full load, keeping the sending end voltage frequency constant.
A problem of major importance in power system is the flow of power over
the transmission lines such that the voltages at various nodes are
maintained within specified limit. Transmission lines are normally
operated with a balanced three-phase load, the analysis can therefore be
 118

done on a per phase basis. A transmission line on a per phase basis can
be regarded as a two-port network, where the sending-end voltage 'VS '

and receiving current ' I S ' through ABCD constants are represented as [17]

VS  AV R  BI R 4.7

I S  CVR  DI R 4.8(a)
Power flow at any point through a transmission line can always be
determined if voltages, current and power factor are known or calculated.
Figure 4.5 represents transmission line between two buses (i & j) and its
admittance given in Eq. 4.8b.

Bus i Bus j
R + jX

B B
J J
2 2

Fig 4.5 Transmission line model

1
y ,
R  jX

B
Yii  Y jj  y  j Y ji   y  Yij 4.8(b)
2,
4.2.6 Medium and Long Transmission Lines
Medium and long transmission lines are represented or modeled by its
nominal Pie-equivalent circuit as shown in Fig. 4.6. When the total shunt
admittance of the line is divided into two equal parts
jX L
R IR 


Z j
VS VR
Y Y
2 2

Fig 4.6 Nominal  circuit of medium and short length transmission line.
 119

and placed at the receiving and sending ends of the lines, the circuit is
said to be a nominal  equivalent.
In a transmission line, the total resistance and inductive reactance of the
line is included in the series arm of the equivalent - and the total
capacitance to neutral is divided between its short arms [17, 19].
1
We know that y  and Z  r  jx or R  j L 4.9
z
The Pie–model of the nominal - equivalent of medium/long transmission
line is represented as shown in Fig.4.7.
Y  G  jB

VS
b1 Jwc y Jwc VR
b2 , or
2 2 2

Fig.4.7. Representation of Transmission line model

1 1

z R  jwL

1 R  jwL
Z 
R  jwL R  jwL

R  jwL
  G  jB 4.10
R 2  w 2 L2
Equation 4.10 can further be expanded thus,
R wL
G and B
R  w 2 L2
2
R 2  w 2 L2
Usually our load is represented as

(i) S L  PL  QL
= VI* - where current is lagging behind voltage

(ii) S L  PL  QL
= V*I - where current is leading the voltage
 120

4.2.7 Modeling of Power System Load

Stable operation of power system depends on the ability to continuously
match the electrical output of generating units to the electrical loads on
the system.
The modeling of loads is complicated because a typical load bus is
composed of a large number of devices such as fluorescent lamps,
refrigerators, heaters, compressors, motors, and so on. The exact
composition of load is difficult to estimate. Also the composition changes
depending on many factors including time (hour, day, and season),
weather conditions, and state of economy. Load models are divided into
two broad categories
(i) Static and (ii) dynamic load
A static load model expresses the characteristic of the load at any instant
of time in terms of algebraic functions of the bus voltage magnitude and
frequency at that instant.
A general load characteristic may be adopted such that the MVA loading at
a particular bus is a function of voltage and frequency.

P  K PV m f m 4.11

Q  K qV n f n

Where K p and K q are constants, which depend upon the nominal value of

the variable P and Q. The conventional power models are the exponential
function represented as

Pd  PS V a 4.12
Qd  QS V b

and the polynomial expression is

 121

Pd  PS ( 1V 2   2V   3 ) 4.13

Qd  QS (q1V 2  q2V  q3 )

Where Pd and Qd are active and reactive components of the load when the

bus voltage magnitude is V. The parameter of the model 1 ,  2 ,  3 and

q1 , q 2 , q3 of Eq.4.13 defines the proportion of each component of constant

impedance (z), constant current (I) or constant power (P). They have the
following properties.
1   2   3  1
4.14
q1  q 2  q 3  1

The exponents a & b of Eq. 4.12 are equal to 0.1 or 2 for constant power,
constant current and constant impedance characteristic respectively.
Dynamic load Model: The response of most composite loads to voltage
and frequency changes is fast, and so the steady state response is reached
very swiftly. Motors consume 60 to 70% of the total energy supplied by a
power system [49, 50]. Therefore, the dynamic effects due to motors are
usually the most significant aspects of dynamics characteristic of system
loads.
For some power system components their responses to disturbance do not
occur instantaneously but require some time lag. Such load are said to
have dynamic characteristic. Studies of systems with large concentration
of such predictable load require representation of load model [18, 43, 49,
51].

4.3 Nigeria 330KV 30 Bus Interconnected Electric Power System

Electrical utility center is one of the largest and most complex industries
in the world. The electrical engineer who researches in this industry will
encounter some challenging problems in designing future power systems
to deliver increasing amount of energy in a safe, clean and economical
manner [45]. The origin of the Nigeria Electric power System can be dated
 122

back to the year 1898 [48] when a small generating plant was installed in
Lagos. The first power interconnection was a 132KV link constructed in
1962 between Lagos and Ibadan. By 1968 the first National grid structure
emerged with the construction of the kainji hydro station which supplied
power via a 330KV, primarily radial type transmission network into the
three members’ 132KV subsystem then existing in the Western, Northern
and Eastern parts of the country. The 330KV and 132KV systems were
initially run by two separate bodies- “Nigeria Dams Authority (NDA)”, and
“Electricity Corporation of Nigeria (ECN)” respectively. Central control for
the 330KV Network was coordinated from kainji power supply control
room, while the 132KV Network was run by load dispatcher located at
Ijora Power Supply Lagos. These two bodies were merged formally into
single power utility known as National Electric Power Authority (NEPA) on
1st April, 1972 thus ushering in centralized regulation and coordination of
the entire rapid growing 330KV and 132KV National network in Nigeria.
These networks are characterized by many disturbances which cause
various hindrances and outages that call for research work.

4.4 Network Description

The Nigerian power network like many practical systems in developing
countries consists of a few generating stations mostly sited in remote
locations near the raw fuel sources which are usually connected to the
centers by long transmission lines.
Generation, transmission, distribution and marketing of electricity in
Nigeria are the statutory functions of the National Electric Power Authority
(NEPA) now known as Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN).
Presently, the national electricity grid consists of nine generating stations
comprising three (3) hydro and six (6) thermal with a total installed
generating capacity of 6500MW. The thermal stations are mainly in the
southern part of the country located at Afam, Okpai, Delta (Ughelli), Egbin
 123

and Sapele. The hydroelectric power stations are in the country’s middle
belt and are located at Kainji, Jebba and Shiroro. The transmission
network is made up of 5000km of 330KV lines, 6000km of 132KV lines, 23
of 330/132KV sub-stations and 91 of 132/33KV substations. The
distribution sector is comprised of 23,753km of 33KV lines 19,226km of
11kv lines, 679 of 33/11KV sub-station. There are also 1790 distribution
transformers and 680 injection substations [52].

Although, the installed capacity of the existing power stations is 6500MW

the maximum load ever recorded was 4,000MW. Presently, most of the
generating unit’s equipments have broken down due to limited available
resources to carry out the needed level of maintenance. The transmission
lines are radial and are overloaded. The switchgears are obsolete while
power transformers have not been maintained for a long time.

The present installed generating capacity in Nigeria is around 6000MW

and PHCN has only been able to generate a maximum of 4000MW, for a
country of more than 120million people. This indeed is grossly inadequate
to meet the consumers’ electricity demand. The current projected capacity
that needs to be injected into the system is estimated at 10,000MW which
is hoped to come in through the independent power producers (IPPs) as
soon as a liberalized electricity supply industry is established in Nigeria.
Also, massive injection of funds is needed to expand the distribution and
transmission networks to adequately transport the power generated to
consumers [53, 54, 55].

4.5. Power System Data

Electric power generation in Nigeria is a mixture of thermal and hydro
systems. The thermal power stations are as follows:
(i) Afam thermal power station, Afam, Port Harcourt
(ii) Delta thermal power station Ughelli
 124

(iii) Ijora thermal power station, Ijora, Lagos

(iv) Lagos thermal power station, Egbin, Lagos
(v) Ogorode thermal power station, Sapele
The hydro thermal power stations include the following
i) Jebba hydro power station Jebba
ii) Kainji hydro power station, Kainji
iii) Shiroro hydro power station, Shiroro, Minna [55, 56]

Table 4.1. Existing Power Stations

S/No Power Station Name Location/State Status Capacity (MW)

1 Egbin Thermal Power Station Lagos Operating 1320

2 Afam Thermal PS Rivers Operating 969.6

3 Sapele Thermal PS Delta Operating 1020
4 Ijora Thermal PS Lagos Operating 40
5 Delta Thermal PS Delta Operating 912
6 Kainji Hydro PS Niger Operating 760
7 Jebba Hydro PS Niger Operating 578
8 Shiroro Hydro PS Niger Operating 600
9 AES Thermal PS Lagos Operating 300
TOTAL CAPACITY = 6500
Source: [1]

Table 4.2 Power Stations/plants Under Construction

S/N NAME STATE

Thermal Power Plant Under Construction
1 Eyeon Edo
2 Sapele Delta
3 Omoku Rivers
4 Egbema Rivers
5 Gbaran Ubic Beyelsa
6 Onne Rivers
7 Calabar Cross River
Proposed Hydro Power Plant
1 Dadinkowa Gombe
Proposed Biomass Power Plant
1 Ikeja Lagos
Total 9
Source: [1]
 125

4.5.1 PHCN Network with the Independent Power Producers’ (IPP) or

Distributed Generation Contribution
Distributed generation (DG) refers to power generation close to the point of
consumption. It is the use of small-scale power generation technologies
located close to the load being served. Generating power close to
consumers, rather than centrally, eliminates the cost, complexity,
interdependencies, and inefficiencies associated with long transmission
and distribution. Distributed generation may reduce the need for an
expanded distribution system. Minimizing those outlays would more than
compensate utilities for lost electricity sales.

Fig. 4.8 PHCN Power Network Map Source [57]

 126

Figure 4.8 shows the map of PHCN network with the Independent Power
Producers’ (IPP) contribution. With the incorporation or contribution of IPP and
or

Distributed Generation (DG) the problem of long distance in some Northern will
be addressed.

4.6 Overview of Nigeria 330kV Transmission Network used for the case study
The single-line diagram of the existing 330KV Nigeria transmission
network used as the case study is as shown in Fig.4.9. It has 30 buses
with nine generating station. The Egbin power station was chosen as the
slack bus because of its location in the network.
 127

Kano
B. Kebbi Kaduna

310km 230km
Maiduguri
Kainji
Shiroro TS
GS 196km 284km
96km
Jebba GS
Jebba GS Gombe
Shiroro GS
81km
244km 264km
144km
8km
Jos
Abuja
Jebba TS Geregu 275km
Ajaokuta 5km Makurdi
157km
137km
Oshogbo
Ayede 195km
195km
251km
137km Benin N.Heaven
252km
280km

IKJ-West 137km
107km 96km
50km

62km Sepele PS

18km Egbin GS Onitsha

63km Delta PS 138km

86km
32km 80km Alaoji
27.5km Okpai
Akamgba Aladja GS
5km
25km
Aja
Egbin TS Afam
GS
GS
Fig4.7 Constraints
4.9 One inofthe
Line Diagram National
the PHCN Grid
330KV 30 Bus Interconnected Network
 128

4.7 Constraints in the National Grid

System voltage is highly dependent on the flow of reactive power. The
voltage relative to nominal voltages at the different buses of the power
system is known as voltage profile. Most of the equipments used in power
system especially at 330KV level and above are operated close to the limit
of system design. Long transmission lines in the national grid generate
considerable reactive MVARs which constitute a major source of problem
in maintaining system voltage within the statutory limits especially during
light load period, system disturbances or major switching.
Generally, most load absorb positive (lagging) VARs to supply the
magnetizing current of transformers by addition of equipment to keep the
voltage within the limits. If this is not done, voltage at some buses may
likely become higher than the nominal voltage. Reactive power
compensating equipment is provided in the power system to absorb or
generate VARS. A shunt connected inductance absorbs inductance lagging
VARs while shunt capacitors generate VARs (by absorbing leading VARs)
[1, 55, 57].
Voltage control in the national grid is basically maintained with the
following methods.
(i) Excitation system is utilized in the running of generating units to
absorb reactive MVARs or generate reactive MVARs according to system
demands. This is achieved by synchronizing more machines in the system
to facilitate VAR absorption.
(ii) The use of reactors to compensate capacitive MVARs
(iii) Tap changing of grid sub-station transformers
(iv) Switching off one circuit of multiple circuit transmission lines
especially during light load periods to reduce flow of reactive MVARs.
4.8 Shunt Capacitor Compensation Algorithm
The flow chart in Fig. 4.10 shows the procedural method applied to
achieve the desired goal, which is compensation.
 129

First, obtain the base solution using Newton-Raphson’s solution method.

Check bus voltages range.
Identify the problem buses by checking the bus voltages outside  5% of
the normal values (i.e. 0.95 to 1.05) per unit.
QC
Calculate the capacitor values using Eq. 3.100b ( C  ) and apply
V 2
P P
compensation using Eq. 3.102(b) QC   sin(cos 1 ( pf1 ))  sin(cos 1 ( pf 2 )) .
Pf1 Pf 2

Finally output result and stop. The following procedures represented in

Fig.4.10 are simulated using MATLAB/SIMULINK and the results are as
presented in chapter five.

Compute Power Flow Solution from base

case Using N.R method as in Fig 3.3

Bus Voltage Range

Print Result and Plot Graph

Are bus
voltages outside No
 5% of normal
range

Yes Output Result

Select the Problem Buses

Apply Compensation

Stop

Fig. 4.10 Flow Chart for the Analysis of Shunt Capacitor Compensation Algorithm.

The results from the N.R. iterative solution method give the bus voltages,
line flows, and power losses under normal (uncompensated) condition are
 130

as shown in Tables 5.1 and 5.4 respectively. The voltages at buses 14, 17,
18, 19, 22, 29 and 30 are low and in order to ensure that they are within
acceptable limits, shunt capacitive compensation were injected into the
buses. Based on Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) power factor of
0.85 for transmission lines the MVAr capacities of the various capacitors
required to carry out compensation of the network at the buses were
determined using Eq.3.90 and or Eq.3.91 as in Fig 4.11

KW , 200
2  0.95
1  0.85 Q2
KVAr2
Q
KVAr1
Q  Q2

Fig. 4.11 Determination of Capacity of Shunt Capacitors.

Abuja Bus
Total Load =200MW
200 200
sin(cos 1 0.85)  sin(cos 1 0.95)
0.85 0.95
123.948  56.736  58.212 MVAr
Rating of Capacitor Bank =58.212MVAr.
Kano Bus
Total Load =252.45
252.45 252.45
sin( coa 1 0.85)  sin(cos 1 0.95)
0.85 0.95
156.45  82.976  73.45MVAr
Rating of Capacitor Bank = 73.45MVAr. etc.
The following capacitor sizes were selected for the various lines. Jos bus
(30MVAr), Gombe bus (30MVAr), Abuja bus (60MVAr), Kano bus
(40MVAr), Kaduna bus (40MVAr), Makurdi bus (30MVAr). These were
injected into the network and the results were as shown in Tables 5.9 and
Fig. 5.3.
 131

CHAPTER 5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Presentation of Results
The results obtained using the source (m-file codes) as presented in
appendix 1 are recorded in Tables 5.1 to 5.17. The plots of the tables are
as shown in Figs. 5.1 to 5.10.

Per Unit Bus Voltages of Newton-Raphson Method (N-R) (Compensated and

Uncompensated)

Table 5.1: Per Unit Bus Voltages for Compensated and Uncompensated
With
Compensation Without Compensation
B/N Bus Name Volts (p.u) Volts (p.u)
1 Egbin-GS
(Slack) 1.0000 1.0000
2 Delta-PS 1.0000 1.0000
3 Okpai-PS 1.0000 1.0000
4 SAP /PS 1.0000 1.0000
5 AFAM-GS 1.0000 1.0000
6 Jebba-GS 1.0000 1,0000
7 KAINJI-GS 1.0000 1,0000
8 Shiroro-PS 1.0000 1,0000
9 Geregu(PS) 1.0000 1,0000
10 Oshogbo 1.0035 0.9919
11 Benin 0.9998 0.9957
12 Ikeja-West 0.9969 0.993
13 Ayede 0.9967 0.9792
14 Jos 0.9823 0.8171
15 Onitsha 0.9793 0.9748
16 Akangba 0.9931 0.9859
17 Gombe 1.0242 0.8144
18 Abuja
(Katampe) 0.9667 0.9402
19 Maiduguri 1.0455 0.8268
20 Egbin TS 0.9469 0.9816
21 Aladja 1.0006 0.9994
22 Kano 0.947* 0.7609
23 Aja 0.9692 0.9838
24 Ajaokuta 0.9999 0.9997
25 N-Heaven 0.9721 0.9582
26 Alaoji 0.9598 0.9564
27 Jebba-TS 0.9993 0.9988
28 B.Kebbi 1.0075 0.9873
29 Kaduna 0.9654 0.8738
30 Makurdi 0.9943 0.8247
 132

Table 5.1 gives the per unit bus voltages of Newton-Raphson (N-R) for
compensated and uncompensated while Table 5.2 gives the actual values
in KV.
Table 5.2 Bus Voltages for Compensated and Uncompensated (KV)

With Without
Compensation Compensation
B/N Bus Name Volts (KV) Volts (KV)
1 Egbin-GS 330.000 330.000
(Slack)
2 Delta-PS 330.000 330.000
3 Okpai-PS 330.000 330.000
4 SAP /PS 330.000 330.000
5 AFAM-GS 330.000 330.000
6 Jebba-GS 330.000 330.000
7 KAINJI-GS 330.000 330.000
8 Shiroro-PS 330.000 330.000
9 Geregu(PS) 330.000 330.000
10 Oshogbo 331.155 327.327
11 Benin 329.934 328.581
12 Ikeja-West 328.977 327.69
13 Ayede 328.911 323.136
14 Jos 324.159 269.643
15 Onitsha 323.169 321.684
16 Akangba 327.723 325.347
17 Gombe 337.986 268.752
18 Abuja 319.011 310.266
(Katampe)
19 Maiduguri 345.015 272.844
20 Egbin TS 312.477 323.928
21 Aladja 330.198 329.802
22 Kano 312.510 251.097
23 Aja 319.836 324.654
24 Ajaokuta 329.967 329.901
25 N-Heaven 320.793 316.206
26 Alaoji 316.734 315.612
27 Jebba-TS 329.769 329.604
28 B.Kebbi 332.475 325.809
29 Kaduna 318.582 288.354
30 Makurdi 328.119 272.151
 133

Table: 5.3 Bus Angle, Shunt (Y-shunt) and Injection Powers (Sg)
(Uncompensated)

B/N Sg(p.u)
BUS NAME Angle(rad) Yshunt Sg(p.u) Real Imaginary
1 Egbin-GS (Slack)
0.000 0.5140 0.0000 0.0000
2 Delta-PS 0.02565 0.4780 0.5500 0.2816
3 Okpai-PS 0.1437 0.1040 2.2000 1.1270
4 SAP /PS 0.0263 0.44700 0.7500 0.3842
5 AFAM-GS
0.3043 0.1040 4.7900 2.4539
6 Jebba-GS -0.1049 0.0200 3.2200 1.6496
7 KAINJI-GS -0.0484 1.4860 3.2300 1.6547
8 Shiroro-PS -0.5057 1.8150 2.8000 1.4344
9 Geregu(PS)
0.0992 0.0332 2.0000 1.0244
10 Oshogbo -0.1103 2.0770 1.2037 -0.6165
11 Benin 0.0198 2.8750 1.6056 -0.8224
12 Ikeja-West
-0.0961 1.7000 3.3400 -1.7111
13 Ayede -0.1373 0.9580 1.7665 -0.9049
14 Jos -0.8691 1.3000 -0.8223 -0.4212
15 Onitsha 0.135 1.5140 1.3051 -0.6686
16 Akangba
-0.1076 0.2570 2.3337 -1.1956
17 Gombe -0.9738 1.0500 -0.7448 -0.3814
18 Abuja (Katampe) -5964 0.2000 2.0000 -1.0244
19 Maiduguri -0.9903 0.6000 0.1000 -0.0511
20 Egbin TS
-0.1038 0.5140 -2.3500 -0.0200
21 Aladja 0.0214 0.4780 0.4800 -0.2459
22 Kano -0.9144 0.4000 2.5245 -1.2933
23 Aja
-0.0615 0.2570 1.1999 -0.6147
24 Ajaokuta 0.0972 0.7650 0.6322 -0.3238
25 N-Heaven 0.101 0.3650 -1.1305 -0.5791
26 Alaoji 0.2707 0.6280 1.6395 -0.8398
27 Jebba-TS
-0.1111 1.8650 -0.0744 -0.0379
28 B.Kebbi -0.1149 0.7000 0.6999 -0.3685
29 Kaduna -0.694 0.9000 1.4977 -0.7672
30 Makurdi
-0.8779 0.4000 -0.0744 -0.0379
 134
Table 5.4: Line Current, Line Flows, and Line Losses
(Uncompensated)
Line Losses (p.u)
B/Sequence Line Current (p.u) Line Flows (p.u)
From To Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary
16 12 0.1598 -1.3584 0.1576 -1.3394 -0.0011 0.0095
12 1 0.0511 -0.3992 0.0507 -0.3965 0.0507 -0.3965
12 11 0.0046 -0.0358 0.0046 -0.0355 0.000 1E-04
12 13 -0.0386 0.328 -0.0384 0.3257 -0.0005 0.0045
13 10 0.0423 -0.3604 0.0415 -0.3529 -0.0005 0.0046
10 11 0.0059 -0.0506 0.0059 -0.0502 0.000 0.0002
10 27 0.0167 -0.1419 0.0165 -0.1407 -1E-04 0.001
12 6 1.5129 -1.1094 1.5023 -1.1017 -0.0106 0.0077
27 8 0.0016 -0.017 0.0016 -0.0169 0.000 0
27 7 0.0057 -0.0482 0.0057 -0.0481 0.000 1E-04
7 28 -0.0157 0.1328 -0.0157 0.1328 -0.0002 0.0017
8 29 -0.4964 4.263 -0.4964 4.263 -0.0626 0.5378
29 22 -0.1869 1.5934 -0.1633 1.3923 -0.0211 0.1799
14 17 -0.0039 0.0332 -0.0032 0.0271 0.000 1E-04
11 24 0.0085 -0.0677 0.0084 -0.0674 0.000 0.0003
11 4 0.038 -0.2933 0.0378 -0.2921 -0.0002 0.0012
11 15 -0.0587 0.4985 -0.0585 0.4964 -0.0012 0.0105
15 25 -0.058 0.5641 -0.0565 0.5499 -0.001 0.0094
15 26 -0.0508 0.4347 -0.0496 0.4238 -0.0009 0.008
26 5 3.0208 -2.3495 2.889 -2.247 -0.1318 0.1025
4 21 -0.004 0.0327 -0.004 0.0327 0.000 0.000
2 21 -0.004 0.0327 -0.004 0.0327 0.000 0.000
1 23 -0.1185 0.9261 -0.1185 0.9261 -0.0019 0.015
29 14 -0.1092 0.934 -0.0954 0.8162 -0.0062 0.053
14 30 0.0125 -0.1065 0.0102 -0.087 -1E-04 0.0008
10 12 0.003 -0.0257 0.003 -0.0254 0.000 0.000
11 2 0.026 -0.215 0.0259 -0.2141 -1E-04 0.0009
15 3 1.7426 -1.3554 1.6987 -1.3212 -0.0439 0.0341
8 18 -0.1486 1.3112 -0.1486 1.3112 -0.0089 0.0784
9 24 -0.0566 0.2832 -0.0566 0.2832 0.000 1E-04
19 17 -0.0363 0.1457 -0.03 0.1204 -0.0005 0.0018
20 23 0.0158 -0.1236 0.0155 -0.1214 0.000 0.0003
27 26 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Fig. 5.1 and 5.2 represent the Plot of Bus Voltages under normal uncompensated
conditions. As can be seen from the plot the voltages that are outside the renge are
clearly seen from the plot.

Table 5.5 Summary of Total Loss (Uncompensated Per Unit)

Line Current (p.u) Line Flows (p.u) Line Losses (p.u)

Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary

5.2816 3.4557 5.1362 3.2760b -0.2427 0.6670

 135

Table 5.6 Bus Voltages In p.u

B/N Bus Name Volts (p.u)

(uncompensated)
1 Egbin-GS
(Slack) 1.0000
2 Delta-PS 1.0000
3 Okpai-PS 1.0000
4 SAP /PS 1.0000
5 AFAM-GS 1.0000
6 Jebba-GS 1.0000
7 KAINJI-GS 1.0000
8 Shiroro-PS 1.0000
9 Geregu(PS) 1.0000
10 Oshogbo 0.9919
11 Benin 0.9957
12 Ikeja-West 0.993
13 Ayede 0.9792
14 Jos 0.8171
15 Onitsha 0.9748
16 Akangba 0.9859
17 Gombe 0.8144
18 Abuja
(Katampe) 0.9402
19 Maiduguri 0.8268
20 Egbin TS 0.9816
21 Aladja 0.9994
22 Kano 0.7609
23 Aja 0.9838
24 Ajaokuta 0.9997
25 N-Heaven 0.9582
26 Alaoji 0.9564
27 Jebba-TS 0.9988
28 B.Kebbi 0.9873
29 Kaduna 0.8738
30 Makurdi 0.8247
 136

1.15
1.1
1.05
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
Voltage (p.u) 0.75
0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
Bus No

Fig. 5.1 Plot of Bus Voltages under normal condition

1.2

0.8
Voltage (p.u)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
Bus No

Fig. 5.2 Bar Plot of Bus Voltages under normal condition

 137

Table: 5.7 Bus Angle, Shunt (Y-shunt) And Injection Powers (Sg) (Compensated in rad.)
B/N Bus Name
Angle(rad) Y-Shunt Sg(p.u) Real Sg(p.u) Imaginary
1 Egbin-GS (Slack)
0 0.5140 0.0000 0.0000
2 Delta-PS
0.0284 0.4780 0.5500 0.4278
3 Okpai-PS 0.151 0.1040 2.200 1.7126
4 SAP /PS 0.0291 0.4470 0.7500 0.5838
5 AFAM-GS
0.3091 0.1040 4.7900 3.7292
6 Jebba-GS -0.0967 0.0200 3.2200 2.5069
7 KAINJI-GS
-0.0401 1.4860 3.2300 2.5146
8 Shiroro-PS
-0.4886 1.8150 2.8000 2.1798
9 Geregu(PS) 0.1016 0.0332 2.0000 1.5566
10 Oshogbo
-0.1067 2.0770 -1.2037 -0.2962
11 Benin 0.0221 2.8750 -1.6056 -0.3951
12 Ikeja-West -0.0936 1.7000 -3.3400 -0.8218
13 Ayede
-0.1345 0.9580 -1.7665 -0.4347
14 Jos -0.8059 1.3000 -0.8223 -0.2024
15 Onitsha 0.1365 1.5140 -1.3051 -0.3211
16 Akangba
-0.1054 0.2570 -2.3338 -0.5742
17 Gombe -0.8803 1.0500 -0.7448 -0.1833
18 Abuja (Katampe)
-0.5797 0.2000 -2.0000 -0.4922
19 Maiduguri
-0.8935 0.6000 -0.1000 -0.0247
20 Egbin TS
-0.1026 0.5140 -2.3500 -1.111
21 Aladja 0.024 0.4780 -0.4800 -0.1181
22 Kano
-0.8361 0.4000 -2.5245 -0.6212
23 Aja
-0.0606 0.2570 -1.1999 -0.2952
24 Ajaokuta 0.0996 0.7650 -0.6322 -0.1556
25 N-Heaven
0.1022 0.3650 -1.1305 -0.2782
26 Alaoji 0.2712 0.6280 -1.6395 -0.4035
27 Jebba-TS -0.1029 1.8650 -0.0744 -0.0184
28 B.Kebbi -0.1077 0.7000 -0.6999 -0.1677
29 Kaduna -0.667 0.9000 -1.4977 -0.3686
30 Makurdi -0.8127 0.4000 -0.0744 -0.0184
 138
Table: 5.8 Bus Angle, Shunt (Y-shunt) and Powers (Sg) (Compensated)

Sg(MVar)
B/N Bus Name Angle(deg) Y-shunt Sg(MW) Real Imaginary
1 Egbin-GS (Slack) 0 0.5140 0.0000 0.0000
2 Delta-PS 1.626989 0.4780 55.0000 28.1600
3 Okpai-PS 8.650541 0.1040 220.0000 112.7000
4 SAP /PS 1.667091 0.4470 75.0000 38.4200
5 AFAM-GS 17.70783 0.1040 479.0000 245.3900
6 Jebba-GS -5.53978 0.0200 322.000 164.9600
7 KAINJI-GS -2.29726 1.4860 323.000 165.4700
8 Shiroro-PS -27.9911 1.8150 280.000 143.4400
9 Geregu(PS) 5.820496 0.0332 200.00 102.4400
10 Oshogbo -6.11267 2.0770 120.370 -61.6500
11 Benin 1.266073 2.8750 160.560 -82.2400
12 Ikeja-West -5.36219 1.7000 334.000 -171.1100
13 Ayede -7.70528 0.9580 176.650 -90.4900
14 Jos -46.1687 1.3000 82.2300 -40.9235
15 Onitsha 7.81986 1.5140 130.510 -66.8600
16 Akangba -6.03819 0.2570 233.376 -119.5600
17 Gombe -50.4309 1.0500 74.4800 -38.1400
18 Abuja (Katampe) -33.2101 0.2000 200.000 -44.230
19 Maiduguri -51.1871 0.6000 10.000 0 -5.1100
20 Egbin TS -5.87778 0.5140 235.000 -2.0000
21 Aladja 1.37492 0.4780 48.000 -24.5900
22 Kano -47.8988 0.4000 252.450 13.9560
23 Aja -3.47167 0.2570 119.990 -61.4700
24 Ajaokuta 5.70592 0.7650 63.2200 -32.3800
25 N-Heaven 5.85487 0.3650 113.050 -57.9100
26 Alaoji 15.5366 0.6280 163.950 -83.9800
27 Jebba-TS -5.89497 1.8650 7.4400 -3.7900
28 B.Kebbi -6.16996 0.7000 -69.9900 -36.8500
29 Kaduna -38.2113 0.9000 149.7700 -46.2070
30 Makurdi -46.5582 0.4000 7.4400 -3.6815

Table: 5.9 MVAR Compensation Added To Bus Demanded Powers (Sg)

Computed 50% Correction factor
B/N Bus Name Sg(MVAR) of CSG (MVAR) Compensation Sg(MVAR)
14 Jos 23.9310 11.9742 35.9052
17 Gombe 21.68 10.8412 32.5212
Abuja
18 (Katampe) 58.212 29.1134 87.3254
19 Maiduguri 2.9106 01.4624 4.3732
22 Kano 73.478 36.7443 110.222
29 Kaduna 43.592 21.8010 65.393
30 Makurdi 2.1655 1.0934 3.2589
 139

Table 5.10(a) MVAr and Capacitor Values at Various Percentage Compensation levels (in p.u)

10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

B/N MVAR(pu) C(uF) MVAR(pu) C(uF) MVAR(pu) C(uF) MVAR(pu) C(uF) MVAR(pu) C(uF)
1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.110906 0.324174 0.120988 0.353644 0.131071 0.383114 0.141153 0.412585 0.151236 0.442055
3 0.444284 1.298624 0.484674 1.416681 0.525063 1.534737 0.565453 1.652794 0.605842 1.770851
4 0.151456 0.442698 0.165224 0.482943 0.178993 0.523189 0.192762 0.563434 0.20653 0.603679
5 Table 5.112.827824
0.967453 Bus Voltages at various
1.055404 compensation
3.084899 1.143354 levels For the
3.341973 Compensated
1.231304 3.599048 Buses
1.319255 3.856123
6 0.650361 B/N
1.900976 50percent
0.709485 65percent
2.073792 0.76860875percent
2.246608 90percent
0.827732 2.419424 0.886856 2.59224
7 0.652355 1.906806 14 0.964547
0.71166 0.976966
2.080152 0.770965 0.984707
2.253498 0.995664 2.426844
0.83027 0.889576 2.60019
8 0.565493 1.652911 17 0.616901
0.995396 1.009312
1.803176 0.66831 1.017975
1.95344 1.030226 2.103705
0.719718 0.771127 2.253969
9 0.403735 1.180099 18 0.440438 1.287381
0.954925 0.477141 0.954925
0.954925 1.394663 0.513845
0.954925 1.501945 0.550548 1.609227
10 0.242949 0.71013 19 0.265036 0.774687
1.014868 0.287122 1.038118
1.029198 0.839244 0.309208
1.05073 0.903802 0.331294 0.968359
11 0.324131 0.947421 22 0.353598 1.033551
0.810757 0.383064 0.849712
0.834761 1.11968 0.412531
0.95864 1.205809 0.441997 1.291938
12 0.674625 1.971898 29 0.735954 2.1511610.93879
0.928746 0.797284 0.945069
2.330425 0.858613
0.953981 2.509688 0.919943 2.688952
13 0.356707 1.04264 30 0.389135 1.1374260.98823
0.975601 0.421563 1.232211
0.9961 0.453991
1.007241 1.326997 0.486419 1.421782
14 0.166015 0.485256 0.181108 0.52937 0.1962 0.573484 0.211292 0.617598 0.226385 0.661712
15 0.263598 0.770485 0.287561 0.840529 0.311525 0.910573 0.335488 0.980617 0.359452 1.050661
16 0.471383 1.377832 0.514236 1.50309 0.557089 1.628347 0.599942 1.753605 0.642795 1.878862
17 0.150256 0.439191 0.163915 0.479117 0.177575 0.519044 0.191235 0.55897 0.204894 0.598896
18 0.403735 1.180099 0.440438 1.287381 0.477141 1.394663 0.513845 1.501945 0.550548 1.609227
19 0.020055 0.058619 0.021878 0.063948 0.023701 0.069277 0.025524 0.074606 0.027347 0.079935
20 -0.82765 -2.41918 -0.90289 -2.63911 -0.97813 -2.85903 -1.05337 -3.07896 -1.12861 -3.29888
21 0.096945 0.283365 0.105758 0.309126 0.114571 0.334886 0.123384 0.360647 0.132197 0.386407
22 0.509891 1.490388 0.556244 1.625878 0.602598 1.761368 0.648952 1.896857 0.695305 2.032347
23 0.242343 0.708358 0.264374 0.772754 0.286406 0.837151 0.308437 0.901547 0.330468 0.965943
24 0.127606 0.372988 0.139207 0.406896 0.150808 0.440804 0.162408 0.474712 0.174009 0.50862
25 0.228275 0.667237 0.249027 0.727895 0.269779 0.788553 0.290532 0.849211 0.311284 0.909869
26 0.331015 0.967541 0.361107 1.055499 0.391199 1.143458 0.421291 1.231416 0.451384 1.319374
27 0.01479 0.043232 0.016135 0.047162 0.01748 0.051092 0.018824 0.055022 0.020169 0.058953
28 0.152299 0.445164 0.166145 0.485634 0.17999 0.526103 0.193836 0.566573 0.207681 0.607042
29 0.302423 0.883968 0.329916 0.964329 0.357409 1.04469 0.384902 1.125051 0.412395 1.205412
30 0.01479 0.043232 0.016135 0.047162 0.01748 0.051092 0.018824 0.055022 0.020169 0.058953
 140
Table 5.10(b) MVAr. and Capacitor Values at Various Percentage Compensation levels (in p.u
60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

B/N MVAR(pu) C(uF) MVAR(pu) C(uF) MVAR(pu) C(uF) MVAR(pu) C(uF) MVAR(pu) C(uF)
1 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.00000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 0.161318 0.471525 0.1714 0.500996 0.181483 0.530466 0.191565 0.559936 0.201647 0.589407
3 0.646232 1.888907 0.686621 2.006964 0.727011 2.125021 0.7674 2.243078 0.80779 2.361134
4 0.220299 0.643924 0.234068 0.68417 0.247836 0.724415 0.261605 0.76466 0.275374 0.804906
5 1.407205 4.113198 1.495155 4.370273 1.583106 4.627348 1.671056 4.884423 1.759006 5.141498
6 0.945979 2.765056 1.005103 2.937872 1.064227 3.110688 1.123351 3.283504 1.182474 3.45632
7 0.948881 2.773536 1.008186 2.946882 1.067491 3.120228 1.126796 3.293574 1.186101 3.46692
8 0.822535 2.404234 0.873944 2.554499 0.925352 2.704763 0.976761 2.855028 1.028169 3.005293
9 0.587251 1.716508 0.623954 1.82379 0.660657 1.931072 0.69736 2.038354 0.734064 2.145635
10 0.353381 1.032916 0.375467 1.097473 0.397553 1.162031 0.41964 1.226588 0.441726 1.291145
11 0.471464 1.378067 0.50093 1.464197 0.530397 1.550326 0.559863 1.636455 0.58933 1.722584
12 0.981272 2.868215 1.042602 3.047479 1.103931 3.226742 1.165261 3.406005 1.22659 3.585269
13 0.518847 1.516568 0.551275 1.611353 0.583703 1.706139 0.616131 1.800924 0.648559 1.895709
14 0.241477 0.705826 0.256569 0.74994 0.271662 0.794055 0.286754 0.838169 0.301846 0.882283
15 0.383415 1.120705 0.407378 1.190749 0.431342 1.260793 0.455305 1.330837 0.479269 1.400881
16 0.685648 2.00412 0.728501 2.129377 0.771354 2.254635 0.814207 2.379892 0.85706 2.50515
17 0.218554 0.638823 0.232213 0.678749 0.245873 0.718676 0.259533 0.758602 0.273192 0.798529
18 0.587251 1.716508 0.623954 1.82379 0.660657 1.931072 0.69736 2.038354 0.734064 2.145635
19 0.029171 0.085264 0.030994 0.090593 0.032817 0.095922 0.03464 0.101251 0.036463 0.10658
20 -1.20385 -3.51881 -1.27909 -3.73873 -1.35433 -3.95866 -1.42957 -4.17858 -1.50482 -4.39851
21 0.141011 0.412168 0.149824 0.437928 0.158637 0.463689 0.16745 0.489449 0.176263 0.51521
22 0.741659 2.167837 0.788013 2.303327 0.834367 2.438817 0.88072 2.574306 0.927074 2.709796
23 0.352499 1.030339 0.37453 1.094736 0.396561 1.159132 0.418593 1.223528 0.440624 1.287924
24 0.185609 0.542528 0.19721 0.576436 0.208811 0.610344 0.220411 0.644252 0.232012 0.67816
25 0.332036 0.970527 0.352788 1.031185 0.373541 1.091843 0.394293 1.152501 0.415045 1.213159
26 0.481476 1.407333 0.511568 1.495291 0.54166 1.583249 0.571753 1.671208 0.601845 1.759166
27 0.021513 0.062883 0.022858 0.066813 0.024203 0.070743 0.025547 0.074673 0.026892 0.078604
28 0.221526 0.647512 0.235372 0.687981 0.249217 0.728451 0.263063 0.76892 0.276908 0.80939
29 0.439888 1.285772 0.467381 1.366133 0.494874 1.446494 0.522367 1.526855 0.54986 1.607215
30 0.021513 0.062883 0.022858 0.066813 0.024203 0.070743 0.025547 0.074673 0.026892 0.078604
 141

Table: 5.11(a) Line Current, Line Flows, and Line Losses (Compensated)

B/Sequence Line Current (p.u) Line Flows (p.u) Line Losses (p.u)
From To Real I(p.u) Imagi I(p.u) Real P(p.u) Imag P(p.u) Real L(p.u) Imag L(p.u)
16 12 0.0859 -0.7304 0.0853 -0.7254 -0.0003 0.0028
12 1 0.0226 -0.1768 0.0225 -0.1762 0.0225 -0.1762
12 11 0.0047 -0.036 0.0047 -0.0359 0.000 1E-04
12 13 -0.0006 0.0048 -0.0006 0.0048 0.0000 0.0000
13 10 0.0224 -0.1908 0.0223 -0.1901 -0.0002 0.0013
10 11 -0.0056 0.0477 -0.0056 0.0479 0.0000 0.0002
10 27 -0.01 0.085 -0.010 0.0853 0.0000 0.0003
12 6 0.6698 -0.4912 0.6677 -0.4897 -0.0021 0.0015
27 8 0.0009 -0.0093 0.0009 -0.0093 0.0000 0.0000
27 7 0.0031 -0.0263 0.0031 -0.0263 0.0000 0.0000
7 28 0.0093 -0.079 0.0093 -0.079 -1E-04 0.0006
8 29 -0.1362 1.1695 -0.1362 1.1695 -0.0047 0.0405
29 22 -0.0522 0.4453 -0.0504 0.4299 -0.0016 0.014
14 17 0.0599 -0.5103 0.0588 -0.5013 -0.0025 0.0214
11 24 0.0004 -0.0031 0.0004 -0.0031 0.0000 0.0000
11 4 0.0022 -0.0167 0.0022 -0.0167 0.0000 0.0000
11 15 -0.0571 0.4845 -0.0571 0.4844 -0.0012 0.0099
15 25 -0.0252 0.2455 -0.0247 0.2405 -0.0002 0.0018
15 26 -0.0539 0.4605 -0.0527 0.451 -0.0011 0.009
26 5 2.785 -2.1661 2.673 -2.079 -0.112 0.0871
4 21 0.0037 -0.0305 0.0037 -0.0305 0.0000 0.0000
2 21 0.0037 -0.0305 0.0037 -0.0305 0.0000 0.0000
1 23 -0.2254 1.7619 -0.2254 1.7619 -0.0069 0.0543
29 14 0.0326 -0.2792 0.0315 -0.2695 -0.0006 0.0047
14 30 0.0198 -0.1691 0.0195 -0.1661 -0.0002 0.0020
10 12 -0.0183 0.1552 -0.0183 0.1557 -1E-04 0.0010
11 2 0.0015 -0.0123 0.0015 -0.0123 0.0000 0.0000
15 3 1.431 -1.113 1.4014 -1.09 -0.0296 0.023
8 18 -0.0827 0.7296 -0.0827 0.7296 -0.0027 0.0243
9 24 -0.0117 0.0586 -0.0117 0.0586 0.0000 0.0000
19 17 -0.0623 0.2498 -0.0651 0.2612 -0.0013 0.0053
20 23 0.1632 -1.2761 0.1546 -1.2083 -0.0036 0.0285
27 26 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Table 5.11(b) Summary of Total Loss (Compensated Per Unit)

Line Current (p.u) Line Flows (p.u) Line Losses (p.u)

Real Imaginary Real Imaginary Real Imaginary

4.5805 -1.4488 4.4256 -1.2589 -0.1485 0.1574

 142

Table: 5.12 Bus Voltages (Compensated in p.u)

With
Compensation
B/N Bus Name Volts (p.u) Angle(rad)
1 Egbin-GS
(Slack) 1.0000 0.0000
2 Delta-PS 1.0000 0.0284
3 Okpai-PS 1.0000 0.1510
4 SAP /PS 1.0000 0.0291
5 AFAM-GS 1.0000 0.3091
6 Jebba-GS 1.0000 -0.0967
7 KAINJI-GS 1.0000 -0.0401
8 Shiroro-PS 1.0000 -0.4886
9 Geregu(PS) 1.0000 0.1016
10 Oshogbo 1.0035 -0.1067
11 Benin 0.9998 0.0221
12 Ikeja-West 0.9969 -0.0936
13 Ayede 0.9967 -0.1345
14 Jos 0.9823 -0.8059
15 Onitsha 0.9793 0.1365
16 Akangba 0.9931 -0.1054
17 Gombe 1.0242 -0.8803
18 Abuja
(Katampe) 0.9667 -0.5797
19 Maiduguri 1.0455 -0.8935
20 Egbin TS 0.9469 -0.1026
21 Aladja 1.0006 0.024
22 Kano 0.9338 -0.8361
23 Aja 0.9692 -0.0606
24 Ajaokuta 0.9999 0.0996
25 N-Heaven 0.9721 0.1022
26 Alaoji 0.9598 0.2712
27 Jebba-TS 0.9993 -0.1029
28 B.Kebbi 1.0075 -0.1077
29 Kaduna 0.9654 -0.667
30 Makurdi 0.9943 -0.8127
 143

1.15
1.1
1.05
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
Voltage (p.u)

0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
Bus No

Fig. 5.3 Graph of Bus Voltages after Compensation

1.2

0.8
Voltage (p.u)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
Bus No
Fig. 5.4: Bar Plot of Bus Voltages after Compensation
 144

1.15
Table 5,13(a) Voltage Value at
1.1
1.05
20percent Comp.
1
0.95
0.9
B/N Bus Name Volts(p.u)
0.85
0.8 Egbin-GS
0.75
1 (Slack) 1.000
Voltage (p.u)

0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55 2 Delta-PS 1.000
0.5
0.45
0.4
3 Okpai-PS 1.000
0.35
0.3
0.25
4 SAP/PS 1.000
0.2
0.15
0.1
5 AFAM-GS 1.000
0.05
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
6 Jebba-GS 1.000
Bus No
7 KAINJI-GS 1.000
Fig.5.5 Graph of Voltage at 20percent 8 Shiroro-PS 1.000
Compensation 9 Geregu(PS) 1.000
Table 5.13(b) Cap Values at 10 Oshogbo 1.0015
20percent Comp 11 Benin 0.9991
B/N C(uF) 12 Ikeja-West 0.9962
1 0.0000 13 Ayede 0.9937
2 0.353644 14 Jos 0.9603
3 1.416681 15 Onitsha 0.9786
4 0.482943 16 Akangba 0.9919
5 3.084899
17 Gombe 0.9963
6 2.073792
Abuja
7 2.080152 18 (Katampe) 0.9623
8 1.803176
19 Maiduguri 1.0164
9 1.287381
20 Egbin TS 0.9531
10 0.774687
11 1.033551
21 Aladja 1.0004
12 2.151161 22 Kano 0.9107
13 1.137426 23 Aja 0.9718
14 0.52937 24 Ajaokuta 0.9999
15 0.840529 25 N-Heaven 0.9697
16 1.50309 26 Alaoji 0.9592
17 0.479117 27 Jebba-TS 0.9993
18 1.287381 28 B.Kebbi 1.0041
19 0.063948 29 Kaduna 0.9531
20 -2.63911 30 Makurdi 0.9717
21 0.309126
22 1.625878
23 0.772754
24 0.406896
25 0.727895 Slack Bus
26 1.055499 Real Imaginary
27 0.047162 0.233882 1.571485p.u
28 0.485634
29 0.964329
30 0.047162
 145

Table 5.14(a) Voltage Value at

1.15
1.1
1.05
30percent
1
0.95
0.9
0.85 B/N Bus Name Volts(p.u)
0.8
0.75 Egbin-GS
Voltage (p.u)

0.7
0.65
0.6
1 (Slack) 1.0000
0.55
0.5 2 Delta-PS 1.000
0.45
0.4
0.35
3 Okpai-PS 1.000
0.3
0.25 4 SAP/PS 1.000
0.2
0.15
0.1
5 AFAM-GS 1.000
0.05
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
6 Jebba-GS 1.000
Bus No
7 KAINJI-GS 1.000
Fig.5.6 Graph of Voltages 30percent Comp
8 Shiroro-PS 1.000
9 Geregu(PS) 1.000
10 Oshogbo 1.0023
Table 5. 14(b) Cap. Values at 11 Benin 0.9994
30percent 12 Ikeja-West 0.9965
B/N C(uF) 13 0.9949
Ayede
1 0.000
2 0.383114 14 Jos 0.9693
3 1.534737 15 Onitsha 0.9789
4 0.523189 16 Akangba 0.9924
5 3.341973 17 Gombe 1.0077
6 2.246608 Abuja
7 2.253498 18 (Katampe) 0.9641
8 1.95344
19 Maiduguri 1.0283
9 1.394663
10 0.839244 20 Egbin TS 0.9506
11 1.11968 21 Aladja 1.0005
12 2.330425 22 Kano 0.9202
13 1.232211 23 Aja 0.9708
14 0.573484
15 0.910573
24 Ajaokuta 0.9999
16 1.628347 25 N-Heaven 0.9707
17 0.519044 26 Alaoji 0.9594
18 1.394663 27 Jebba-TS 0.9993
19 0.069277 28 B.Kebbi 1.0055
20 -2.85903
29 Kaduna 0.9581
21 0.334886
22 1.761368 30 Makurdi 0.9809
23 0.837151
24 0.440804
25 0.788553
26 1.143458 Slack
27 0.051092 Real Imaginary
28 0.526103 0.239485 1.615285p.u
29 1.04469
30 0.051092
 146

1.15 Table 5.15(a) Voltage Values at

1.1
1.05 50percent Compensation
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
B/N Bus Name Volts(p.u)
Egbin-GS
Voltage (p.u)

0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55 1 (Slack) .0001
0.5
0.45 2 Delta-PS .0001
0.4
0.35
0.3
3 Okpai-PS 1.000
0.25
0.2 4 SAP/PS 1.000
0.15
0.1
0.05
5 AFAM-GS 1.000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930 6 Jebba-GS 1.000
Bus No
7 KAINJI-GS 1.000
Fig. 5.7 Graph of Voltage at 50percent 8 Shiroro-PS 1.000
Compensation 9 Geregu(PS) 1.000
Table 5.15(b) Cap Values at 10 Oshogbo 1.0039
50percent 11 Benin 0.9999
B/N C(uF) 12 Ikeja-West 0.997
1 0 13 Ayede 0.9973
2 0.442055 14 Jos 0.9866
3 1.770851
15 Onitsha 0.9795
4 0.603679
16 Akangba 0.9934
5 3.856123
6 2.59224 17 Gombe 1.0296
7 2.60019 Abuja
8 2.253969 18 (Katampe) 0.9676
9 1.609227 19 Maiduguri 1.0511
10 0.968359 20 Egbin TS 0.9456
11 1.291938 21 Aladja 1.0006
12 2.688952 22 Kano 0.9383
13 1.421782 23 Aja 0.9687
14 0.661712 24 Ajaokuta 0.9999
15 1.050661
25 N-Heaven 0.9726
16 1.878862
26 Alaoji 0.9599
17 0.598896
18 1.609227 27 Jebba-TS 0.9994
19 0.079935 28 B.Kebbi 1.0082
20 -3.29888 29 Kaduna 0.9678
21 0.386407 30 Makurdi 0.9987
22 2.032347
23 0.965943
24 0.50862
Slack Bus
25 0.909869
Power Imaginary
26 1.319374
27 0.058953 0.2508327 1.703993p.u
28 0.607042
29 1.205412
30 0.058953
 147

Kano 312.510KV
B. Kebbi 332.475KV Kaduna 318.582KV

310k
m Shiroro TS 230km
325.813KV Maiduguri
Maiduguri
Kainji GS 196km 284km
345.015KV
330KV
96km
Jebba 330KV 337.986KV Gombe
GS 330KV Shiroro GS
81km 319.011KV Jos
244km 144km 264km
264km
8km
330KV 324.159KV
Abuja
Jebba TS Geregu 275km
329.769KV 157km Ajaokuta 5km Makurdi
157km
137km 329.967KV 328.119KV
Oshogbo
Ayede 195km
328.911KV 331.155KV 195km
251km
329.934KV N.Heaven
137km Benin
252km
320.793KV
280km

328.977KV 137km
IKJ-West
107km 96km
50km

62km 330KV Sepele PS

323.169KV

18km Egbin GS Onitsha

Delta PS 138km
330KV 330KV
63km
86km
32km 80km Alaoji 316.734KV
327.723KV 330.198KV
27.5km Okpai
Akamgba GS
5km
Aladja 330KV
319.836KV
312.477KV 25km
Aja
Egbin TS 330KV

Afam

GS
Fig. 5.8. One Line Diagram of the PHCN 330KV 30 Bus Interconnected Network with
Compensated Voltage Values.
 148

Table 5.16 10 percent Over Compensation

B/N Bus Name Volts(p.u) Angle(rad) Sg(p.u)Real Sg(p.u)Imaginary

1 Egbin-GS (Slack) 1.000 0.000 0.0000 0.000
2 Delta-PS 1.000 0.0284 0.5500 0.4429
3 Okpai-PS 1.000 0.1514 2.2000 1.7732
4 SAP/PS 1.000 0.0291 0.7500 0.6045
5 AFAM-GS 1.000 0.3093 4.7900 3.8611
6 Jebba-GS 1.000 -0.0961 3.2200 2.5956
7 KAINJI-GS 1.000 -0.0395 3.2300 2.6036
8 Shiroro-PS 1.000 -0.4877 2.8000 2.2569
9 Geregu(PS) 1.000 0.1017 2.0000 1.6117
10 Oshogbo 1.0046 -0.1066 1.2037 -0.2631
11 Benin 1.0002 0.0221 1.6056 -0.3509
12 Ikeja-West 0.9973 -0.0935 3.3400 -0.7298
13 Ayede 0.9985 -0.1344 1.7665 -0.3861
14 Jos 0.9949 -0.8024 -0.8223 -0.1797
15 Onitsha 0.9798 0.1364 1.3051 -0.2852
16 Akangba 0.9939 -0.1053 2.3338 -0.51
17 Gombe 1.0401 -0.8753 0.7448 -0.1628
18 Abuja (Katampe) 0.9694 -0.5789 2.0000 -0.4371
19 Maiduguri 1.0621 -0.8883 0.1000 -0.0219
20 Egbin TS 0.9431 -0.1025 2.3500 -1.2239
21 Aladja 1.0007 0.0241 0.4800 -0.1049
22 Kano 0.947 -0.8319 -2.5245 -0.5516
23 Aja 0.9676 -0.0606 1.1999 -0.2622
24 Ajaokuta 1 0.0996 -0.6322 -0.1382
25 N-Heaven 0.9735 0.102 1.1305 -0.2471
26 Alaoji 0.9601 0.271 1.6395 -0.3583
27 Jebba-TS 0.9994 -0.1023 0.0744 -0.0164
28 B.Kebbi 1.0096 -0.1072 0.6999 -0.147
29 Kaduna 0.9724 -0.6656 1.4977 -0.3273
30 Makurdi 1.0072 -0.8091 -0.0744 -0.0164
 149

1.15
1.1
1.05
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
Voltage (p.u)

0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
Bus No

Fig.5.9. Graph of 10 percent over Compensation

 150

Table 5.17 20 percent Over Compensation

B/N Bus Name Volts(p.u) Angle(rad) Sg(p.u)Real Sg(p.u)Imaginary

Egbin-GS
1 (Slack) 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 Delta-PS 1.0000 0.0284 0.5500 0.4631
3 Okpai-PS 1.0000 0.152 2.2000 1.854
4 SAP/PS 1.0000 0.0291 0.7500 0.632
6 Jebba-GS 1.0000 0.3095 3.2200 4.037
5 AFAM-GS 1.0000 -0.0954 4.7900 2.7138
7 KAINJI-GS 1.0000 -0.0388 3.2300 2.7222
8 Shiroro-PS 1.0000 -0.4868 2.8000 2.3598
9 Geregu(PS) 1.0000 0.1016 2.0000 1.6851
10 Oshogbo 1.0062 -0.1064 -1.2037 -0.2189
11 Benin 1.0007 0.0221 -1.6056 -0.292
12 Ikeja-West 0.9979 -0.0935 3.3400 -0.6072
13 Ayede 1.0009 -0.1343 1.7665 -0.3212
14 Jos 1.011 -0.7983 0.8223 -0.1495
15 Onitsha 0.9804 0.1362 1.3051 -0.2373
16 Akangba 0.9949 -0.1053 2.3338 -0.4242
17 Gombe 1.0605 -0.8693 0.7448 -0.1355
Abuja
18 (Katampe) 0.9729 -0.578 2.0000 -0.3637
19 Maiduguri 1.0833 -0.882 0.1000 -0.0183
20 Egbin TS 0.938 -0.1023 2.3500 -1.3743
21 Aladja 1.0009 0.024 -0.4800 -0.0873
22 Kano 0.9639 -0.8267 2.5245 -0.4589
23 Aja 0.9655 -0.0604 1.1999 -0.2181
24 Ajaokuta 1 0.0995 0.6322 -0.115
25 N-Heaven 0.9754 0.1018 1.1305 -0.2056
26 Alaoji 0.9606 0.2706 1.6395 -0.2981
27 Jebba-TS 0.9995 -0.1015 0.0744 -0.0137
28 B.Kebbi 1.0123 -0.1066 0.6999 -0.1193
29 Kaduna 0.9814 -0.664 -1.4977 -0.2723
30 Makurdi 1.0237 -0.8049 0.0744 -0.0137
 151

1.15
1.1
1.05
1
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.8
0.75
Voltage (p.u)

0.7
0.65
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
Bus No

Fig.5.10. Graph of 20 percent over Compensation

 152

5.2 Discussion of Result

This thesis analyzed the Nigerian 330KV, 30 bus system using N-R power
flow algorithm with MATLAB/SIMULINK software. The power flow analysis
was carried out using the data collected from Power Holding Company of
Nigeria (PHCN). The results obtained showed that the weak buses with
values outside the statutory limit of 0.95pu or 313.5KV and 1.05pu or
346.5KV were buses 14 (Jos) with value 0.8171pu , bus 17 (Gombe)
0.8144p.u bus 18 (Abuja) 0.9402p.u, bus 19 (Maiduguri) 0.8268p.u,
bus 22 (Kano) 0.7609p.u, bus 29 (Kaduna) 0.8738pu, and bus 30
(Makurdi) 0.8247p.u under normal uncompensated condition as shown in
Table 5.1 with the corresponding angles as buses14(0.869rad), 17(-
0.973rad), 18(-0.596rad), 19(-0.990rad), 22(-0.914rad), 29(-0.694rad), and
bus 30(-0.877rad). These buses with low voltage values were examined
and shunt capacitive compensation was carried out and the output
results were recorded as in Table 5.1 with the corresponding angles at
buses 14(0.805rad), 17(-0.880rad), 18(-o.579rad), 19(-0.893rad), 22(-
0.836rad), 29(-0.667rad), and bus 30(-0.812rad) as shown in Table 5.7.
The graphs of the corresponding voltage values versus bus number were
plotted as shown in Figs.5.1 and 5.2. We could see from the graph that
bus (22) which is Kano has the highest voltage dip because of its distance
from the grid, followed by Jos, Gombe, Kaduna, Makurdi, Maiduguri and
Abuja respectively. On gradual application of 5percent compensation
intervals, it was found out that at 45 percent compensation most of the
problem buses came up to a tolerable range except bus (22), which is
Kano and it came up to appreciable value at sixty percent compensation
as shown in Tables 5.18 and Fig 5.5 respectively. With 45 percent
capacitive shunt compensation on these buses, bus 14 (Jos) became
0.9823.u, bus 17 (Gombe) 1.0242p.u, bus 18(Abuja) 0.9667pu, bus 19
(Maiduguri) 1.0455p.u, 29 (Kaduna) 0.9654 and 30 (Makurdi) 0.9943.
 153

Kano which is heavily loaded was provided with additional line between
Jos and Kano, and this made compensation effect very fast. Bus 22 (Kano)
at 60 percent compensation yielded an increase from 0.7609p.u to 0.947
p.u. Tables 5.10(a) and 5.10(b) presented the values of reactive powers
(MVAR), and voltages at various compensation levels.
The analysis from the compensated results shows that a reasonable and
appreciable values better than when uncompensated with improved
network performance was recorded as shown in Table 5.1. The graphs of
the corresponding compensated voltage values versus bus number were
plotted as shown in Figs.5.3 and 5.4. From the values recorded in Table
5.7 it could be seen that the values of the angles are improved to the
acceptable values. System efficiency improved from 65 percent
(uncompensated) to 85 percent after compensation. The losses in the
system are minimal as can be seen through Table 5.5 and 5.11(b) which
show the summary of total loss in the system for both uncompensated and
compensated conditions.
On further analysis of the system at the compensated stage, various
percentages of compensation were carried out on the network to see the
effect and the results were as recorded in Tables 5.13(a) to 5.115(b) and
corresponding graphs were plotted as represented in Figs. 5.5 to 5.7, On
the application of 20 percent overcompensation, overvoltages (>1.05pu)
resulted in buses (17) & (19) which could cause system collapse if
uncontrolled, this implies that this system cannot be compensated above
20 percent as can be seen in Figs.5.9 and 5.10. The explanation from
literature that ‘compensation of transmission networks results in
improving the system stability and voltage control, and also increasing the
efficiency of power transmission, reducing temporary and transient over
voltages stands. It was also observed that compensating the whole
network jointly affects some of the other buses that are normal, like buses
(20) and (23) as seen in Tables A2.1 and A2.2. The voltage values reduce
 154

as percentage compensation increase. But concentrating the

compensation on the problem buses gives best result and it reduces cost.
Figure 5.8 shows one line diagram of the PHCN 330KV 30 bus
interconnected network with compensated voltage values.
The results also show that control/management of active and reactive
power has greater influence in the Nigeria network so adequate attention
must be placed on it. It is also seen from the computer results that the use
or incorporation of system compensation will lead to many benefits like
increasing transmission lines loadability which enable electrical company
to transmit more power with the existing transmission lines. And also to
absorbs more customers without increasing the number of generators
On further investigation, it was found out that all these buses are in the
Northern part of the country and some are still far from the generating
stations.
Finally, more Substations and additional lines should be introduced into
the network to assist in the strengthening and reduction of long lines to
improve the voltage profile of the network, especially Kano, Kaduna and
Maiduguri lines. Also planned and routine maintenance should be carried
out on the network to reduce the incident of collapsed spans.
 155

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION, CONTRIBUTION AND RECOMENDATION
6.1 Conclusion
The Nigerian 330KV transmission system associated with various
challenges like instability of the system as a result of voltage profile
violation, transmission line inefficiency, problem of long transmission
lines, network being stretched beyond thermal limit, and poor power
quality that causes constant power failure in Nigeria power system were
discussed. Various solution methods were examined and Newton-
Raphson’s solution method because of its sparsity, fast convergence and
simplicity attributes compared to other solution methods was chosen.
Various compensation techniques were reviewed. Shunt and series
reactive compensation using capacitors has been widely recognized as
powerful methods to combat the problems of voltage drops, power losses,
and voltage flicker in power system networks. Though each compensating
technique has its area and limit of application, but shunt capacitor
compensation method was used because of its outstanding performance in
long transmission lines and its control of reactive power flow. Though they
are expensive but they control voltage directly and also control temporary
over voltage rapidly.
The Newton-Raphson’s solution algorithm was used to carry out the base
power flow solution as shown in Table 5.1, and separate functions or
routine to solve certain task like compensation, fphase, fvgen, xlswrite etc
were developed. MATLAB/SIMULINK simulation method was used for the
analysis. The results of the compensated and uncompensated were
obtained and recorded as in Tables 5.1 & 5.2. Compensation was carried
out on the problem buses and the computer program results were as
recorded. The bus voltages outside the statutory limit of 0.95 – 1.05p.u
that is 313.5 – 346.5KV were buses 14(Jos) with value of 0.8171p.u, bus
17 (Gombe) 0.8144p.u, bus 18(Abuja) 0.9402p.u, bus 19 (Maiduguri)
 156

0.8268p.u, bus 22(Kano) 0.7609p.u, bus 29(Kaduna) 0.8730pu, and bus

30 (Makurdi) 0.8247pu under normal uncompensated condition. When 45
percent capacitive shunt compensation was implemented on these buses,
bus 14 (Jos) became 0.9823p.u, bus 17(Gombe) 1.0242p.u, bus 18(Abuja)
0.9667pu, bus 19(Maiduguri) 1.0455pu. Kano which is heavily loaded was
linked to Jos and at 60 percent compensation Kano bus yielded an
increase from 0.7609p.u to 0.947 p.u.. System efficiency improved from 65
percent (uncompensated) to 85 percent after compensation. On the
application of 20 percent additional compensation, overvoltages (>1.05pu)
resulted which will cause the system to collapse if not properly checked.
Calculation of new VAR and capacitor ratings to be used for the
compensation was carried out.
It is clear from the computer results that the use or incorporation of
system compensation will lead to many benefits like increasing
transmission lines load ability which enable electrical company to
transmit more power with the existing transmission lines. Also absorbs
more customers without increasing the number of generators

6.2 Contributions of the Thesis.

In addition to the research carried out based on the work done by other
researchers, the work has been able to make some meaningful
contributions to knowledge as:
 Developed additional function or subroutine added to the Newton-
Raphson’s algorithm (m-file code) used for the simulation for improvement
of learning in the area of power flow analysis. Like fphase, fvgen,
compensation routine program, xlswrite, xlsread and others.
• Calculated new capacitor values that can be used to improve the
voltage profile.
 157

• Applied different percentage levels to see the effect on the network.

This helps to deduce for a particular system simulation the required level
of application of the result to avoid damage to the system/network.
• Overcompensation was carried out on the network which shows that
compensation with this system cannot go above 17 percent as can be seen
in Fig.5.10. These are in line with the set objectives of the study in chapter
one. So the maximum values for Gombe is 1.0242p.u and Maiduguri is
1.0455pu.

6.3 Recommendations
Recommendations for future work includes;
1. Develop Graphical User Interface (GUI) that can be deployed in the
existing power station to aid the operators to study and analyze power flow
problems.
2. To research on the automatic detection of increase in reactive power
influencing the voltage which causes system failure in the national grid as
used in the developed countries of America, Britain and Japan.
3. Substation and additional lines should be introduced into the network
to assist in the strengthening of the long lines especially Kano, Kaduna
and Maiduguri lines for effective voltage profile.
 158

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 162

APPENDIX

A1:M-FILE (SIMULATION) SOURCE CODE

A2 Simulation Result

Table A2.1 Bus Voltages at Different Levels of Percentage Compensation

5% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

B/N Bus Name Volts(p.u) Volts(p.u) Volts(p.u) Volts(p.u) Volts(p.u) Volts(p.u) Volts(p.u)
1 Egbin-GS (Slack) 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 1.000
2 Delta-PS 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 1.000
3 Okpai-PS 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 1.000
4 SAP/PS 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 1.000
5 AFAM-GS 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 1.000
6 Jebba-GS 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 1..000
7 KAINJI-GS 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1..0000 1.000 1.000
8 Shiroro-PS 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 1.000
9 Geregu(PS) 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.000 1.000
10 Oshogbo 1.0003 1.0007 1.002 1.0023 1.003 1.004 1.0046
11 Benin 0.9987 0.9988 0.999 0.9994 1.0000 1.000 1.0002
12 Ikeja-West 0.9958 0.9959 0.996 0.9965 0.997 0.997 0.9973
13 Ayede 0.9919 0.9925 0.994 0.9949 0.996 0.997 0.9985
14 Jos 0.9463 0.951 0.96 0.9693 0.978 0.987 0.9949
15 Onitsha 0.9781 0.9782 0.979 0.9789 0.979 0.98 0.9798
16 Akangba 0.9911 0.9914 0.992 0.9924 0.993 0.993 0.9939
17 Gombe 0.9786 0.9846 0.996 1.0077 1.019 1.03 1.0401
18 Abuja (Katampe) 0.9596 0.9605 0.962 0.9641 0.966 0.968 0.9694
19 Maiduguri 0.998 1.0042 1.016 1.0283 1.04 1.051 1.0621
20 Egbin TS 0.9568 0.9555 0.953 0.9506 0.948 0.946 0.9431
21 Aladja 1.0003 1.0003 1 1.0005 1.001 1.001 1.0007
22 Kano 0.896 0.901 0.911 0.9202 0.929 0.938 0.947
23 Aja 0.9734 0.9729 0.972 0.9708 0.97 0.969 0.9676
24 Ajaokuta 0.9999 0.9999 1 0.9999 1 1 1
25 N-Heaven 0.9683 0.9688 0.97 0.9707 0.972 0.973 0.9735
26 Alaoji 0.9588 0.959 0.959 0.9594 0.96 0.96 0.9601
27 Jebba-TS 0.9992 0.9992 0.999 0.9993 0.999 0.999 0.9994
28 B.Kebbi 1.002 1.0027 1.004 1.0055 1.007 1.008 1.0096
29 Kaduna 0.9453 0.9479 0.953 0.9581 0.963 0.968 0.9724
30 Makurdi 0.9573 0.9622 0.972 0.9809 0.99 0.999 1.0072
 163

Table A2.2 Bus Voltages at Different Levels of Percentage Compensation

Percentage Compensation

70 80 90 100
B/N Volts(p.u) Volts(p.u) Volts(p.u) Volts(p.u)
1 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
2 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
3 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
4 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
5 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
6 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
7 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
8 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
9 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000
10 1.0054 1.0062 1.007 1.0078
11 1.0004 1.0007 1.001 1.0012
12 0.9976 0.9979 0.9982 0.9984
13 0.9997 1.0009 1.0021 1.0033
14 1.003 1.011 1.0187 1.0264
15 0.9801 0.9804 0.9807 0.981
16 0.9944 0.9949 0.9954 0.9959
17 1.0504 1.0605 1.0703 1.0799
18 0.9712 0.9729 0.9747 0.9764
19 1.0728 1.0833 1.0935 1.1035
20 0.9406 0.938 0.9355 0.9329
21 1.0008 1.0009 1.001 1.001
22 0.9555 0.9639 0.972 0.98
23 0.9665 0.9655 0.9644 0.9633
24 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
25 0.9745 0.9754 0.9763 0.9773
26 0.9604 0.9606 0.9608 0.9611
27 0.9994 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995
28 1.0109 1.0123 1.0137 1.015
29 0.9769 0.9814 0.9857 0.99
30 1.0156 1.0237 1.0317 1.0396
 164

1.15 1.15
1.1 1.1
1.05 1.05
1 1
0.95 0.95
0.9 0.9
0.85 0.85
0.8 0.8
0.75 0.75
Voltage (p.u)

Voltage (p.u)
0.7 0.7
0.65 0.65
0.6 0.6
0.55 0.55
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.3 0.3
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05 0.05
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
Bus No Bus No

5% 10%

1.15 1.15
1.1 1.1
1.05 1.05
1
1
0.95
0.95
0.9
0.85
0.9
0.8 0.85
0.8
0.75
0.75
Voltage (p.u)

0.7
Voltage (p.u)

0.65 0.7
0.6 0.65
0.55 0.6
0.5 0.55
0.45 0.5
0.4 0.45
0.35 0.4
0.3 0.35
0.25 0.3
0.2 0.25
0.15 0.2
0.1 0.15
0.05 0.1
0 0.05
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930 0
Bus No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
Bus No

20% 30%

1.15
1.1
1.05 1.15
1 1.1
0.95 1.05
0.9 1
0.95
0.85 0.9
0.8 0.85
0.75 0.8
Voltage (p.u)

0.7 0.75
Voltage (p.u)

0.65 0.7
0.6 0.65
0.55 0.6
0.5 0.55
0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35 0.35
0.3 0.3
0.25 0.25
0.2 0.2
0.15 0.15
0.1 0.1
0.05
0.05
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930 Bus No
Bus No

40%
50%
Fig. A2.1 Graph of Voltage Vs Bus No. at Different levels of
Percentage Compensation
 165

1.15 1.15
1.1 1.1
1.05 1.05
1 1
0.95 0.95
0.9 0.9
0.85 0.85
0.8 0.8
0.75 0.75

Voltage (p.u)
Voltage (p.u)

0.7 0.7
0.65 0.65
0.6 0.6
0.55 0.55
0.5 0.5
0.45 0.45
0.4 0.4
0.35
0.35
0.3
0.3 0.25
0.25 0.2
0.2 0.15
0.15 0.1
0.1 0.05
0.05 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930 Bus No
Bus No

60% 70%

1.15 1.15
1.1 1.1
1.05 1.05
1 1
0.95 0.95
0.9 0.9
0.85 0.85
0.8 0.8
0.75 0.75
Voltage (p.u)

0.7
Voltage (p.u)

0.7
0.65 0.65
0.6 0.6
0.55
0.55
0.5
0.5
0.45
0.45
0.4
0.4 0.35
0.35 0.3
0.3 0.25
0.25 0.2
0.2 0.15
0.15 0.1
0.1 0.05
0.05 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930 Bus No
Bus No

80% 90%

1.15 1.15
1.1 1.1
1.05 1.05
1 1
0.95 0.95
0.9 0.9
0.85 0.85
0.8 0.8
0.75 0.75
Voltage (p.u)

0.7
Voltage (p.u)

0.7
0.65 0.65
0.6 0.6
0.55
0.55
0.5
0.5
0.45
0.45
0.4
0.4 0.35
0.35 0.3
0.3 0.25
0.25 0.2
0.2 0.15
0.15 0.1
0.1 0.05
0.05 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324252627282930 Bus No
Bus No

100% Uncompensated

Fig. A2.2 Graph of Voltage Vs Bus No. at Different levels of

Percentage Compensation
 166

A3 Compact Storage Scheme

The effectiveness of Newtom-Raphson’s method is dependent upon
conserving computer storage and reducing the number of non-zero
computations. To implement these ideas on the computer, elimination of
lower triangular elements is carried out a row at a time using the concept
of compact working row. That is, the non-zero modified upper triangular
elements and mismatches are stored in a compact and convenient way.
Then back substitution progresses backwards through the compact upper
triangle table. By this a properly programmed compact storage scheme
results in considerable saving of computer time during matrix operations.
One of the possible schemes for a general matrix stores the non-zero
elements of successive rows in linear array. The column location of these
non-zero elements and the location where the next row starts (i.e. row
index) is stored separately [58, 59].
167