22nd Annual Meeting of the Southern African Association

for Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology

Education (SAARMSTE)

13 – 16 January 2014
Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
Port Elizabeth, South Africa

New Avenues to Transform Mathematics, Science and

Technology Education in Africa

SHORT PAPERS
BOOK 2 – SCIENC AND TECHNOLOGY

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 SCENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY

SHORT
PAPERS

2
Developing  South  Africa  in-­‐service  teachers’  pedagogical  content  
Knowledge  for  teaching  Nature  of  Science.  

Andrew Chikochi1 & Elaosi Vhurumuku 2

1
Department of Research and Developmebnt in Mathematics, Science and Techonology Education,
University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg.
2
Department of Science and Technology Education, University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg
1
[email protected], [email protected]

In many parts of the world, the development of secondary school learners’ understandings of the
nature of science (NOS) has become an important science education curriculum goal (see for
example, Lederman, 1992; Vhurumuku, Holtman, Mikalsen & Kolsto, 2006; Lederman, 2007). The
NOS refers to the ideas, views, perceptions, beliefs and values held by an individual about scientific
knowledge and the way it is developed and validated (Vhurumuku, 2010). Several reasons for
developing learners’ understandings of NOS have been advanced. It is argued that learners with an
understanding of the NOS develop into responsible citizens who can contribute meaningfully to
civic and socio-scientific issues and make informed decisions related to their daily lives (Kolsto,
2001; DeBoer, 2000). Developing learners’ NOS understandings requires that the teachers who
teach in the classrooms also have both an understanding of the NOS and ‘adequate’ pedagogical
content knowledge for teaching nature of science (PCKNOS) (Lederman, 2007).For this study
PCKNOS comprises of two major elements, namely: the teacher’s understanding of the NOS and
his /her knowledge of explicit and reflective approaches and strategies1used to develop learners’
NOS understandings. Teachers can only teach effectively if they have both sufficient subject matter
(NOS) knowledge and the ‘know how’ of teaching. Research done around the world (see, for
example, Lederman, 1992; Abd-El-Khalick & Lederman, 2000, Lederman, 2007) has consistently
shown that many secondary school teachers do not possess an adequate NOS understanding. In
recent years NOS research has shifted focus to understanding and developing teachers’ PCKNOS
(e.g. Wahbeha & Abd-El-Khalick, 2013; Kim, Ko, Lederman & Lederman, 2005; Burton, 2012).
There is an underlying conviction that if the development of learners’ NOS understandings as a
science education curriculum goal is to be achieved, then efforts to develop teachers’ PCKNOS
must be undertaken. While the results of some recent studies (e.g. Wahbeha & Abd-El-Khalick,
2013; Burton, 2012) appear to be encouraging, a lot still needs to be done to ascertain the
fruitfulness of developing teachers’ PCKNOS as a way of achieving the aforementioned science
education curriculum goal. The study being proposed here contributes to this effort.

The study will involve 50 in-service science teachers enrolled for a physical science short course at
RADMASTE (Research and Development in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education) at
the Wits school of education. In South Africa, whilst general and further education and training are
addressed by many organisations, teacher education and training has received little attention in the
past three decades. RADMASTE realised this and developed workshops and courses to address the
need for in-service training, particularly for science and mathematics teachers. It is with this set up
in mind that the researcher explored the suitability of this rich educational environment to carry out
the current research involving in-service science teachers.

1
In explicit reflective teaching about the NOS, learners’ NOS understandings are planned as deliberate outcomes of
instruction. Teaching about NOS is both planned and assessed. Additionally learners are required to reflect on and
modify their ideas about the NOS.

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In South Africa, education experts say that matric results perennially show a worrying trend of low
performance in critical subjects which include Physical sciences. Osman (2012) has noted that “…
the key concern is the high failure rate in…science”. What could be the reason why learners do well
in other subjects but perform below par in science? Could it be that science is difficult? Could it be
the teachers’ poor science backgrounds or could it be that they are not teaching science properly
including teaching about the nature of science? Could it be their PCK base?

In this project I seek to understand and develop teachers PCKNOS. The focus will be on the
following tenets of the nature of science: (1) scientific knowledge is tentative (subject to change).
(2)The empirical nature of scientific knowledge (based on and/or derived from observation of the
natural world), (3) difference between observation and inference (4) The inferential, imaginative,
and creative nature f science. (5)The socially and culturally embedded nature of science. (6)
Difference between law and theory. These tenets are chosen because of their relevance to school
science. In this project tenets refer to a body of principles that are generally believed to be true by
members of the science education community. These are an equivalent of a doctrine, view,
conviction, dogma, belief or a body of principles taught in science. These principles were
established by scientists after years of research in the field.

Research Aims
This study seeks to:
1. Examine the NOS knowledge and pedagogical knowledge for teaching NOS of 50 in-service
secondary school teachers enrolled for a course with RADMASTE
2. Develop in-service teachers’ NOS knowledge and PCKNOS through a 6 week module focusing
on explicit reflective approaches to teaching about the NOS
3. Determine the impact of exposure to explicit reflective approaches on teachers’ NOS knowledge
and pedagogical knowledge for teaching NOS.
In line with these aims, the following research questions were formulated to guide the study:

Research questions
1. What understandings of NOS are held by in-service secondary school teachers enrolled for a
course with RADMASTE?
2. What is the nature of the in-service secondary school teachers’ pedagogical knowledge about
NOS before going through the three week module?
3. How do the teachers’ knowledge of the NOS and PCKNOS change as a result of going through
the module?

Conceptual framework
The theoretical framework of this study draws from and fuses elements on: the NOS; current ideas
on PCKNOS and explicit reflective approaches for teaching NOS. In this section the concept of
NOS is first explored. Descriptions of PCKNOS are given. This is followed by a discussion of
approaches to teaching NOS.

Research Design and Methodology

This project will be a combination of the qualitative and quantitative approaches to study and
develop teachers’ PCKNOS. Figure 1 below summarises the methodological framework to be used
in this study. Data will be collected on three variables namely; teachers’ NOS understandings,
teachers’ pedagogical knowledge about NOS, and teacher planning for teaching NOS. The study is
envisaged to be conducted in 3 phases. The first phase will be the pre-intervention, which involves
soliciting information/data on in-service teachers’ understandings and PCKNOS using the research

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 instruments as outlined in the summary of the research design below. The second phase will feature
the intervention, which will be implemented in the form of a six-week 40 contact hours, NOS-
module, to be offered by RADMASTE. A pre-test, post-test, delayed-test will be used to assess the
intervention’s impact on participants’ NOS understandings and their PCKNOS. The third phase will
feature the post-intervention for comparative purposes with the pre-intervention to determine any
noticeable changes.

PRE-INTERVENTION POST-INTERVENTION
In-service teachers’ NOS In-service teachers’ NOS
understandings and Pedagogical understandings and Pedagogical
knowledge for teaching NOS (n INTERVENTION knowledge for teaching NOS (n
=20) Teachers go through 6 =20)
1. NOS questionnaire (n=50) week module on 1. NOS questionnaire (n=50)
2. NOS interview (n =5) explicit reflective 2. NOS interview (n =5)
3. Teacher pedagogical approaches to teach 3. Teacher pedagogical
knowledge about NOS about NOS knowledge about NOS
questionnaire (n =50) questionnaire (n =50)
4. Teacher pedagogical 4. Teacher pedagogical
knowledge about NOS knowledge about NOS
interview (n =10) interview (n =10)
5. Teacher lesson plans (n 5. Teacher lesson plans (n =10)
=10)

Figure 1: A summary of the research design

Sampling
Participants will be drawn from in-service secondary school science teachers enrolled for a course
with RADMASTE at the Wits School of Education. Fifty teachers will be selected to partake in the
study, such that participants will be balanced in terms of gender and should represent variance in
terms of grade level and subject matter taught, as well as years of teaching experience. The NOS
understandings of the selected participants will be assessed at the outset and end of the course. A
subsample of teachers will be selected for interviews. These participants will be followed into their
classrooms during the second phase of the study. During this phase the researcher will observe
participants’ plans on NOS.

Research Instruments

I propose to use the following data collection instruments in the project; semi-structured interviews,
questionnaires and classroom observations.
The interviews and questionnaires will be used to gather data relating to teachers’ NOS knowledge
and teacher pedagogical knowledge about NOS. Semi-structured interviewing will be conducted
around a set of seven core questions which will seek to elicit teachers’ understandings of selected
aspects on NOS and pedagogical knowledge for teaching NOS. It is envisaged that data from
interviews will address research question 1 and 2. This of course will be used in conjunction with
data from the classroom observations.The classroom observations will be used to collect data
pertaining to teachers’ approaches used. This will attempt to determine the impact of exposure to
explicit reflective approaches on teachers’ NOS knowledge and pedagogical knowledge for
teaching NOS.

Classroom observations and interviews will be used to determine and ascertain the teacher

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PCKNOS. Each teacher will be observed teaching 3 times. Data from these and any from
questionnaires will be used to answer research question 3.

The intervention programme

Teachers will go through a six week module on explicit and reflective approaches to teach about
NOS. To ensure the fidelity of the intervention, the instructor will follow detailed instructional
plans that outline various short course activities. Participants will be administered the Views of
Nature of Science Questionnaire- Form C (VNOS-C) (Lederman, Abd-El-Khalick,Bell, &
Schwartz,2002) at the beginning and conclusion of the course, as well as six months latter( delayed
assessments to be completed by 10 of the 50 participants). The instrument will be modified to suit
the South African cultural setting and educational context. This instrument has been used
successfully in Taiwan. Each VNOS-C administration will be coupled with individual follow-up
semi-structured interviews with a subsample of 10 randomly selected participants. The interviews’
aim will be to clarify teachers’ responses to the VNOS-C and corroborate the researcher’s
interpretation of these responses. Questionnaire and interview data will be used to assess the impact
of the NOS course on participants’ NOS understandings and pedagogical knowledge for NOS
instruction and the retention of these understandings. These data would also be used to identify
teachers who would have achieved marked improvements in their NOS understandings and
pedagogical knowledge for NOS instruction. A comparative analysis will be done between the pre-
and post-interventions.

Data collection procedure

Stage 1
The first 3 months will be spent developing the research instruments. This will involve trying out
the developed instruments on a group of 5 in-service science teachers, not in the same group as the
participants. The development will specifically focus on language of the instruments, relevance to
the South African cultural and educational context and issues of validity. For each of the
instruments the VNOS-C, content and construct validity will be ascertained through discussions and
consensus among science education research specialists. The in-service science teachers will
participate in three workshops designed to develop and validate interview questions to follow the
VNOS-C, and the open ended questionnaire and interviews for eliciting PCK for NOS.

Stage 2
Before the participants start workshops on developing their NOS conceptions and PCK for NOS,
their prior ideas are elicited using the VNOS-C and interviews. Each participant will also be asked
to draw a concept map showing his understanding of NOS and approach to teaching NOS. Then the
researcher will collect the data.

Stage 3
After 5-workshops on developing their NOS conceptions and PCK for NOS, the participants’ ideas
are elicited using the VNOS-C and interviews. Each participant will also be asked to draw a concept
map showing his understanding of NOS and approach to teaching NOS.

Stage 4
This is expected to take up to six months. The participants will go through another five workshops
covering and extending the ideas developed in Stage 3.

Stage 5
After 10 workshops on developing their NOS conceptions and PCK for NOS, the participants’ ideas

6
are elicited using the VNOS-C and interviews. Each participant will also be asked to draw a concept
map showing his understanding of NOS and approach to teaching NOS.

Stage 6
The participating teachers will be observed teaching to ascertain their practices in developing
learners’ understandings of the NOS. Over a period of one year, each teacher will be observed
teaching at least six times. After each session the teacher will be interviewed about his/her teaching
to get insights into the teachers NOS conceptions, and PCK for NOS.
Twice during the year (about six months interval) each of the participants’ ideas are again elicited
using the VNOS-C and interviews. Each participant will also be asked to draw a concept map
showing his understanding of NOS and approach to teaching NOS. Data collection is done.

Data Analysis

At each stage the collected data will be transcribed, and analysed. All the data will also be analyzed
and interpreted holistically to understand how PCK for NOS develop over time. Quantitative data
will be generated from the NOS questionnaire. Data analysis will mainly be descriptive statistics,
but some inferential statistics may also be done. Descriptive data will be presented in the form of
frequency counts, tables and graphs. This will give a numerical description of teachers’
understandings of NOS and pedagogical content knowledge for NOS. The inferential statistics is
expected to be mainly Chi-Square tests and correlation analysis aimed at exploring associations and
correlations between variables in the questionnaire.

For qualitative data, inductive analysis will be adopted (McMillan & Schumacher, 2006).
According to McMillan and Schumacher (2006) inductive analysis involves coding and
categorization of data, observing patterns and themes, and making reasoned conclusions. A coding
system for the entire data generated which is linked to the research questions will be done and codes
across data sets compared.

Envisaged contribution of the study to scholarship and practice

A contribution to the general body of knowledge about teaching and learning and in particular about
the relationship between one’s views of NOS, subject matter and pedagogy, which is still uncertain.
In the professional development of teachers, exposure to higher order skills and knowledge about
nature of science will hopefully lead to the inclusion of these skills in their own teaching and
assessment of science projects, assignments and examination questions. The investigation is based
on original research in that it would involve delineating important aspects of the nature of science
and provide critical information for the planning and quality of professional development activities
that focus on NOS.

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Exploring the Relationship between Content Knowledge of Organic Chemistry
and Topic Specific PCK

Bette Davidowitz1, Marietjie Potgieter2 & Nonkanyiso Vokwana 1

1
Department of Chemistry, University of Cape Town, South Africa.
2
Department of Chemistry, University of Pretoria, South Africa
1
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

While many qualitative studies have focussed on Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) and its
relationship to Content Knowledge (CK), quantitative studies which attempt to measure the
correlation between these two constructs are a more recent feature of work in this area. The key
question in statistical terms is: what proportion of the variance in PCK is accounted for by the
variance in CK? To answer this question, instruments are required which are valid and reliable as
well as being unidimensional with respect to measurement of scores for CK and PCK. An
instrument consisting of two questionnaires was designed to assess the Grade 12 teachers’ PCK in
organic chemistry. We elected to use the Rasch statistical model to convert the raw score data into
interval data to provide empirical evidence for validity, reliability and unidimensionality. This paper
will describe how the Rasch method allowed us to determine a meaningful estimation of the
correlation between CK and PCK as well as pointing the way to further refinement of the
instrument for use in large scale studies.

Introduction
It is commonly accepted that a high level of Content Knowledge is a prerequisite for the special
knowledge base of good teachers known as Pedagogical Content Knowledge. While there have
been many qualitative studies focussing on PCK and its relationship to CK, quantitative studies are
a more recent feature of work in this area. In statistical terms, this puzzle translates to the question:
what proportion of the variance in PCK is accounted for by the variance in CK? In order to begin to
address this question one needs instruments that are valid and reliable, as well as being
unidimensional in order to measure both variables. In addition, for a meaningful estimation of the
correlation between CK and PCK the data collected using these instruments should be interval data.
The Rasch statistical model (Bond & Fox, 2007) can address all of these requirements in a
convincing manner. Rasch analysis of raw score data can provide empirical evidence for validity,
reliability and unidimensionality of instruments. During Rasch analysis raw score data are
transformed to interval measures, which are more suitable for correlation studies.
Background
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
In 1986, Shulman described Pedagogical Content Knowledge as the transformation of Content
Knowledge into various forms which help students to understand the concepts. Many researchers
have proposed models to characterise this transformation of Content Knowledge, for example
Cochran, DeRuiter and King (1993) and Geddis and Wood (1997). Based on the work of these
researchers, Rollnick, Bennett, Rhemtula, Dharsey and Ndlovu (2008) developed a model which
shows the integration of teachers’ internal knowledge domains to produce the visible product of
integration of these domains in the classroom, which they refer to as manifestations. This model is
useful in that it separates the teacher’s internal thought processes from what can be observed
directly in the classroom as it allows the distillation of the overall teaching strategy produced in
action, which is informed by the teacher’s knowledge domains. Mavhunga and Rollnick (2013)
extended the Rollnick et al. (2008) model and proposed the construct, Topic Specific PCK
(TSPCK) which results from the transformation of CK; thus Content Knowledge is considered to be
a prerequisite to develop PCK. TSPCK comprises teachers’ understanding of:
13
 • Students’ Prior Knowledge
• Curriculum Saliency (deciding what is important for teaching & sequencing)
• What makes a topic easy or difficult to teach
• Representations, including powerful examples & analogies
• Conceptual Teaching Strategies
This study forms part of a larger research project to investigate how teachers’ knowledge of their
subject matter affects the way they teach across several different contexts.

The Rasch model

The data collected using the specially designed instrument (Davidowitz & Vokwana, in press) was
subjected to Rasch analysis (Andrich, 1988; Bond & Fox, 2007; Wright & Stone, 1999). In
addition to obtaining evidence for the construct validity of the questionnaires and a trustworthy
estimate of their internal consistency, this statistical method can be used to convert raw score
performance data to interval measures in order to determine any correlation between proficiencies
in CK and PCK. The Rasch model is based on the assumption of unidimensionality of data, i.e. that
the instrument will capture data that varies on a scale of less than or more than along a single
dimension. If the data fits the model, then undimensionality is empirically confirmed. Such a result
is also interpreted as evidence for construct validity of the instrument. Rasch analysis is also able to
provide a trustworthy estimate of the internal consistency of instruments by estimating a person
separation index, a statistic closely related to Cronbach’s alpha. Another assumption of the Rasch
model is that of local independence, which requires that every item contributes related, but
independent information regarding the variable being measured. When violations of local
independence occur, the reliability of the test instrument is inflated giving a more favourable
indication of internal consistency than is justified (Tennant & Conaghan, 2007).
The Rasch model is used to examine the way in which an instrument functions. The responses of
participants on a given set of test items are analysed and through an iterative process and both item
difficulties and person abilities are estimated on an interval scale. These measures are then used to
compare observed responses with responses as predicted by the Rasch model for the interactions
between specific persons and items. A statistic, called the person reliability index, is calculated
which estimates the variance between observed and expected responses for CK and TSPCK in the
case of this study. This statistic is interpreted in a similar manner to the Cronbach’s alpha in
traditional test theory to provide evidence of the internal consistency of the instrument. Rasch
analysis will also provide empirical evidence regarding the construct validity and unidimensionality
of the instrument. The Rasch analysis yields person-item maps which are a visual representation of
alignment and spread of person proficiencies and item difficulties. These maps give in-depth
insights which allow researchers to determine whether the replicability as well as reliability
measures of the instrument have been compromised should the spread of items be narrow with large
standard errors.
Research questions
This study attempts to evaluate both the Content Knowledge of science teachers in organic
chemistry and the extent to which they are able to transform their CK to PCK. The research
questions to be answered are:
1. Is it possible to design a a valid and reliable tool that is suitable for evaluating Topic Specific
PCK of organic chemistry teachers at Grade 12 level?
2. Is there a correlation between the CK in organic chemistry and TSPCK of these teachers?

Methodology and sample

A study has been reported by Tepner and Dollny (2011) who developed a questionnaire to
determine the extent to which the quality of teachers’ TSPCK correlates with their CK in the topics

14
of structure of atoms and the periodic table, chemical bonding and reactions of acids and bases. We
designed two questionnaires for this study; both questionnaires consisted of 5 tasks which
comprised open-ended items. The CK questionnaire probed teachers’ knowledge of the content
related to the syllabus for Grade 12 organic chemistry while tasks in the TSPCK questionnaire were
based on the 5 components of the Mavhunga and Rollnick (2013) model of TSPCK listed above.
Details of the design of the questionnaires have been reported (Davidowitz & Vokwana, in press).
The questionnaires were completed by a cohort of teachers from diverse schools in South Africa, N
= 44. The CK questionnaire was scored as a conventional test on organic chemistry while the
TSPCK questionnaire was scored using a specially designed rubric. Data from both instruments was
subjected to Rasch analysis to obtain estimates of construct validity and internal consistency. The
RUMM2030 suite of software programmes (Andrich, Sheridan & Luo, 2011) was used to analyse
the data.
Data analysis
The analysis of the data collected is described below.
CK questionnaire
The average score for the CK questionnaire was 68.1% with 39% of the cohort achieving over 75%.
Six teachers failed to achieve 50% for the CK questionnaire. The average scores for the different
sections of the questionnaire are shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1. Average scores for tasks in the CK questionnaire
Task Number Average
Description
number of items score; %
1 Drawing structural formulae 1 92.0
2 Drawing and naming structural and geometric isomers 2 37.5
3 Major classes of organic reactions 5 72.0
4 Functional group recognition 6 91.9
5 Intermolecular forces and boiling points 3 63.6

The data above shows that almost all the teachers in this cohort found drawing structural and
geometric isomers challenging. Answering questions on intermolecular forces proved to be
difficult for some teachers. One of the items, task 2b required teachers to draw structural isomers of
a given molecule; each isomer had to contain a different functional group. The average score for
this item was 36.4% showing that there is a much greater conceptual challenge related to generating
drawings of isomers of this type than recognizing and identifying them as in task 4f where the
average score was 95.5%.
The person-item map for the CK questionnaire is shown in Figure 1 below. The Rasch model had
earlier revealed that the performance of two teachers were either misfitting or extreme cases, thus
the person measures for these teachers have been excluded from the person-item map below. In
addition, items 4a and 4c which failed to discriminate were also removed.

15
 Figure 1. Person-item map for the CK questionnaire.

For the Rasch model, the mean for item measures is set at zero. The distribution on the left shows
the spread of performance of the teachers according to Rasch measures. Person proficiencies and
item difficulties are located on the same vertical scale with poor performance and low item
difficulty at the bottom of the map and good performance and high difficulty at the top. According
to the Rasch model the specific location of a person on the map indicates that for this person the
probability of correctly answering items of matching difficulty on the same vertical scale is 50%. It
is higher than 50% for items of lower difficulty and lower for items of higher difficulty. Thus the
bar on the left labelled “11” indicates that these 11 teachers had a ca. 50% probability of giving the
correct answer for Q2a and 2b and a more than 50% probability of giving the correct answers to
items below Q2 on the scale.
The mean person performance of 1.43 (standard deviation, 1.07) reflects the fact that most teachers
in the sample experienced the test as being easy. The fit statistics for all items were good, all
response categories functioned as expected and no empirical evidence for multidimensionality was
found. This finding confirms the construct validity of the instrument for which the estimated value
for Cronbach’s alpha was 0.81. This is a trustworthy reflection of the internal consistency of the
instrument. The reliability of the instrument is considered to be fairly high for a performance test
consisting of only 15 items.
TSPCK questionnaire
Since there are a wide variety of responses possible for the PCK questionnaire these were scored
using a rubric. Rubrics have been used to investigate the correlation between a teacher’s level of
PCK as measured by a rubric and the degree to which his/her classroom is reform-oriented (Park,
Jang, Chen & Jung, 2011). Mavhunga (2012) constructed a rubric based on her model of TSPCK
and used it to score teachers’ responses constructed for the topic of chemical equilibrium. This
rubric was adapted to score teachers’ responses to the TSPCK questionnaire for organic chemistry.
Scores were assigned to the five categories with each being rated on a five point scale, from 0 (No
response) to 4 (Exemplary) and were peer validated by independent raters. An agreement rate of

16
85% was obtained. The zeroes assigned to responses to the items in the TSPCK questionnaire were
removed from the data set before the Rasch analysis as this score was assigned to a missing
response rather than an incorrect answer as for the CK questionnaire. A value for Cronbach’s alpha
cannot be estimated in the case of missing data; however, the Rasch model can be used to estimate
the Person Separation Index which provides an analogous measure of the internal consistency of the
questionnaire. The person item map generated by Rasch analysis of the TSPCK questionnaire data
is shown in Figure 2 below. In addition to removing the CK and PCK records for T1 and T16, those
for T12 and T20 were also removed as they represent extreme cases having achieved a perfect score
in the PCK questionnaire.

Figure 2. Person-item map for the TSPCK questionnaire

The mean person performance was -0.01 (standard deviation 1.09) while the estimated value for the
Person Separation Index was 0.83. The person-item map indicates that, in general, there is fairly
good alignment between the means of item difficulties and person performance, but the items do not
have a wide spread in terms of difficulty. Items A2 (Learners’ prior knowledge), B2 (Curricular
saliency) and E1 (Conceptual teaching strategies) are the easiest while Items C (What makes the
topic difficult to teach) and D2 (Representations and analogies) are the most difficult. Since there
was no evidence of local dependence in the data it can be concluded that all items are contributing
in a unique way to measuring the construct of TSPCK in organic chemistry.
Correlation between CK and TSPCK
According to the Mavhunga and Rollnick (2013) model of TSPCK, teachers with good CK are
likely to develop high levels of TSPCK while low levels of CK translate into low levels of TSPCK.
Such a relationship is expected, as logic tends to dictate that with low CK there can be little
TSPCK. The person measures for both the CK and TSPCK questionnaires for this cohort of
teachers are represented as a scatter plot; see Figure 3 below. CK measures are represented on the
X-axis and TSPCK measures on the Y-axis. The values for five teachers were omitted from the
correlation analysis. The record for Teacher 16 had earlier been deleted from the data set for the
Rasch analysis for the CK questionnaire because of misfit. Three teachers achieved perfect scores
for either the CK or TSPCK questionnaire which means that they present extreme cases in the
Rasch model. The fifth teacher provided a response to only one item in the TSPCK questionnaire.
Four quadrants in Figure 3 below are indicated in different colours; the lines are broad to indicate

17
that there is a standard error associated with the values for person measures for both CK and
TSPCK. The boundary lines for the quadrants intersect on the mean values for CK and TSPCK that
were determined empirically by Rasch analysis.

Figure 3. Scatter plot of person measures for CK and TSPCK

Despite the scatter, there is a reasonable correlation between levels of CK and TSPCK as predicted
by the model; r = 0.68 (p < .0005).
Findings
In answering the first research question, the Rasch analysis revealed that both questionnaires met
the criteria of validity and internal consistency. The value of Cronbach’s α for the CK test was 0.81
while the Person Separation Index for the PCK questionnaire was found to be 0.83. Thus it is
possible to design an instrument to evaluate TSPCK which can be used for a large cohort of
teachers.

The scatter plot of PCK versus TSCK measures revealed a reasonably strong linear relationship as
confirmed by a value of r = 0.68 (p< .0005) for the correlation co-efficient. This implies that an
estimated 46% of the variance in PCK is accounted for by the variance in CK, which answers the
second research question. The correlation between CK and TSPCK shown above is broadly in line
with that reported by Tepner and Dollny (2011). These researchers found that teachers who
performed well on the CK questionnaire regarding a specific topic are more knowledgeable about
students’ misconceptions than those with poor quality CK. Our results agree with those of Tepner
and Dollny (2011) in that low levels of PCK are likely to be associated with lower levels of CK
(green quadrant in Figure 3) while high levels of PCK translate into high levels of PCK (red
quadrant). High levels of CK do not necessarily translate into high levels of PCK as shown by the
points in the blue quadrant.
An unanticipated outcome of our study was that in rare cases, lower than average levels of CK can
translate into high levels of PCK, as shown for two teachers indicated by the red arrows the yellow
quadrant, T32 and T43 (Figure 3). These teachers performed very well on the TSPCK
questionnaire, yet their CK score was below the mean value for the sample of teachers in our

18
sample. An interview with T32 revealed that she was mainly engaged in running workshops for in-
service training of teachers at local high schools where she would focus on presenting the
pedagogy. Thus a lower than average performance on the CK questionnaire may be a manifestation
of the major focus of the current job of a teacher presenting effective teaching methodologies as
part of the training in their workshops rather than a low level of CK per se. The CK questionnaire
for T43 revealed that this particular teacher had a poor understanding of the concept of isomers
(task 2 in the CK questionnaire). These cases suggest possibilities for strong TSPCK to develop
even in the context of weaknesses in CK. Further probing of this issue will be required in order to
understand whether this seemingly contradictory finding is more widely prevalent among South
African teachers.

Implications
The implications of the findings of this study are the following: evidence was obtained for a linear
relationship between CK and PCK and the strength of the relationship was quantified for the topic
of organic chemistry. Further work is required to interpret the meaning of deviations from the norm.
The Rasch analysis will also enable the researchers to further refine the CK test items and the rubric
developed for this study to score the TSPCK questionnaire. The refined instruments have the
potential to be used for a large-scale implementation to obtain a more nuanced picture of the level
of PCK in organic chemistry within the teaching cohort in South Africa.

References
Andrich, D. (1988). Rasch models for measurement. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Andrich, D., Sheridan, B. & Luo, G. (2011). RUMM2030 software and manuals. Perth: University
of Western Australia.
Bond, T. G. and Fox, C. M. (2007). Applying the Rasch model. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Cochran, K., DeRuiter, J. & King, R. (1993). Pedagogical content knowing: an integrative model
for teacher preparation. Journal of Teacher Education, 44, 263-272.
Davidowitz, B., & Vokwana, N. (In press). Developing an instrument to assess grade 12 teachers’
topic specific PCK in organic chemistry. In M. Askew, J. Loughran, M. Rollnick, & H.
Venkatakrishnan (Eds.), Windows into mathematics and science teachers’ knowledge. USA &
Canada:Routledge.
Geddis, A. N. & Wood, E. (1997). Transforming subject matter and managing dilemmas: a case
study in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13, 611-626.
Mavhunga, M. E. 2012. Explicit inclusion of Topic Specific Knowledge for teaching and
development of PCK in pre-service science teachers. Doctoral thesis. Johannesburg, South
Africa: University of Witwatersrand.
Mavhunga, E. & Rollnick, M. (2013). Improving PCK of Chemical Equilibrium in Pre-service
Teachers. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 17,
113-125.
Park, S., Jang, J-Y., Chen, Y-C. & Jung, J. (2011). Is Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
Necessary for Reformed Science Teaching?: Evidence from an Empirical Study. Research in
Science Education, 41, 245-260.
Rollnick, M., Bennett, J., Rhemtula, M., Dharsey, N. & Ndlovu, T. (2008). The place of subject
matter knowledge in PCK – a case study of South African teachers
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching, Educational
Researcher, 15, 4-14.
Tennant, A., & Conaghan, P. G. (2007). The Rasch measurement model in rheumatology: What is it
and why use it? When should it be applied, and what should one look for in a Rasch paper?
Arthritis Care & Research, 57(8), 1358-1362.
Tepner, O. & Dollny, S. (2011). Chemistry teachers’ content knowledge and its correlation to

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 pedagogical content knowledge. Available from
http://www.esera.org/media/ebook/strand12/ebook-esera2011_TEPNER-12.pdf. Accessed 19
September 2013.
Wright, B. D. & Stone, M. H. (1999). Measurement essentials. Wilmington, DE: Wide Range, Inc.

Acknowledgements
This project was funded by a grant from the SASOL Inzalo Scholarship for N Vokwana.

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 Pre-­‐service  science  teachers’  understanding  of  argumentation  and  their  
ability  to  participate  in  argumentation:  Eritrean  experience  

Senait Ghebru 1 & Meshach Ogunniyi 2

1 2
[email protected], [email protected]
1, 2
School of Science and Mathematics Education, University of the Western Cape

Introduction
This paper presents some of the findings based on a doctoral study underpinned by an
Argumentation Instructional Model (AIM). The study, a part of a larger project concerned with
addressing the problem associated with teachers’ inability to implement new science curricula. A
plethora of studies have indicated that teachers’ inability to implement new curricula e.g. learner-
centred curricula is largely because they use the traditional method of teaching to implement
curricula that require the active participation of students in classroom discourse (e.g. Driver,
Newton, & Osborne, 2000; Erduran, Simon, & Osborne, 2004; Jimenez-Aleixandre, Rodriques, &
Duschle, 2000). According to Simon, Erduran & Osborne (2006) a learner-centred curriculum
requires a radically different instructional approach compared to the traditional examination-
oriented curricula. A few years ago, the Ministry of Education in Eritrea, East Africa implemented a
learner-centred curriculum without equipping teacher with adequately instructional skills to achieve
success (Ministry of Education, 2005). Therefore, this study is an attempt to train a cohort of pre-
service science teachers to implement a learner-centred curriculum using AIM in selected middle
school science classrooms.

In the past two decades science educators have explored the contribution of collaborative discourse
and argumentation to learning science (Osborne, 2010). Several studies have shown the importance
of introducing argumentation in science classrooms (e.g., Driver, et al., 2000, Siegel, 1992). Its role
for science knowledge construction has been investigated in science classrooms around the world
(Driver, et al, 2000; Erduran, et al., 2004; Jimenez-Aleixandre, Rodriques, & Duschle, 2000; Kelly
& Takao, 2002; Zohar & Nemet, 2002). One premise of successfully implementing argumentation
in the classroom is the science teachers’ professional development (Lawson, 2002). In this regard,
science educators (e.g., Erduran, et al., 2004; Osborne, Erduran, & Simon, 2004a; Simon, et al.,
2006) conducted school based research under the theme learning to teach argumentation for
professional development of pre-service and in-service science teachers. Ogunniyi (2004, 2005,
2007a, 2007b) and Ogunniyi & Hewson (2008) have also carried out similar in South Africa. These
studies attempted to (a) explore teaching strategies that support argumentation and (b) analyse the
ability of science teachers to implement argumentation-based instructional approaches in science
classrooms. Positioning the view of Zohar (2008) who argues that to implement argumentation in
science classrooms, science teachers need to experience a fundamental shift in their pedagogical
understanding and practice, this paper explores pre-service teachers’ understanding of
argumentation and their own ability to participate in argumentation.

This case study involves 25 pre-service science teachers who enrolled in the Department of Science
Education in the College of Education at Eritrea Institute of Technology (EIT), Eritrea. It explores
the pre-service teachers’ understanding of argumentation and their ability in participating in
argumentation discourses. This paper is snapshot of a doctoral study which aims at providing us
some initial understanding of how the pre-service science teachers construe and practice
argumentation after being exposed to an Argumentation Instructional Model (AIM).

This study is guided by the following questions

• How do the pre-service science teachers understand argumentation in science education?

21
 • To what extent are the pre-service science teachers able to participate in an argumentation
discourse?
The theoretical framework that guided this paper is socio-constructivist theory of argumentation.

Subjects
This is a case study of 25 (16 males and 9 females) pre-service science teachers (henceforth
subjects) who enrolled in a science education methods course. The subjects are diverse in age,
gender, academic ability, socio-economic background and ethnic and religious groups. They all
participated voluntarily in the course. None of them had taken formal course work or workshops or
seminars on argumentation. An intervention training programme was conducted with these pre-
service science teachers for a period of six weeks in Eritrea.
Method
For purposes of this study qualitative interpretive research method was employed to collect data
(Najike & Lucas, 2002). The data set was derived from the pre-service science teachers’ responses
to the Conceptions of Argumentation Questionnaire (COAQ), from argument-based tasks and from
reflective interview. The questionnaire was administered before and after the training programme
to determine any change in the subjects’ understanding of argumentation as a result of the training
to which they have been exposed. Data collected from the questionnaire was analysed qualitatively
using open coding and the generation of categories (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). The Contiguity
Argumentation Theory (CAT) categories developed by Ogunniyi (2004, 2007) were used as the unit
of analysis to describe the type of changes that might have occurred. The purpose of the reflective
interview was to complement the data that was obtained from COAQ.

Data was also derived from the subjects’ small group discussions of two argument-based tasks
administered during the intervention training sessions. The purpose of the argument-based tasks
was to examine their ability to participate in argumentation in terms of two dimensions: everyday
argumentation and scientific argumentation. The 25 subjects were grouped into four groups each
consisting of 6 - 7 members and were requested to engage in classroom discourse on the tasks
provided on the worksheets. Data drawn from their discussions was audio recorded and transcribed
for analysis. Transcribed verbatim were analysed using Osborne et al.’s (2004) TAPping model.
TAPping model (Table 1) is popular in argumentation studies and has been employed in many past
studies to evaluate the quality of argumentation (e.g., Osborne, et al, 2004; Clark & Sampson, 2007;
Venville, & Dawson, 2010; vonAufschnaiter, Erduran, Osborne, & Simon, 2008). It was developed
from Toulmin’s (1958) argumentation pattern. According to this model, the participants’ verbal
expressions were coded into different levels representing different abilities of argumentation.
Table 1: levels of argumentation (from Osborne et al., 2004)

Levels Description
1 Argumentation consists of arguments that are a simple claim versus a
counter-claim or a claim versus a claim.
2 Argumentation has arguments consisting of claims with data, warrants,
or backings but does not contain any rebuttals.
3 Argumentation has arguments with a series of claims or counter-claims
with data, warrants, or backings with the occasional weak rebuttal
4 Argumentation shows arguments with a claim with a clearly identifiable
rebuttal. Such an argument may have several claims and counter-claims.
5 Argumentation displays an extended argument with more than one
rebuttal.

22
Findings
The results are presented into separate sections. The first section focuses on pre-service science
teachers’ understanding of argumentation. The second section delineated pre-service science
teachers’ ability to participate in argumentation.

Section One: Pre-service science teachers’ understanding of argumentation

As alluded earlier, the views of the pre-service science teachers’ understanding of argumentation
were sought through a questionnaire that was administered to them before and after the intervention
programme. The pre-service science teachers’ were asked to indicate their understanding of: the
term argumentation, the differences between scientific and every day argumentation and the role of
argumentation in science education and/or science teaching. They were also asked to indicate the
pedagogical knowledge and skills required to facilitate argumentation discourse and keep argument
going. Below, are the results of that survey.

Before the intervention, participating pre-service teachers’ (henceforth subjects) understood the
term argumentation in various ways. The codes that received the highest percentage of responses on
understanding of argumentation were ‘discussion/debate/dialog. Subjects also mentioned ‘concrete
example‘’ very frequently which is an indication that the majority of the subjects (93%) have
limited understanding of argumentation before the intervention. The following excerpt derived from
the questionnaire responses of some of the subjects are representative:
PT7: argumentation is a type of discussion but rather in a quarrel form where members disagree and
shout at each other.

PT11: I think argumentation is a process of presenting ideas or information using concrete examples
from our daily life.

Only two of the 25 subjects (7%) seem to have good understanding of argumentation before the
intervention. They have mentioned the words reason and evidence which are essential in supporting
or refuting a claim in the process of argumentation. The quote below was one of these responses by
PT3 (Pre-service Teacher 3):
PT3: I think to engage in argumentation is to be able to speak about an issue by reasoning or
proofing it on the basis of evidences.

After the intervention, however, all subjects showed reasonably good understanding about
argumentation. Some defined argumentation as a means of supporting or refuting a claim by giving
logical and non-logical reasons. Others have also defined it as to debate and negotiation to reach
mutually acceptable conclusions. Still others described it as attending critically to others argument.
The understanding of these group of subjects agreed with the view of many science educators (e.g.,
Driver et al, 2000; Finocchiaro, 2005; Kuhn, 1993, Means and Voss, 1996) who defined
argumentation as assertion with accompanying justification or an instance of reasoning that
attempts to justify a conclusion by supporting it with reasons or defending it from objections.

Pre-service teachers’ understanding of scientific argumentation was also probed by inviting them to
describe the difference between everyday argumentation and scientific argumentation. Initially,
slightly more than half of the subjects 15(60%) belief that there is no difference between scientific
and everyday argumentation as both intend to reach at a common point or at a conclusion. This
serves to illustrate that some participating pre-service teachers were not aware of the unique form of
scientific argumentation.

The rest of the subjects (40%) seem to be aware of the differences b/n scientific argumentation and
everyday argumentation. However, there is sufficient evidence that show that they have
misconceptions of the two forms of argumentation. For example, a pre-service teacher who had

23
teaching experience in elementary schools noted that:
“Everyday argumentation is characterized by disagreement between two or more people
which may create undesirable behaviours such as, quarrelling, shouting to one another and
there is a high probability that the arguers may not reach into consensus; whereas in
scientific argumentation arguers never disagree because they all provide reasons with
reference to scientific theories which are absolute.

This example is contrary to the view of Cavagnetto (2010) and Tolumin, Ricke & Janik (1984) who
have shown that scientific argumentation can be competitive (as two scientists advocate of their
idea) as well as collaborative.
However, after the intervention, with the exception of one subject, all subjects abandoned their
previous belief and showed a more informed view about the notion of scientific argumentation and
its unique form. This implies that after their involvement in the intervention training programme the
subjects had acquired a more informed view about argumentation and domains of NOS. In terms of
CAT new concepts emerged and gradually assimilated as there was no well-formed prior
knowledge or understanding of the concepts. This was concisely articulated by PT10:
Before the intervention I was not able to see the difference between scientific argumentation
and everyday argumentation. After intervention, I now realized that scientific argumentation
has a unique structure where arguers are required to justify their claims using plausible
evidence [reflective interview].

In response to the question of what role if any, does scientific argumentation has in science
education and in teaching science, all the subjects claim that they have not heard about
argumentation in the area of science education before the intervention. Subjects thought that
argumentation does not have any role in the area of science education. The two major reasons given
by the subjects were: (1) Science tells us the truth about the world, which I took to mean ‘there is
no need to argue or negotiate to find out the truth’ and (2) scientific knowledge is constructed by
inductive and deductive process . This was succinctly articulated by:

PT1; I think argumentation doesn’t have any role in science because Science tells us the truth about
the world, there is no need to argue or negotiate to find out the truth.
PT; Argumentation is not applicable in science because scientific knowledge is constructed by
inductive and deductive process not by discussion.
However, this pattern of belief changed dramatically after the intervention. At that stage all the
subjects seemed to accept that argumentation has a significant role in science education/science
teaching and in scientifc knowedge construction. These group of subjets also seem to accept the
tentative nature of scientific knowledge construction and no longer belef on absoulte truth. A very
good example of this observation is:
I now understand that argumentaion has a significant role in science education and science
teaching. Among others, argumentation supports students in scientific knowedge
construction. I no longer belief in absoulte truth because things do change… and we have
proof that things change. I think provision of evidence results in the production of scientific
knolwedge but not always absoulte truth (PT9).
In terms of CAT category the positivist view of scientific knowledge construction is suppressed and
the view of social constructivist is dominant after the intervention.

When solicited to go further and consider the techniques and resources required to support
argumentation and keep argumentation going in a classroom setting, the subjects suggested various
skills and techniques required to keep argumentation going in science classroom. The codes that
received the highest percentage of responses were ‘providing open-ended tasks’. Subjects also
mentioned ‘Guide and initiate discussion’ and ‘Promote social interaction’ very frequently, which
indicates that subjects were familiar with the skills and techniques required to facilitate learner-

24
centred approach. These skills and techniques are also well linked with the tents of social
constructivism. Yet the specific skills and techniques necessary to sustain argumentation and keep
argumentation going in argument based lesson were not mentioned in their responses.

However, after intervention, it seems that the majority of the subjects (90%) who lacked sufficient
cognitive knowledge and pedagogical skills have exhibited considerable improvements. Almost all
of the subjects were able to mention and describe some of the specific skills (e.g, establishing the
norms of argumentation, playing devils advocacy, posing argumentation prompt question) required
to keep argument going. According to the CAT, these subjects have developed an emergent view
having been exposed and having developed new pedagogical knowledge and skills on
argumentation of which they had no prior experience.

In summary, analysis of pre-and post-questionnaire showed that argument-based intervention

training programme was valuable in enhancing the pre-service science teachers' understanding of
argumentation. In particular, the subjects exhibited a reasonably good understanding of scientific
argumentation, the role of argumentation in science education and the skills and techniques required
to keep an argument going. The next section shed light on pre-service science teachers’ ability to
participate in argumentation.

Section two: pre-service science teachers’ ability to participate in argumentation

During the intervention training sessions subjects were provided with many argument-based tasks
designed in the form of worksheets and writing frames. These tasks were used to examine their
ability to participate in argumentation in terms of two dimensions: everyday argumentation and
scientific argumentation. However, space limitation does not permit to present the findings of the
discussions that took place in all the tasks during the intervention sessions. Therefore, in this paper
only two scenarios; one in everyday argumentation and one in scientific argumentation were
selected for deeper analysis.

In the first task subjects were provided with everyday argumentation scenario and their task was to
argue for or against the claim “Punishment is an appropriate mechanism to control the discipline of
students in a school setting”. They were asked first to individually write down the kind of reasoned
argument they have used to support or refute the claim and then discuss it in small groups. In the
second task subjects were provided with scientific argumentation scenario and their task was to read
the statements constructed by Fred and Birt and decide which snowman (-one wearing a coat and
another not wearing a coat) will melt first. This task was adapted from IDEAS pack (Osborne et al.,
2004). Subjects were asked first to individually write down their decision and then discuss it in pair
and finally in pair two four.

Table 2 shows the levels of argumentation (Osborne, et al., 2004) in the two tasks described above.
Task one (everyday argumentation scenario) took place during the second week of the intervention
programme, after subjects were introduced with the concept argumentation, but before the structure
(Toulmin, 1958) and levels of argumentation (Osborne et al., 2004) were clarified. Task two
(scientific argumentation scenario) took place at the end of the intervention programme, after
subjects were familiarized with Toulmin’s Argument Pattern (Toulmin, 1958), levels of
argumentation (Osborne et al., 2004) and different writing frame formats that guided them to write
a complete argument.

25
Table 2: level of argumentation for the two tasks
Groups level of argumentation
Everyday argumentation task Scientific argumentation task
One 3 3
Two 4 4

A perusal of Table 2 has shown that the subjects have the basic skills of constructing every day and
scientific argumentation. In both tasks, they were able to: (1) provide evidence (data) to support
their claims; (2) connecting the data with the claim (warrant); and (3) use rebuttals to a certain
extent to nullify certain claims i.e. level 3 and 4 of argumentation respectively in terms of type A
and B or every day and scientific argumentation (Osborne, et al., 2004). The study reveals that the
level of the subjects’ participation in everyday argumentation and in scientific argumentation in two
selected groups (each group consists of 7 participants) was the same. This finding is different from
what was reported in earlier studies e.g. Durant, Evans and Thomas (1989) and XIE & and Mui
SO’s (2012). These earlier studies indicated that their pre-service science teachers demonstrated an
extremely low level of argumentation in scientific scenarios compared with their daily
argumentation. Although the issue raised deserve further exploration the findings appear to present
a more positive picture than those of Durant et al (1989) and XIE & and Mui SO’s (2012). This
study also found out that those subjects who had considerably good understanding of argumentation
had also participated well in argumentation. It seems that AIM has been effective to some extent in
equipping the subjects with necessary argumentation skills that will enable to take part in a
meaningful discourse.

Conclusion
This study investigated the impact of argument-based intervention training programme based on
AIM on pre-service science teachers’ ability to understand and practice argumentation. The findings
show that AIM influenced their understanding and their ability to participate in argumentation.
These findings certainly has implications for curriculum development and instructional practice
which stakeholders such as the Ministry of Education officials, curriculum designers and teacher
educators in Eritrea and perhaps other countries implementing learner-centred curricula could be
informative and useful.

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Means, M., & Voss, J. (1996). Who reasons well? Two studies of informed reasoning among
children of different grade, ability, and knowledge levels. Cognition and Instruction, 14(2),
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28
Developing PCK skills of preservice students via Collaborative Learning using concept maps
in Electromagnetism

Govender Nadaraj
School of Education, UKZN, South Africa
[email protected]

The study examines pedagogic content knowledge (PCK) issues in collaborative learning (CL)
amongst 27 physical science preservice students in a method module. These students completed a
module in Electricity and Electromagnetism and were exposed to types of concept maps (CM) and
learning and teaching strategies to use concept maps in science classrooms. Students’ roles and
progress from individual constructivist learning to socio-cultural interaction via group work were
observed through the analysis of developing concept maps for learning to teach in
Electromagnetism. Data was collected from observation field notes, examination of tasks and
assignments of concept maps, group interviews, final examination scripts and written summary of
reflections of CL activities. The study was interpretive case study. The study suggests that students
benefitted in several ways from the CL cycle from individual, to pairs to whole groups while using
concept maps. They grasped some of the more difficult concepts they had forgotten or poorly
developed in the earlier content course and that CL cycle using concept maps can be a useful in
revision of previous work, making conceptual connections, sharing ideas and developing
metacognitive skills-it is fruitful in developing PCK skills of preservice teachers.

Introduction
The study examines pedagogic content knowledge (PCK) issues in collaborative learning (CL)
amongst 27 physical science preservice students in a method module. Students’ roles and progress
from individual constructivist learning to socio-cultural interaction via group work was observed
through the analysis of developing concept maps for learning to teach in Electromagnetism. The
research questions were: How do students interact in Collaborative Learning (CL) cycle and what
are the social, language and conceptual issues that emerge from CL cycle when using concept maps
(CM) in learning to teach Electromagnetism?

Studies in SA show that teachers are still using traditional teacher-centered methods and in some
cases leading to poor performances especially in matric examinations in Physical Sciences
(approximately only 40% of the students pass these examinations). It is envisaged that a science
curriculum that includes aspects of collaborative learning (CL) that recognizes learners’ cultural
way of learning and affords a platform for discussion and encourages critical thinking is bound to
motivate, sustain and improve performance in science. This implies that preservice students also
need to engage and develop CL skills and conceptual mapping strategies. This study engaged
preservice students’ CL practices using concept mapping that led to deeper insights into ways of
learning and teaching Electromagnetism, leading to culturally sensitive teachers and provided
teachers with a PCK knowledge base that could guide culturally-relevant methods in learning
science (Bryan & Atwater, 2002; Chinn, 2007).

Collaborative Learning (CL)

“Collaborative learning” involves a joint intellectual effort by students and teachers together
(Smith & MacGregor, 1992). Usually, students are working in groups of two or more, mutually
searching for understanding, solutions, or meanings, or creating a product in a dialogical process.
Studies have shown that when learners are actively engaged either through individual or group
interactions, they take responsibility for their own learning and become highly motivated towards
mastery rather than performance based learning. Some of the PCK skills that preservice students
are expected to develop include physics conceptual knowledge, knowledge of group dynamics,

29
planning for Collaborative Learning (CL) strategies such as using concept maps and sequencing CL
activities for the teaching of Physical Sciences.

Concept Maps
Concept maps (CM) is a valuable learning and teaching tool and preservice students’ knowledge
and skills of using CM is a necessary PCK skill to be acquired. Concept maps provide an external
network-like representation of knowledge structures and consist of spatially grouped nodes with
keywords representing concepts, connecting lines representing the semantic connection of concepts,
and labels on the lines to specify the kind of the semantic relation. In this regard, Novak and Gowin
(1984) described hierarchical concept maps as a conceptual tool for students to examine their prior
knowledge before studying new materials. Learning and teaching about CM for students are the two
sides of a same coin. Physics preservice teachers must be given the opportunity to learn using CM
as this will provide for experiences of reflection when teaching via CM. They will then be able to
recall the kinds of problems and advantages they encountered when learning physics through CM.

Theoretical Framework
This study used the socio-cultural theory of Vygotsky’s (1978) as a theoretical framework as
dialogical interactions between students and educator forms the basis for their learning. Socio-
culturalism is a learning theory, which critiques the social life and cultural life of a
person. Vygotsky’s (1978) view learning as an individual cognitive development subject to a
“dialectical interplay between nature and history, biology and culture, the individual’s intellect and
society”. He observed when learners get involved in tasks that adults assist or collaborate with
knowledgeable peers, enculturation occurs. Collaborative Learning is unpinned by the socio-
cultural theory of Vygotsky. Research as shown that CL develops oral communication skills, while
working in peers or in groups, students are verbalizing their answers while others are actively
listening, asking questions and presenting rebuttals (Cooper & Robinson, 1997). Furthermore, a
study by Walls (2012) provided evidence that a collaborative approach to implementing physics
curriculum could result in student gains intrinsically and conceptually.

Methodology
In this study, 27 preservice students completed a module in Electricity and Electromagnetism and
were exposed to types of concept maps and learning and teaching strategies to use concept maps in
science classrooms. The students were initially exposed to concept mapping theory and a brief
overview of the concepts of electromagnetism for high school students. Examples of CM were
reviewed and how to introduce and teach CM were discussed. For an introduction to these tasks, the
article on using concept mapping in science classroom was used by the students (Vanides, Yin,
Tomita, & Ruiz-Primo, 2005). These students completed a content non-calculus module in EM the
previous year and it was assumed that they have a good understanding of EM concepts to teach at
high school. Each student was given a school textbook to help to access further information, if
necessary. Students were given large white sheets and were initially requested students to work
individually to come up with a CM on EM for high school teaching.The students initially worked
on developing individual concept maps (CM) in Electromagnetism (EM) and thereafter formed
pairs to produce group efforts of concept maps in EM. Groups then presented their concept maps to
the whole class and highlighted possible alternative conceptions or difficulties and issues (social
and language) they encountered when working with concept maps. A whole classroom discussion
then ensued. As a follow-up consolidation activity, each student then planned a whole lesson unit to
teach EM incorporating concept maps, practical activities, demonstrations, simulation resources etc.
Data was collected from observation field notes, examination of tasks and assignments of concept
maps, group interviews, final examination scripts and written summary of reflections of CL
activities. The study was an interpretive case study.

30
Results, Analysis and Discussion

How do students interact in Collaborative Learning (CL)?

In answering the first question, I interacted with individual student’s while working on their CM
and then when working in pairs. Students were asked to identifying at least 5 concepts in EM before
seeking help. Individual and pair groups of students were interviewed while working through their
CM in EM. This was followed by a whole class discussion using the chalkboard.

Individual CM
Observations of initial students’ CM showed that only a few concepts or objects like magnet,
current, wires, field were drawn or written down (figure 2). Interviews with students revealed that
they had forgotten most of the work and needed some time to go over the text. Also students
queried as to what key concepts they needed to mention or start with and what connecting words or
phrases to use to make links or to create appropriate propositions using EM concepts.
Interviewer: What problems did you experience when creating your own CM in EM?
Student Phumalani: Working first as an individual did help me to test my own level of
understanding and to develop the links of terms to connect concepts. I had forgotten most of the
work. The individual tasks of concept mapping helped me to summarize the whole topic on
Electromagnetism which I did not do for myself earlier.
Student Bongani: Yes. It was difficult to work on my own but it somewhat helped me to critically
assess my understanding of Electromagnetism. Moreover as you read the content fully alone with
no-one else to assist you, it helps you to master it even better and allows you to see where you lack
and need more effort.

It is evident from the above statements that individual students could not recall many of the
concepts in EM and had to refer to the textbook. Also, their metacognitive skills came to the fore as
they reflected on how they were learning and trying to make the relevant connections between the
concepts in EM. There is also evident of phases of self-regulation learning that “concerns various
monitoring processes that represent metacognitive awareness of different aspects of the self and
task or context” and “ involves efforts to control and regulate different aspects of the self or task
and context” (Pintrich, 2004, p. 389) as students were saying that they has to ‘master the work’ and
‘see where I need more effort’.

Working in pairs
After getting students to commit to forming individual CM which was challenging, students were
then ask to work with a peer of their own choice. Initially larger groups were formed but were
forced to break into pairs. It seems that students feel safer in larger groups as their ‘voices’ can be
hidden and there was a ‘fear’ of making mistakes and being embarrassed. Working in pairs avoided
these problems and resulted in deeper interactions between the students. Observations indicate that
usually the student who was familiar and confident with the EM concepts led the discussion and
began labeling the maps. Students also argued about the relevance of certain concepts to be
included and their order of appearance or sequencing. For example, what are the crucial concepts in
EM to begin with: current, field, charges etc. Again, linking words and phrases and appropriate
propositions posed a severe challenge to students working in pairs. Upon investigating students’
understandings, it seems that language was a problem as English was often a second language for
these students. Also the same linking words were used often suggesting familiarity with certain
words and holding on to them.
Interviewer: Did working in pairs help you to understand EM better?
Student Phumalani: Yes. I have used the other student’s ideas and from what I already know and
started to add new information to my concept map on EM. I had problems with linking words but I
was able to get help during the discussion. We were able to listen to each other and share ideas as it
was just two of us.

31
ZPD intervention

Individual Pairs

Individual
CM Student Bongani: This was 100% productive as you argue with each other and search for different
ZPD intervention
connections in EM maps and come back with solid and sound ideas. I remember that at one point I
understood less about a concept of changing magnetic field and was stuck but my partner explained
l
and I was able to understand this concept better.
Class whole
group

Whole class discussion

ZPD intervention
Students came in groups to discuss their CM and used the board to draw their CM. Other students
also added to their CM. This session was active and boisterous with students challenging and
changing links and sequences of their peers CM with justifications. Students also identified suitable
words, phrases and propositions and acquired these new terms, linking concepts, as their own.
Interviewer: How did you experience the whole group discussion on CM in class?
Student Phumalani: It helped me to learn the concepts better and as a whole. You get to working
harder even if you are not aware of it as the whole group. It is helpful and argumentative. My
understanding overall of EM was enhanced by group interactions as this opportunity allowed me to
connect with other concepts that I did not do before and to seek more in-depth knowledge of a
particular concept.
Student Bongani: Working in groups allowed me to strengthen my own CM and to study the
chapter very hard as we all had to contribute in a group. I did not want to look silly and ignorant in
my group. I now have a clear sense of how to link concepts and to use correct words that are
relevant to form propositions.
Student Dlamini: It helped me to be self-reliant and to contribute to the discussion. Sometimes they
laugh at you and make a joke but I was not afraid of the class to make mistakes as in CM we are all
learning deeper levels to make sense of difficult concepts.
Student Tami: There was a lot of discussion as everyone was afforded an opportunity to present
their maps in front of the class, and more debates emerged from there which in turn resulted in more
talking and sharing of viewpoints. In that sense CM classes groomed and moulded my academic
development.

It seems that students, networking in pairs and interactions with the larger group, boosted their
academic confidence as the whole class was seen to be at the same level of performance. The
sequence of dialogical interactions in CL cycle is modeled in figure 1.

Figure 1. Sequence of Collaborative learning cycle

This study augments research (Cooper & Robinson, 1997) that has shown that CL develops oral
communication skills, while working in peers or in groups, students are verbalizing and
consolidating their answers while others are actively engaged in listening, asking questions and
presenting refutations. Peers and the lecturer had engaged in Vygotsky’s ZPD inputs (figure 1)
during the three phases to correct and stimulate deeper concepts and their links in EM.

32
Analysis of Individual CM after the teaching/learning sequence
Individual’s initial classroom CM was incomplete and inappropriately unstructured with few links
and propositions (see figure 2). Individuals then had to hand in their final CM in EM two weeks
later (see figure 3). Examining these individual CMs after classroom discussions, there was
noticeable differences in the quality of the CM as these were highly developed. The number of
concepts had increased, the number of links had increased, there were new sequences formed with
greater clarity of linking words and phrases than their initial maps.

Figure 2. An example of student Tami’s initial CM in Electromagnetism

Figure 3. An example of student Sibo’s final CM in Electromagnetism (after groupwork)

Examining students’ maps once again from their final examination scripts (figure 4) revealed that
some students still had problems in identifying suitable words/phrases and correct propositions and
a few students had incomplete or limited CM, possibly due to time constraints.

33
Figure 4. An example of student Sibo’s final CM in Electromagnetism

What are the social, language and conceptual issues that emerge from CL when using concept
maps in learning to teach Electromagnetism?

Regarding the social issues of role-play, time-management and leadership, students took
responsibility after some coaching that the CL cycle (figure 1) and CM activities is an opportunity
for them to make and correct their misconceptions in EM and if they wish to teach EM well, they
will need to identify and remediate their own alternative conceptions, otherwise, how could they
have high expectations of their learners.

In terms of language, students sought meaning of linking words and phrases in developing
propositions, words in English had to be translated into their own language. They also had to justify
the use of these words/phrases to link concepts. Research has shown that physics words in mother-
tongue language like isiZulu can have several meanings, for example, ‘force’ can mean force,
energy, power etc. so students needed to be careful in its interpretations. While reasoning and
problem solving has been mostly focussed in physics, less attention, however, has been paid to
language as a representation of knowledge and ideas in physics (Brookes & Etkina, 2007). Physics
students encounter many different concepts and these can be represented as graphs, equations,
tables, pictures, diagrams, and words etc. These representations of physics concepts are each by
themselves incomplete. It takes initially an explicit cognitive act of assimilating, coordinating, and
moving between many different representations in order to create understanding. Therefore one of
the first abilities students have to develop is the ability to represent ideas and physical processes in
different ways and move between representations. This is where creating initially one’s own
concept maps is most beneficial as a valuable learning tool.

In terms of Electromagnetism concepts, initially, individual and pairs of students CM did not
include the more complex ideas such as the changing magnetic field, the formula of Faradays Law
of EM, Lenz’s Law and its explanation of the negative sign in the Faraday’s Law formula (figure
2). In the final CM, there was evidence of these complex concepts drawn in their CM (figure 3 and
4). In some cases, while the final CM did include more correct propositions. There were some
inappropriate linking words and phrases suggesting some language difficulties, for example, a
‘transformer involves dc current’.

How much and what depth to include in a CM in Electromagnetism was a troubling pedagogic
problem as a significant number (at least one-third of the class) of preservice teachers still provided
a very basic CM at the level of Grade 10 students during examinations? Their initial individual CM
did provide some ‘jarring’ of preconceived and incorrect ideas in EM which was identified by the
lecturer. Peer interactions caused more conflict and some resolution (depending on the peer’s

34
knowledge) and group interactions provided some added propositions in developing the CM. Inputs
pertaining to Vygotsky’s ZPD notion did provided valuable guidance as lecturer or expert guidance
(sometimes from their peers) in explaining difficult concepts. This intervention is vital and
timeously necessary in assisting students to overcome some of the conceptual hurdles in EM. The
CM activities and CL cycle (figure 1) did point to exposing students to practical work and
simulation activities timeously and did support the further development of complex concepts like
the magnetic field, magnetic flux and changing flux.

Conclusion
The study found that students, initially, struggled to work individually to produce in-depth concept
maps and preferred to work in larger social grouping forming a combined map.
When in groups, their behaviour changed and through dialogue and curriculum support, they
produced more detailed individual maps at the end of the module in their lesson plans. Their
examination scripts revealed that some students did not provide complete CMs and some still had
difficulties with propositions and linking words and phrases.

The study suggests that students did benefit in learning from the CL cycle strategy and also in
creating concept maps. They did grasped some of the more difficult concepts that they initially had
forgotten or poorly developed. Both CL cycle and CM activities can provide useful instruction tools
in remediating learning and in developing PCK skills of preservice teachers. However, analysis of
some final individual maps showed that some students still failed to select appropriate links and
relied on their general or prior learning of concepts without addition scaffolding of new knowledge,
in spite of all the CM activities and CL cycle.

Implications
The study suggests that students’ who produce poorly developed conceptual maps, in spite of CL
cycle and CM activities, their motivation and self-regulated learning strategies (SRL) may be
needed to be closely monitored. Also one’s sophistication to English language may be a factor that
plays a role in the development of appropriate propositions and link words or phrases and this need
to be addressed in terms of bilingualism. The study also suggests that CM activities with timeous
ZPD interventions should be promoted during the content learning modules as this would
strengthen students’ understanding of EM and will thus make it less difficult for method lecturers as
they can focus more on developing their students’ PCK skills.

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36
 Zimbabwean female participation in physics: The impact of
context on identity formation

Anna Gudyanga; Kathija Adam & Raj Kurup

Department of Education, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa
[email protected]; [email protected] ; [email protected]

Abstract

The study investigated the impact of contexts on the identity formation and participation of
Zimbabwean Advanced Level (A’ Level) female adolescent students in physics. Three high schools
that were offering physics at A’ level in the Midlands Province, in Zimbabwe were targeted. Seven
female adolescent students eighteen years and above, two doing mathematics and physics, one
doing physics without mathematics and four doing mathematics without physics were chosen. The
instruments that were used for data generation were semi-structured interviews, narratives, drawing
as a visual method and document analysis. Findings show that female students associate scientists
within a masculine framework in Eurocentric environment, specifically those which are depicted in
their textbooks. The findings of this study indicate that the contexts which influence female
students’ identity formation and participation in physics were their social perception of physics as a
subject, peers especially the boys, their Ordinary Level (O’ Level) experience of science with their
teachers, fear, lack of female role models, the support or lack of it from parents and siblings and the
prevailing cultural perceptions. These factors seemed to have had a bearing on the identity
formation of female adolescent students as well as on their participation in physics.

Key words: Identity formation, context, participation and physics

Background

Based on the principles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the expanded vision of basic
education articulated in the World Declaration on Education For All, and the Dakar Education
Framework, UNICEF committed itself to the vision that all children will be able to fulfil their right
to education, meet their basic learning needs, realise their full potential, and participate
meaningfully in society. Despite this commitment, the problem of gender inequity in Zimbabwe is
far from being resolved. In 2004 the Zimbabwean government adopted the National Gender Policy,
which sought to address several critical challenges related to empowering girls and women in
education, in training, in politics, in the economy and in decision making. As a result, girls now
enjoy equal access to primary and secondary education. However Mutekwe and Modiba (2011)
show that despite these changes, educational institutions continue to reproduce disparities along
gender lines because many parents, educators and educational texts advance gender stereotypes that
direct boys and girls to adopt highly polarised social roles in Zimbabwe.

Gender typing is one of the major avenues by which schools channel learners into the occupational
trajectories they ultimately follow (Nhundu, 2007). Prejudicial and biased teacher attitudes and
expectations and persistent cultural myths, misconceptions, and stereotypes constrain female
students’ aspirations to continue with science education (Mutekwe & Modiba, 2011). Research
(Asimeng-Boahene, 2006; Baird, 1997; Hazari & Potvin, 2005) has shown that parents, teachers
and counsellors communicate implicitly and explicitly to female students that physics and
mathematics are inappropriate fields of study for women. Similar trends are reflected in the
Zimbabwean society where female students are socialised along similar lines. Socialisation links the
individual to collective life by moulding members into compliance and cooperation with social

37
requirements. Asimeng-Boahene (2006) found that the contributing factors for gender inequity
include early childhood environment, family expectations, societal image, gender stereotypes,
school environment and gender issues in Africa.

In addition to what has been outlined above, a view of science as a culturally-mediated way of
thinking and knowing suggests that learning can be defined as engagement with scientific practices.
How students engage in school science is influenced by how students view themselves and whether
they see themselves as the kind of persons who engage in science. In other words the behaviour of
female students’ results from the type of person one is, that is one’s identity. It is therefore crucial
to understand students’ identities and how they do or do not overlap with school science identities
(Brickhouse, Lowery, & Schultz, 2000). However learning science on the one hand typically has
been viewed as a process of acquiring an understanding of science and applying these
understandings in new situations (Brickhouse, Lowery, & Schultz, 2000) and on other hand
learning in general is viewed as an apprenticeship, where students forge identities in communities
of practice Lave (1992, p. 3)
Learning is, in this purview, more basically, a process of coming to be, of forging identities in
activity in the world. In short, learners are never only that, but are becoming certain sorts of subjects
with certain ways of participating in the world. . . . Subjects occupy different locations, and have
different interests, reasons and understandings of who they are and what they are up to.
As students develop their identities, the requisite knowledge and skills for being a part of the new
communities are learned. Thus, if students are to learn science, they must develop identities
compatible with scientific identities (Brickhouse, Lowery, & Schultz, 2000). Lloyd and Duveen
(1992, p. 27) argue that
. . . Children are born into a particular society and become competent, functioning individuals with
particular social identities to the extent that they re-construct for themselves the social
representations of the significant groups in their society.
From this definition therefore, the tasks for students are to decide which groups they identify with,
what kinds of persons they wish to be as a part of each group, and what is required to become those
kinds of persons. The challenge here is that individuals like the female adolescent students cannot
be anyone they wish. However, we also know that society does not totally define a person.
Although the process of identity development is an individual one, it is a process that is socially
situated; giving rise to meanings and positioning that are part of the social world (Lloyd & Duveen,
1992). There is need therefore to understand how Zimbabwean female adolescent students construct
themselves as females and the impact it has on their participation in physics.

Numerous studies have shown that women are greatly underrepresented in the field of physics in a
number of countries (Coyle, 2006; Etzkowitz, 2000; Murphy & Whitelegg, 2006; Olorode, 2005;
The Unequal Academy, 2004). However the impact of identity formation on perception and
participation of female students in physics in Zimbabwe has received little attention. The
importance of science is officially recognised in terms of the central place given to science in the
Zimbabwean secondary school curriculum (Government of Zimbabwe Circular Minute Number 14,
2004). Despite this, female students are underrepresented in science when Zimbabwe needs more
scientists to meet its developmental agenda in a technological world. More so science in general
plays an influential role in the life of an individual as well as in the development of a nation in that
it provides the basis for an innovative and globally competitive workforce. Hence, the main
research question guiding this study could be framed as:

What contexts influence identity formation and the participation of female students in physics?

Methodology
This study is qualitative in nature. It is grounded in the interpretive paradigm. In exploratory
studies, qualitative data provide richer, vital, greater depth of information that present a true picture
of the influence of identity formation on the participation of female students in science. The study is

38
situated in the narrative inquiry which involves collecting the stories of lived experiences (Creswell
& Maietta, 2002). Interpretive paradigm enabled the researcher to make sense of the data. This
paradigm assumes that people’s actions are meaningful and that these meanings have to be
interpreted in the context in which they take place (McNeill & Chapman, 2005). The phenomenon
of identity construction is understood through the eyes of the participants and their subjective
views.

The schools in Gweru District were stratified first into three categories and then purposively
selected three. Of the three schools one was from a rural impoverished region, one was from the
high density urban schools (low income) and other one was from low density urban schools (middle
income). At each school, all A’ Level female students doing mathematics with physics, physics
without mathematics and doing mathematics without physics were asked to fill in sample
questionnaires and seven students were chosen. From the low density school, two female students
were chosen one doing mathematics and physics and the other one doing mathematics without
physics. Three female students were chosen from the high density urban school, one doing
mathematics and physics, one doing mathematics without physics and the other doing physics
without mathematics. All rural schools did not offer physics because they did not have laboratories
but offered mathematics only. The rural school that was chosen had only 2 female A’ Level
students doing mathematics hence both became part of the sample.

The data generating instruments used included drawing. Female students doing physics were asked
to draw and to name scientists they had drawn. In addition, semi-structured interviews which were
audio taped, field notes and document analysis were used. We used field notes (Strydom, 2002)
after returning from each interview which provided this study with personal log that helped us to
keep track of the development of this study to visualise how the research plan had been influenced
by the data. We also analysed school documents like registers, records of work and composition of
science students and teaching staff by gender, to determine the patterns of enrolment. Narratives
were organised thematically before being analysed (Soreide, 2007)

Results
In this paper we are only reporting on part of the data collected so far.
Table 1 shows some important physics statistics by gender. Physics was not being taught at the rural
school and therefore mathematics statistics were considered for the rural school. District and
national statistics for 2012 and 2011 respectively were considered.

Table 1. Enrolment in physics of students and teachers by gender.

School/District/Nation Students Teachers

Female Male Female Male
Low density school 6 38 0 2
high density school 3 29 0 2
rural school 2 5 0 2
Gweru District 2012 35 94
National statistics 2011 187 1170

As shown in Table 1 there are far more male students doing physics compared to females. The three
female physics students were asked to write down the contexts that influence their identity
formation and participation in physics. Their results are as shown in Table 2.

39
Table 2. Contexts that influence identity formation
School Respondent Key contexts
low density school 1 Gender specific roles, religious and cultural factors, lack
female role models, fear of failing and lack of confidence
high density school 2 Socialisation from birth; culture; support or lack of
it from teachers, family, friends & church;
Lack of exposure, social environment with male
and female roles, cultural beliefs that men
are bread winner and should dominate
The results from the semi structured interviews in Table 3 also show the contexts which influence
female students’ identity formation as well their participation in physics.
Table 3. Contexts from semi-structure interviews
School Respondent Key contexts
low density school 2 Family not supportive, proving that females can do physics
Having or not having role models, peer pressure and lack of
Confidence.
high density school 3 Culture which says that physics is masculine, fear and that
males are more intelligent than females.
Rural school 2 Family and cultural background, physics is not for the girls,
Role models, discouragement from teachers, peers and
community

When the three female students doing physics were asked to draw a scientist, because of their
masculine framework centred in Eurocentric environment, specifically those which are depicted in
their textbooks text books, they all depicted a scientist as male. This observation is confirmed by the
fact that all the female students (participants) were taught in their O- and A-Level science by male
teachers.

The female students were asked to explain the contexts which result in why fewer female students
opt to do physics? A few of the key responses from the interviews are given below:
The general idea that physics is hard and also… that it’s supposed to be male subject not to be studied by
females, so most people tend to shun away from studying physics.
Whenever we would discuss as friends, we would dread to do physics, we had that fear of failing
physics.

due to the socialisation at school from my friends who always told me that if you want to lower your
points then take physics as ah –a, one of your subjects at A’ level.

Parents would discuss amongst themselves & even to us children, giving us the impression that boys
are more capable to do physics & not girls…

My mother did biology and my father chemistry. I never had any one to emulate, even my elder
brothers both did maths & not physics & I would feel that may be ah-a, I would be the odd one out.

40
 In addition to that you find that the boys are more in number & than the girls in classrooms, &
therefore choosing physics would make me feel uncomfortable…

There are no female physics teachers there are only male physics teachers, therefore reinforcing the
point that physics is a masculine subject.

Some teachers were gender insensitive; they would always tell us that physics is meant for boys and
not for girls

The female students were also asked how they felt learning physics among boys and some of their
responses are as follows:
… The early days when I started to learn here, I was very intimidated because the boys in my class
didn’t, they were very open about not wanting me to be part of the class.
I was new, they wouldn’t tell me we have a lesson, they would just go and attend the lesson or
sometimes we would be given an assignment and they wouldn’t want to share that assignment, I- I
would have to come and talk to the teacher and ask him for the assignment but that the students I
was learning with, were not willing to share information. If I got a higher mark than them, they
wouldn’t think that I got that because I studied but somehow because I copied or somehow
cheated.

Boys treat me in a way that I am inferior to them, which makes sometimes learning difficult because
even when you do not understand something, they kind of jest about the questions you have asked.
This is sometimes intimidating.

Can be really boring because a teacher comes and says hey guys when you know that you are a girl
there. So sometimes it can be annoying.
`
Discussion and Conclusions

Identity is a powerful construct for understanding student learning because identities are constructed
through practice. From the contexts outlined above, female students bring a large diversity of
experiences reflecting both their prior and current situation presenting obstacles as well as
opportunities for the way in which they learn. These experiences determine the way they form their
identities, behave in class, interact with group and teacher and the way they interpret the knowledge
presented. This means that the schema individuals develop about the process of identity formation
might be a product of self-construction as well as social construction. Who one is and who one
desires to be at any given moment is always under negotiation and is contingent upon the social,
cultural, and historical context in which one seeks to author oneself with and against the
expectations of others (Wortham, 2006).

From interview data, female students need role models if they are to construct a positive identity
and to participate fully in physics. This is supported by Bandura (1977) who contends that most
human behaviour is learnt observationally through modelling and from observing others one forms
an idea of how new behaviours are performed and later this coded information serves as a guide for
action.

The socialisation that the female students receive from their homes, community, peers, teachers and
their culture appear to influence identity formation and the participation of female students in
physics. The findings of this study confirm that because their identity is socially constructed, female
students are not free to be anyone they wish. Students’ actions then become an expression of their
social identities because it was their social identities that have organized (Lloyd & Duveen, 1992)
the kind of persons that they are and wish to be in as far as their participation in physics is

41
concerned.

In conclusion, this study found out that the following contexts influence Zimbabwean female
students’ identity formation and participation in physics: their social perception of physics as a
subject, that it is masculine, peers especially the boys who were found to be intimidating, their O-
level experience of science with their teachers, their fear of failing and lack of confidence, lack of
female role models, the influence of family and the prevailing cultural perceptions. Who one is, in
the past, present, and possible futures, is informed by the encounters one has as one address(es) and
respond(s) to others (Holland & Lave, 2009, p. 3). Within the learning environment, Zimbabwean
female students must be able to express their views, thoughts and ideas, to participate fully in
physics, associate freely and feel comfortable about who they are, where they come from, their sex
and what they believe in. Female students therefore need to be given a conducive social
environment that enables them to form positive social perceptions of physics so that they can
develop the self-esteem that is essential for decision making throughout life and a sense of self-
discipline that will help them pursue their personal goals in as far as their participation in physics is
concerned.

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 Addressing Inquiry During Professional Development
at an Informal Science Institution

Gary M. Holliday1, Judith S. Lederman2, Norman G. Lederman2

1
Department of Curricular and Instructional Studies, The University of Akron, USA.
[email protected]
2
Department of Mathematics and Science Education, Illinois Institute of Technology, USA.
[email protected], [email protected]

This study looked at content courses that were offered at and taught by education staff of a large
Informal Science Institution (ISI) located in the Midwest USA. The curriculum, materials, and
agendas for the course were developed by ISI education staff and complemented a number of the
ISI’s exhibitions. Aside from this course being broad based and interdisciplinary, it explored how to
further the incorporation of inquiry-based teaching methods into the classroom as well as the
multiple ways that an informal institution could be used to further the curriculum objectives
established. Portfolios and reflection essays (n = 15) provided the data for the study. In addition, all
participating elementary and middle school teachers (n = 187) were asked to complete an evaluation
at the end of each day’s session. This included several questions that required participants to reflect
upon the content presented throughout the course of the day, focusing on their satisfaction and
effectiveness of instruction. Overall, teacher responses indicated a perceived efficacy in learning
about and ability to teach inquiry to their students. However, there were unclear understandings
about inquiry among both ISI education staff and participants. The findings described here can
assist developers of informal science professional development for elementary and middle school
teachers that desire to incorporate inquiry, pedagogy, and science content into their teacher learning
experiences.

Science literacy is partially defined as consisting of an understanding of Scientific Inquiry (SI)

(Bybee, 2001) and is an area of concern for both formal classrooms and informal science settings.
The term “inquiry” can be used in three ways: as scientific inquiry, inquiry learning, and inquiry
teaching (Anderson, 2007; NRC, 1996). Here, Scientific Inquiry will be defined as “the work of
scientists, the nature of their investigations, and the abilities and understandings required to do this
work”; with the understanding that “these scientific endeavors are considered as independent of our
schooling enterprises, although an understanding of them is a goal of education” (Anderson, 2007,
p. 808).

Inquiry learning is described in the National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1996) as the
active process of learning. During this process, individuals construct meaning for themselves and
modify prior conceptions. Further, inquiry learning is dependent upon the context, is socially
constructed, and does have some relationship to scientific inquiry (Anderson, 2007). Exhibit
designers in Informal Science Institutions (ISIs) often try to create experiences for visitors that tap
into a similar process and will often be referred to as constructivist learning. However it will be
important for the discussion, especially in the context of ISIs and their exhibits and exhibitions, to
remember that inquiry learning also consists of two distinct components: visitors’ ability to do
inquiry and visitors’ understanding about inquiry (NRC, 1996). Finally, using inquiry as a teaching
method in science education is not fully addressed in the broad definition shared above and is a
little more difficult to define in a succinct manner. Classroom teachers may use inquiry (among
many other teaching strategies) in order to “facilitate learning about scientific inquiry, developing
the abilities of inquiry and understanding scientific concepts and principles” (Bybee, 2000, p. 37).

The quality of ISI professional development has been recognized by the National Science Teachers
Association (NSTA, 1998), which has noted in their position statement that ISIs ‘offer teachers a

44
powerful means to enhance both professional and personal development in science content
knowledge and accessibility to unique resources’ (p. 17). However, does the research support such a
claim? This question is an important one; especially since the National Science Education
Standards (NSES) suggests that classroom teachers collaborate with community resources, such as
an ISI or science centre, for their professional development needs (NRC, 1996). More recently, the
Next Generation Science Standards (NRC, 2013) note the importance of learning science at
Informal Science Institutions (ISIs) and inquiry skills are identified as scientific practices in NGSS
that require the following for students to learn:

1. Asking questions
2. Developing and using models
3. Planning and carrying out investigations
4. Analyzing and interpreting data
5. Using mathematics and computational thinking
6. Constructing explanations
7. Engaging in argument from evidence
8. Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information

It has also been recommended that teachers go to ISI professional development for effective
implementation of the reforms and learning of science content, along with pedagogical strategies
unique to ISIs (Bell, Lewenstein, Shouse, & Feder, 2009; Duschl, Schweingruber, & Shouse, 2007;
Michaels, Shouse, & Schweingruber, 2007; NRC, 2011, 2013).

In order to assist classroom teachers with planning field trips to these unique learning environments,
many ISIs offer inquiry-based professional development and materials for teachers in order to
prepare them and their students (Astor-Jack, Balcerzak, & McCallie, 2006; Astor-Jack, McCallie, &
Balcerzak, 2007; Neathery, 1998). Ramey-Gassert, Walberg, and Walberg (1994) also provide
support for ISI professional development stating that it assists with improving teaching skills during
field trips and helps teachers develop an understanding of science while they learn about the role
and purpose of ISI exhibits as well as the content presented within. Further, It has been asserted that
ISIs provide many opportunities for inquiry learning (Russell, 1996) and the social interaction
associated with it. However, it is unclear if there is a unified understanding of inquiry among ISI
staff. Here, the focus will be on the incorporation of inquiry during ISI PD and the research
question is: How is inquiry addressed during ISI professional development for elementary and
middle school teachers?

Methodology
This study looked at two subject specific courses that were offered at and taught by staff at a large
science center in the Mid-West, USA. An Environmental Science (ES) course was designed using
ISI exhibits to the address ecology and environmental science content. The other course addressed
Life Science (LS) content focused on a specific exhibition that addressed life science content
discussed during the course. The course was primarily taught by seven educators with a range two
to five years teaching experience at an ISI. Some were also classroom teachers prior to teaching at
the ISI: two were elementary school teachers, others had content backgrounds in social studies,
environmental science, and reading, and there was a librarian as well. Occasionally, an educator
with a Ph.D. in Biochemistry would lecture during the courses. Both courses were offered during
the academic year and during the summer. Graduate credit was also available to interested
participants.

Each full day meeting (for both the academic year and summer courses) focused on one or more of
the above content areas and explored how that topic could be brought back into the classroom.
While the ISI’s exhibitions drove what content was addressed during the PD, teachers’ curriculum

45
needs were also considered when developing PD objectives. Aside from this course being broad
based and interdisciplinary, it explored how to further the incorporation of inquiry-based teaching
methods into the classroom as well as the multiple ways that an informal science institution could
be used to further the curriculum objectives established. In addition to lectures that took place in the
ISI classroom for about 25% of the time, participants were involved with a variety of activities. This
included free exhibition exploration, using worksheets or guiding questions in the exhibitions,
guided tours with facilitators, exhibit designers, and ISI educators, exhibit hall demonstrations, and
there were many lesson activities (about 26) that took place both in the classroom and exhibit areas.
Most of the time spent during the PD involved teachers being engaged in the content related
activities.

Participants
Each subject specific course was offered to two groups of teachers throughout the academic school
year and one group during the summer. Both the academic year and the summer course participants
provided a sample of convenience for this study. Course participants were 4-8th grade classroom
teachers who spent 80-100% of their time working directly with students, with up to 30 years of
teaching experience (x̄ = 7.5 years). Each course had approximately 30 teachers in each. Six courses
were included in the study, with a total of 187 participating teachers. In compliance with the
university’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) protocol, all participants were asked to complete a
consent form during the first meeting of each course.

Data Collection and Analysis

Portfolios were used as evidence of participants’ understanding of inquiry addressed in the courses.
Teachers had to include the following components: lesson plans, student work samples, and
reflections upon teaching the lessons and coursework. First, copies of lesson plans relating to course
content were required components to be included in the portfolios. If the participant was enrolled
for graduate credit, they had to include 5-7 lessons and if they were not enrolled for graduate credit,
2-3 lessons were included. New lessons could be created or lessons presented during the ISI course
could be used as well. For each lesson, notes were to be included about changes made before or
during the lesson implementation along with a written reflection after the doing the lesson with their
students, indicating what worked well and how the lesson might be improved. Second, student work
including photographs of students engaged in the lesson, completed student worksheets or
assessments, and student science notebook entries were required. However, while this was feasible
for those teachers participating in the course that took place during the school year, this element
was not likely for teachers involved in the summer sessions unless they happened to be teaching at
the time. Therefore, summer course participants seeking graduate credit were not asked to submit
student work.

In the reflection section of the portfolios, participants’ were asked to provide overall thoughts and
impressions about the course, addressing questions such as the following: “Did your participation in
the program impact your teaching and your use of ISI resources? In what ways?” and, in particular,
“Where does the lesson fall on the Hands-on/Inquiry continuum?” (see Figure 1). The staff also
provided prompts to aid teachers in their reflection, such as “How are you going to use these
activities in your classroom?” and “Why is it important to add inquiry to your activities?”. Using
the continuum, teachers mapped out ‘hands-on’ activities (which were engaging students in
activities) as opposed to ‘hands-off’ as well as ‘full inquiry’ lessons (which were seen to be student
centered) to ‘no inquiry’.

46
 Figure 1. Hands-on/Inquiry Continuum

Teacher portfolios (n = 15) were selected and analyzed providing a range of teaching experience,
grade level taught, and type of school, which was desired to inform the study. However, only those
participants electing to receive graduate credit during the academic and summer courses were
included. This was done to ensure that all were fulfilling the same requirements with a similar level
of intent. The researcher independently scored them using rubrics designed by ISI staff and
compared them to staff scores. Eight of the portfolios came from the ES course and seven portfolios
were from the LS course. The researcher initially used Gee and Green’s (1998) ethnographically
grounded approach to as a framework to develop categories and themes found in the essays. This
iterative process was used to fine-tune the themes.
In addition to portfolios, all teachers were asked to complete an evaluation at the end of each
day’s session. This included several questions that required participants to reflect upon the content
presented throughout the course of the day. For instance, participants were able to indicate their
satisfaction with the content presented in the PD on a scale of 1-10 (frequencies were produced for
these items) and explain why. To provide further triangulation and support, the reflection questions
from the daily evaluations and essays from the portfolios and graduate credit assignments were
analyzed in order to gain a deeper understanding of teachers’ understanding of inquiry. Further, the
researcher made non-participatory observations and took field notes with audio recordings during
the entire course.

Results
During the PD, teachers were introduced to the ‘inquiry wheel’ (see Figure 2) and it was revisited
throughout the course. Essentially, this tool was developed and used by staff as a tool to assist
teachers and students with developing independent and dependent variables for experiments. A
circle was attached with a brad to a larger rectangular piece of plastic and dependent variables were
written outside the circle. Independent variables can be added by turning the circular piece in the
middle. This was the only explicit connection made to inquiry during the course even though there
were objectives designed to do so.

47
 Figure 2. Inquiry Wheel

Five themes emerged from the analysis of the reflection essays in the portfolios and graduate
assignments: content, comfort and confidence, collaboration, resources, and inquiry. Examples from
the inquiry theme will be shared. However it is important to remember that, like the evaluation
responses, these are self-reported results and teachers may also be responding in a manner to please
PD education staff. Again, during the course PD educators never explicitly addressed inquiry as an
instructional strategy, therefore teachers had inconsistent ideas when reflecting upon it. Also, it
should be noted that only the ISI lesson plans were used and included in the portfolios.

For instance, when writing about where a particular lesson fell on the Hands-on / Inquiry
Continuum (see Figure 1) as part of the portfolio requirements, teachers repeatedly indicated
whether a lesson was inquiry based by stating “the students did (or did not) follow the steps of the
scientific method”. As shown in previous studies, it was evident that there was a conflation of the
characteristics of ‘hands-on’ and ‘inquiry’ on the part of ISI PD providers and educational staff. In
these studies, while NSES describes inquiry in three ways: (1) a teaching strategy, (2)
understandings, and (3) abilities (NRC, 1996), ISI staff often meant a ‘hands-on’ (as in a
manipulation of objects) engagement of PD participants and not the ability to think about scientific
processes (Astor-Jack, Balcerzak, & McCallie, 2006; Astor-Jack, McCallie,& Balcerzak, 2007) and
the Hands-on / Inquiry Continuum seemed to contribute to this.

Even so, the majority of teachers in this study self reported a greater understanding of inquiry but
provided further evidence of the conflation: “I have a better understanding of inquiry-based learning
and a toolbox full of fun hands on activities to enhance the learning of my students”. This
confidence was confirmed on the final evaluation question relating to the ‘inquiry wheel’: teachers
were asked “On a scale of 1 – 10, how effective were the workshops in preparing you to do the
following: …use the inquiry wheel in your classroom…” (1 = completely not effective, 10 =
completely effective). Teachers’ indicated that PD educators were effective in both courses (91% of
teachers gave a rating of 9 or 10 for ES and 88% did the same in LS).

Overall, teacher responses on the daily and final evaluations for both courses were extremely
positive. Since the same questions were asked on a daily basis, all of the responses were combined
in the frequency graphs (four daily and one final evaluation for each participating teacher) shown
below. Starting with Question 1: “On a scale of 1 – 10, how satisfied were you with today’s/this
week’s workshops?” (1 = completely unsatisfied, 10 = completely satisfied). While none of the
teachers in the ES course circled below an eight on the scale, 10 teachers did give a rating of six or
seven on the LS evaluations. However, 91 of the 109 responses indicated complete satisfaction
(giving a rating of 10) with the ES course, 225 of 319 responses indicated complete satisfaction
with the LS course. The open-ended questions connected to the above ratings included very positive
comments as well, with teachers stating that the materials, activities, educators and exhibits were
“great”, “awesome”, “excellent”, “fun”, “useful”, and “engaging”.

Discussion
In the reviewed literature, ISI exhibit developers and staff alike have been found to be more
interested in visitors coming away with positive experiences and attitudes about science while
visiting the science center or museum rather than having them learn the science content or

48
understand scientific processes (Cox-Peterson et al., 2003; Davidsson & Jakobsson, 2008; Rennie &
Williams, 2006, Tal & Morag, 2007). Given the findings of the research presented here,
professional development opportunities for teachers are not so different.
In the reflection essays, it became apparent that teachers had inconsistent understandings about
inquiry. When considering inquiry as a content area, and since inquiry was determined by staff and
PD developers to be an important component of the PD experience, this raises questions about how
inquiry was addressed during the courses and PD staffs’ understanding of inquiry. Staff did attempt
to make all of the content more palatable to teachers and this may have led to a more implicit
instructional approach.

In previous studies, a majority of participants were also elementary or middle school teachers
lacking science content knowledge and, since many were uncomfortable with teaching science, the
intent (on the part of staff) was to bolster their confidence to teach rather than learning science
content (Ferry, 1993, 1995; Kelly, 2000). This may explain why PD staff in this study attempted to
cover so many activities and instructional objectives in the time available. It was evident they
wanted to provide as many hands-on activities and associated materials that could be easily brought
back to teachers’ classrooms.

All referred to inquiry as a teaching strategy, especially when modeling inquiry during the PD with
the hope that the teacher will bring these techniques back to the classroom. Often, inquiry was
conflated with ‘hands-on’ activities and modeling such teaching strategies is a primary method of
instruction during ISI PD. When modeling teaching strategies, it is hoped that participating teachers
will teach their students in the same manner although explicit connections are often not made
(Astor-Jack, et al., 2006; Astor-Jack, et al., 2007). While inquiry was seen as engaging for students
and teachers it seemed that when using this word it is really ‘hands-on’. A more consistent language
is required, especially when trying to communicate to K-12 teachers and districts about the PD
programs offered at their ISI. This would also be necessary when trying to link to the inquiry-based
regional and national curriculum. The findings described here can assist developers of informal
science professional development for elementary and middle school teachers that desire to
incorporate inquiry, pedagogy, and science content into their teacher learning experiences.

REFERENCES
Anderson, R.D. (2007). Inquiry as an organizing theme for science curricula. In S.K. Abell & N.G.
Lederman (Eds.), Handbook of research on science education (pp. 807-830). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum.
Astor-Jack, T., Balcerzak, P., & McCallie, E. (2006). Professional development and the historical
tradition of informal science institutions: Views of four providers. Canadian Journal of Science,
Mathematics and Technology Education, 6 (1), 67-81.
Astor-Jack, T., McCallie, E., & Balcerzak, P. (2007). Academic and informal science education
practitioner views about professional development in science education. Science Education, 91
(4), 604-628.
Bell, P., Lewenstein, B., Shouse, A. W., & Feder, M. A. (Eds.). (2009). Learning science in
informal environments: People, places, and pursuits. Washington, DC: National Academies
Press.
Bybee, R.W. (2000). Teaching science as inquiry. In J. Minstrell & E.H. van Zee (Eds.), Inquiring
into inquiry learning and teaching in science (pp. 20-46). Washington, DC: American
Association for the Advancement of Science.
Cox-Peterson, A.M., Marsh, D.D., Kisiel, J., & Melber, L.M. (2003). Investigation of guided school
tours, student learning, and science reform recommendations at a museum of natural history.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40 (2), 200-218.
Davidsson, E., & Jakobsson, A. (2008). Staff members’ ideas about visitors’ learning at science and
technology centers. International Journal of Science Education, 29 (1), 1-18.

49
Duschl, R. A., Schweingruber, H. A., & Shouse, A. W. (Eds.). (2007). Taking science to school:
Learning and teaching science in grades K-8. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Ferry, B. (1993). Science centers and outdoor education centers provide valuable experience for
pre-service teachers. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 4 (3), 85-88.
Ferry, B. (1995). Science centers in Australia provide valuable training for preservice teachers.
Journal of Science Education and Technology, 4 (3), 255-260.
Kelly, J. (2000). Rethinking the elementary science methods course: A case for content, pedagogy,
and informal science education. International Journal of Science Education, 22 (7), 755-777.
Michaels, S., Shouse, A. W., & Schweingruber, H. A. (2007). Ready, set, science!: Putting research
to work in K-8 science classrooms. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press.
National Research Council. (2011). A framework for k-12 science education: Practices,
crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Board on Science Education, Center for Education.
Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National
Academies Press.
National Research Council. (2013). Next generation science standards. Board on Science
Education, Center for Education. Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education.
Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
National Science Teachers Association. (1998). An NSTA position statement: Informal science
education. Journal of College Science Teaching, 28, 17-18.
Neathery, M .F. (1998). Informal learning in experiential settings. Journal of Elementary Science
Education, 10 (2), 36-49.
Ramey-Gassert, L., Walberg III, H.J., & Walberg, H.J. (1994). Reexamining connections: Museums
as science learning environments. Science Education, 78 (4), 345-363.
Rennie, L.J., & Williams, G.F. (2006). Communication about science in a traditional museum:
Visitors’ and staff’s perceptions. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 1 (4), 791-820.
Russell, R.L. (1996). The role of science museums in teacher education. Informal Science Review,
19, 16.
Tal, T., & Morag, O. (2007). School visits to natural history museums: Teaching or enriching?
Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 44 (5), 747-769.

50
 ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHERS AND LEARNERS
TOWARDS ANIMAL ORGAN DISSECTIONS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Ms Portia Kavai1, Dr Rian de Villiers2 & Professor William Fraser3

1
Department of Science and Technology, Cornerstone College, South Africa
2
Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, Faculty of
Education, University of Pretoria, South Africa
3
Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, Faculty of
Education, University of Pretoria, South Africa
1
[email protected], 2 [email protected], 3 [email protected]

Introduction

For centuries, educators in different parts of the world have used dissections in the teaching of
learners either by demonstration or hands-on practice allowing learners to learn through discovery
(Morton, 1987). In Life Sciences education internationally, including South Africa, the study of
animal organs and structure has traditionally involved animal and organ dissections. Animal organ
dissections and dissections in general are issues with a lot of controversy internationally (Millet &
Lock 1992, Reiss & Beaney 1992, Smith 1994, Stannistreet, Spofforth & Williams 1993). The
controversies surrounding dissections can bring about different attitudes towards animal organ
dissections by the teachers and learners. The interest of establishing the attitudes and perceptions of
teachers and learners came about as a result of the researcher’s experiences as a Grade 11 Life
Sciences teacher, where it is a requirement for learners to carry out animal organ dissections of
hearts, kidneys, and lungs as part of anatomy learning. The question that has always come to the
researcher’s mind is: “If animal organ dissections could be used to develop skills like problem-
solving, what would be the attitudes of the teachers and their learners towards that process?”

It was therefore considered of vital importance to work with the Grade 11 Life Sciences teachers
using animal organ dissections in teaching generally and in problem-solving more specifically. The
teachers' attitudes towards animal organ dissections may have an impact on the outcome of the
lesson and on the attitudes of their learners hence the need to establish the attitudes of the teachers
towards animal organ dissections. Besides establishing the attitudes of the teachers towards
dissections, the aspect of vital importance was to establish their attitudes towards the use of animal
organ dissections in problem-solving as a teaching strategy. The proposed study is therefore meant
to establish the attitudes of the teachers and the learners towards the use of animal organ dissections
in general and in problem-solving as a teaching strategy as these attitudes would possibly have a
direct impact on the development of problem-solving skills.

Without question, teachers can exert a huge influence over their learners. Teacher attitudes, beliefs,
values, and personal preferences are bound to influence those of the learner. There is evidence that
the attitudes of those around one may exert more influence on one’s attitudes and values than does
facts and knowledge. “The human dimension of the student versus instructor relationship can
convey values, attitudes, and signals that transcend the content of textbooks and other written
curriculum materials" (Brennan, 1997, in Balcombe 2000, p. 17). It is the responsibility of teachers
to provide the best education and to encourage the greatest possible learning. A few researchers and
authors worldwide, including South Africa, (Balcombe, 1997b; De Villiers & Sommerville, 2005;
Moore, 2001) have explored how learners at different levels of education feel about doing
dissections as part of the Life Sciences curriculum. The outcomes have been varied according to the
diversity of the school environments, which is also very common in South Africa. Even though
dissections are widely carried out internationally and nationally, there seems to be a dearth of
literature regarding the connection between attitudes and problem solving skills.

51
Research questions

The following are the research questions that guided the data collection and research methods:
• What are the teachers’ and learners’ perceptions and attitudes towards animal organ
dissections?
• What are the teachers’ and learners’ perceptions and attitudes towards the use of animal
organ dissections in problem-solving as a teaching strategy?

Research methodology

Sample and setting

Two hundred and twenty-four (224) Grade 11 Life Sciences learners at four secondary schools in
Pretoria East, Gauteng Province, South Africa participated in this study. Six Grade 11 Life Sciences
teachers at the four selected schools were also involved in the study. The criteria for choosing the
schools were as follows: School A is a public school without any laboratory facilities and laboratory
apparatus, in one of the Pretoria East townships; School B is a public school with laboratory
facilities and laboratory apparatus, in one of the Pretoria East suburbs. School C is an independent
school with adequate laboratory facilities and laboratory apparatus, in the Pretoria East suburbs;
School D is an independent school with limited laboratory facilities and laboratory apparatus.

Instruments and data collection

The data collection methods were the interviews to the six Grade 11 Life Sciences teachers of the
selected schools, lesson observations, a questionnaire applied to the 224 Grade 11 learners and
relevant document analysis. The relevant documents which the researcher analysed included the
National Curriculum Statement and the new CAPS syllabus. The data collected was analysed by
coding and classification of common themes. Frequency distribution tables were used to indicate
data of the interviewed teachers, data from the eight lesson observations during which the learners
dissected the animal organs and from the learner questionnaires. The reliability of the questionnaire
was tested using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient.

Findings and Discussion

Biographical information

The six teachers’ age ranged between 25- 49 years. The majority of teachers (84%) were female.
All the six teachers were Christians. Regarding the teachers’ ethnic background, (33%) were
“African” Northern Sotho, 33% were Afrikaans and 33% English. The learners’ ages ranged
between 15-20 years. The majority of learners (61%) were female. Regarding religious
background, (85 %) were Christians and 15 % was divided amongst the other religions. The
majority (72%) were “African” (Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana,
Xhosa and Zulu), 22% were English and 6% Afrikaans.

Attitude of learners and teachers regarding animal organ dissections in general

• Learners
From the results, it appears that the learners generally have a positive attitude towards animal organ
dissections. In response to the items regarding animal organ dissections in general: great interest
was expressed by 93 % of learners who said they enjoy animal organ dissections because they are
interested in finding out first-hand about the anatomy of the organ they are studying. More than
80% of the learners feel comfortable with the idea of doing the animal organ dissections themselves

52
while 20% were not comfortable with the idea of doing the dissections themselves. The same
learners who indicated reservations on doing the animal organ dissections rather opted to use
alternatives like online or artificial animal organ dissections, especially in the schools which are
technologically equipped to do so, while some from financially disadvantaged schools would rather
watch others dissect the organs. The learners that expressed preference to alternative dissections
also expressed that they find it emotionally difficult to dissect fresh animal organs and they also
find animal organ dissections disgusting. Above 75% of the learners did not express any disgust or
being emotionally affected by dissecting fresh animal organs. In as much as almost a quarter of the
learners expressed a negative attitude towards animal organ dissections for different reasons ranging
from being emotionally affected to being disgusted, three-quarters of the learners showed positive
attitudes and a lot of interest towards animal organ dissections. Almost 80% of the learners were of
the opinion that animal organ dissections increase their respect for animals. Regarding their moral
values 186 learners responded that they were in support of animal organ dissections. The learners’
positive responses were classified into nine categories. Table 1 shows the responses of the learners
who are morally in support of animal organ dissections. Data is only presented in terms of
frequency of responses and percentage of the 343 responses.

Table 1. Moral views of learners supporting animal organ dissections

Categories elicited from the responses of learners Responses Percentage

(n=343)
Promote more learning and understanding of animal organ morphology 120 34.99
Links knowledge taught from textbooks with the real organ 54 15.74
Motivation towards a career choice 40 11.66
Helps get hands-on experience 30 8.75
Improves the investigative and practical skills 29 8.45
Textbooks or artificial organs restrict/limit information 21 6.12
Makes studying the topic more interesting 21 6.12
Organs are obtained from dead animals so it is not being cruel to animals 19 5.54
It is not murder because it is for a good cause 9 2.62

Interesting responses were quoted verbatim in this report:

“It is not like I am murdering the animals for some sick sadistic purpose. It’s purely for
exceptional, justified reasons so nothing is wrong with it”.
“The organ helped me to see the parts of the organ which I will always remember them
forever even during exam time because I have seen them than only studying about them
looking at the textbook. It also helped understand the function of it and why we should
take care of them, while they still function well in our bodies”.

“Animal organ dissections are moral because it will make us get more knowledge about
the structure in a specific animal. As the future scientists of tomorrow we have to
investigate by means of cutting the organs to identify those different structures, to write
books and expand and share our knowledge”.

“I love animals, but I think using dead animals is a more useful way to find out more about
our bodies. As students study sometimes is too hard, it is much easier to remember just
dissecting, observing and identifying parts”.

Only 31 learners were against animal organ dissections, while seven learners were listed as missing
values. Table 2 shows the reasons why the learners were against animal organ dissections. The
learners’ negative responses were classified into six categories.

53
 Table 2. Moral views of learners against animal organ dissections
Categories elicited from the responses of learners Responses (n=46) Percentage
Against the religion or beliefs to dissect animal organs 11 23.91
Cruel to the animal 10 21.74
Many animals had to die for the purpose of dissections 9 19.57
Animals should only be used as a food source 6 13.04
Being vegetarian 5 10.87
Strong respect for animals 5 10.87

Some learners who were against animal organ dissections were quoted saying:

“The only reason why I think we should be cutting up animals is for the sole purpose of
our protein. I feel the amount of animals that had to die so that we can just look at their
kidney and throw it away”.

“I am against it because some people use it for traditional medicines, which they believe it
can make them rich and powerful”.

The learners’ feelings as they carried out animal organ dissections are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Learners’ feelings when carrying out animal organ dissections

Categories elicited from the responses of learners Responses (n=352) Percentage

Exciting, enjoyable, fascinating, amazed, curious and

123 34.94
motivating to see the organ parts on the real tissue
Life Sciences not just theory but real, practical and broadens
60 17.05
knowledge
It was smelly, gross and nauseating 44 12.50
Felt guilty, cruel and disrespectful towards the dead animals 38 10.80
Felt like a doctor or real Life Scientist 30 8.52
Respectful of the animal from which the organ came because it
25 7.10
died for learners’ benefit
Nervous and scared to cut wrongly and damage the organ 21 5.97
Prefer watching others carry out the dissections since its part of
11 3.13
the curriculum

It was interesting to note that the majority of the responses (almost 35%) indicated that the learners
found animal organ dissections exciting, enjoyable, fascinating, amazing, arousing their curiosities
and motivating to see the organ parts on the real tissue. However a few other learners expressed
their disgust to the idea of dissecting fresh organs.
• Teachers
The teachers’ attitudes towards animal organ dissections were established as they responded to
interview questions asking them how they felt about animal organ dissections when they carried it
out for the first time and how they feel when they carry it out with their learners and if there were
instances when they did not feel like participating in the dissections when their learners were
dissecting. Table 4 shows the attitudes of the teachers towards animal organ dissections. T1, to T2
are the pseudonyms for the six teachers for anonymity.

54
 Table 4. Attitudes of the teachers towards animal organ dissections

Categories Codes Teachers Frequency

Scared, blood phobia Rc1 T1, T4 2

Felt like I had no choice, it was for marks Rc2 T1 1
Very interesting, fun, worth it Rc3 T2, T3, T4, T5, T6 5
Yes, very new, explored and learnt together Rcc1 T4 1
with the learners
Not bad F1 T1, T3, T4 3
Understand their fear F2 T1, T4 2
The preparation is too involving F3 T5 1
Gratified by their excitement and experience F4 T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6 6
No, I always demonstrate Inst1 T1, T2, T5 3
Always enjoy dissection Inst2 T2, T3, T5, T6 4
I force myself for the sake of learners’ Inst3 T4 1

Rc = Recall the feelings; Rcc = Recall; F = Feeling; Inst = Instances

T1 admitted that when she first carried out dissections she was really scared and could not get
herself to dissect the frog she was supposed to dissect. She knew, however, she had no choice
because of the examination; she did the dissections until she got over the fear. She acknowledges
that she feels much better now as her learners are dissecting especially because it is just organs and
not the whole animal but she understands the fear of the learners because she experienced it once.
T4 only did her first dissections when she was a teacher and she explored and learnt together with
the learners but she is still fighting the blood phobia. T4 confirmed by saying:

“It was scary and very exciting to actually think that I was working with something that was
inside me and to see how it really looks and the size of it. But I am someone that is not very
keen on touching organs with blood, so there was a little bit of a knot in my tummy, I didn’t
like it so much but just the excitement of it made it worth it”.

T4 also said as her learners are dissecting it is no longer that bad but she is still not keen on
touching organs with blood ande therefore forces herself for the sake of the learners’ marks.

T4’s response did not come as a surprise because the researcher had noticed her detachment from
the animal organ dissections as the learners were carrying it out. The researcher had thought that the
detachment was due to lack of confidence in the animal organ dissections procedure since she did
not have a firm previous experience in it but she also realised that besides the lack of experience,
there was also a blood phobia issue. Dissecting for the first time for T2, T3, T5 and T6, was very
interesting, fun and it was worth it. As the learners carry out the dissections, T6 feels it is too
demanding to organise the organs, prepare for the lesson and conducting the disection lesson itself
which also consumes a lot of time. Despite her reservations T6 still enjoys dissections and even
demonstrates whole animal dissections. All six teachers acknowledged that they were always
gratified by their learners’ excitement and experience. T2 was quoted saying:

“You know I remember way back when I was still at college you know we did dissections on
many organs like we started with that we wanted to see the anatomical canal of a rat you
remember? It was very much interesting for me. It was very much interesting. I found it
very much interesting, it was fun. I never had any problem with that. I still find it interesting
when my learners dissect, it is in me already. I always want to see responses from learners
because I have done it many times and I enjoy it. I only look at how learners react and if they
react positively and seem to have learnt something, that makes my day”.

Despite the blood phobia by T1 and T4, the majority of the teachers generally have a positive
attitude towards animal organ dissections

55
Attitude of learners and teachers towards the use of animal organ dissections in problem-
solving

• Learners
From the results, it appears that the learners generally have a positive attitude towards animal organ
dissections and its use in problem-solving. In response to the items regarding animal organ
dissections in problem-solving: The majority of the learners (98%) acknowledged that animal organ
dissections helped them to improve their investigative skills. Over 80% of the learners did not only
acknowledge the usefulness of animal organ dissections in terms of developing investigative and
manipulative skills only but also in the development of skills to solve real life problems. Over 90%
of the learners are of the opinion that animal organ dissections are useful in learning and
understanding of the structure and function of the organ. Just over two-thirds (64%) of the learners
are of the opinion that animal organ dissections are the only way to develop manipulative skills.
The majority of the learners showed a positive attitude towards using animal organ dissections to
improve important skills like problem-solving, investigative and manipulative, which was very
encouraging.

• Teachers
Teachers were asked two questions. The first question was to determine if the teachers thought the
dissections of organs were important or significant in problem-solving and secondly, if they thought
animal organ dissections have any contribution to the development of problem-solving skills of
Grade 11 Life Sciences learners.

56
 Table 5. Teachers’ attitudes towards the use of animal organ dissections in problem-solving
Categories Codes Teachers Frequency

Yes it is, clear understanding of kidney and how to Sign1 T1, T3, T5, T6 4
solve problems associated with its structure and
function
Yes, seeing the real organ and its parts can make Sign2 T4, T6 2
learners think from a different angle and solve
presented problems in a better way and improves
their complex skills
Yes it is, learners develop listening, observation and Sign2 T2 1
cooperative skills
It does especially to those aspiring to pursue the Contr1 T1, T6 2
medical or Life Sciences career
They can apply the same knowledge to other organs Contr2 T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6 6
or how to investigate them, the same way they did
with the kidney
It does because they did much better in the post-test Contr3 T2,T5 2
than before they dissected

Sign = Significant; Contr = Contribution

The teachers concurred in that animal organ dissections were significant in problem-solving
because when learners dissect the organ, they gain a clear understanding of the kidney structure and
then are able to understand the problems associated with its structure and function and how to solve
them. For them seeing the real organ and its parts can give learners a different perspective and solve
presented problems in a better way than if they were just using theoretical knowledge to answer the
same questions. They argue that there will be an improvement in their complex skills thereby
improving their problem-solving skills. T4 was quoted saying:

“Well as I believe that if they can see the real life thing they will think of it further on how
something like an organ works. And they will think in a different angle, if they see how it
actually looks and what implications it can have when you have a problem like a puncture in
the lung, or a blockage in the urethra, that they will be able to solve their problems better and
think about solutions maybe”.

The majority of the teachers were also of the opinion animal organ dissections made a great
contribution especially to those learners who were aspiring to pursue a medical or Life Sciences
career. All six teachers concurred in that learners could apply the same knowledge to other organs
or how to investigate them, the same way they did with the kidney thereby expanding their
problem-solving skills.

Conclusion

The findings show that the attitudes of the learners towards animal organ dissections were
predominantly positive. Just less than a quarter of the whole group was negative due to a variety of
reasons which include: moral values, religion, culture, blood phobia, squeamishness and being
vegetarian. The researcher also observed that the above-mentioned problems were real and for some
learners it was so bad that they could not stand the sight of blood, let alone touch the organ. The
majority of learners acknowledged the importance of animal organ dissections in developing skills
like investigative, dissecting and problem-solving skills. This acknowledgement resulted in them
being positive towards the use of animal organ dissections in problem-solving. The teachers
confirmed in the interviews that the attitudes of the learners during the hands-on dissections were
very positive.

The attitudes of the teachers showed that about a third of the teachers showed that they still had
57
reservations with animal organ dissections especially because of their being blood phobic and they
understood why their learners feared to touch the organs. It was also established that in some cases
the negative attitude towards animal organ dissections was not only attributed to the teachers being
blood phobic but also due to low confidence level in dissection skills. Even though a third of the
teachers had negative attitudes towards hands-on dissections, it was encouraging to note that all the
six teachers acknowledged that animal organ dissections were of vital importance in the
development of skills like enquiry, investigative, practical and problem-solving. After the whole
exercise, they were already considering using the dissections of animal organs to improve their
teaching strategies in problem-solving.

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De Villiers, J. J. R., & Sommerville, J. (2005). Prospective biology teachers’ attitudes toward
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Morton, D. B. (1987). Animal use in education and the alternatives. Alternatives to
Laboratory Animals, 14, 334-343.
Reiss, M. J. & Beaney, N. (1992). The use of living organisms in secondary school science. Journal
of Biological Education, 26, 63-66.
Smith, W. (1994). Use of animals and animal organs in schools: Practice and attitudes of teachers.
Journal of Biological Education, 28: 111-118.
Stannistreet, M., Spofforth, N. & Williams, T. (1993). Attitudes of children to the uses of animals.
International Journal of Science Education, 15, 411-425.

58
ANIMAL ORGAN DISSECTIONS IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS: IS IT JUST AN ISSUE OF
CUTTING AND DRAWING?

Portia Kavai1,Rian de Villiers2&William Fraser3

1
Department of Science and Technology, Cornerstone College, South Africa
2
Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, Faculty of
Education, University of Pretoria, South Africa
3
Department of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, Faculty of
Education, University of Pretoria, South Africa
1
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Introduction

Life Sciences (previously known as Biology) is one of the school subjects taught in Grades 10 to 12
in South Africa. The South African Department of Education (2003) stated in the Life Sciences
National Curriculum Statement the need to include dissection as part of the study of organ anatomy
in Grades 10 to 12 considered as the Further Education and Training (FET) Phase. In Life Sciences
education internationally, including South Africa, the study of animal organs and structure has
traditionally involved animal and organ dissections.

The interest in the use of dissection in improving the teachers’ teaching strategies and the
acquisition of problem-solving skills in Life Sciences emanated from the researcher’s experiences
as a Grade 11 Life Sciences teacher, where it is a requirement for learners to carry out animal organ
dissections of hearts, kidneys, and lungs as part of anatomy learning. The question that has always
come to the researcher’s mind is: “What is the use of carrying out animal organ dissections in
secondary schools?” Through her teaching experience, she observed that learners seemed to be
more interested in dissection when they cut through the organs, observed the connection between
structure and function, and when they were presented with challenging questions related to day-to-
day health problems linked to these organs. From these observations she reckoned it would make
more sense to use dissections of animal organs as a way of helping learners acquire skills in areas
like problem-solving which would help them realise the relevance of studying Life Sciences at
school. This study is therefore meant to apply the notion of using dissections in problem-solving as
a teaching strategy in Life Sciences education.

Many educational philosophers and academics internationally and nationally (Capps, Constas, &
Crawford, 2012; National Research Council [NRC], 2000; Roehrig, MacNabb, Michlin, &
Schmitt,2012) have advocated that it is of vital importance and necessity for enquiry to be part of
Life Sciences education. They assert that inquiry-based approaches to teaching and learning provide
a framework for learners for the acquisition of critical-thinking and problem-solving skills.
Dissection, as a way of enquiry, plays an important role in the teaching and learning of Life
Sciences but, unfortunately, very few teachers are using inquiry-based instructions in actually
building problem-solving activities and skills into their dissections lessons (Capps et al., 2012;
Hudson, McMahon, & Overstreet, 2002; Smith, Banilower, McMahon, & Weiss, 2002).Even
though dissections are widely carried out internationally and nationally, there seems to be a dearth
of literature on the use of animal organ dissections on problem-solving, especially in the South
African education context.

Research questions

The following research questions guided the data collection and research methods:

59
 • How do learners engage with dissections and use it in developing problem-solving skills?
• How do teachers use animal organ dissections to improve their teaching strategies
andproblem-solving skills of Grade 11 learners?

Research Methodology

Sample and setting

Two-hundred and twenty-four(224) Grade 11 Life Scienceslearners at four secondary schools in

Pretoria East, Gauteng Province, South Africa participated in this study. Six Grade 11 Life Sciences
teachers at the four selected schools were also involved in the study. The criteria for choosing the
schools were as follows: School A is a public school without any laboratory facilities and laboratory
apparatus, in one of the Pretoria East townships; School B is a public school with laboratory
facilities and laboratory apparatus, in one of the Pretoria East suburbs.School C is an independent
school with adequate laboratory facilities and laboratory apparatus, in the Pretoria East suburbs;
School D is an independent school with limited laboratory facilities and laboratory apparatus.

Instruments and data collection

A pre-test was administered to the learners through their teachers, after which they carried out
animal organ dissections and then wrote a post-test. Both tests were marked by the researcher. The
test consisted of predominantly well-structured problem-solving questions. The results were
analysed quantitatively through descriptive and inferential statistics which include T-test, ANOVA
and Scheffe’s test. The learners’ questionnaire contained both open-ended and close-ended
questions. The responses to the questionnaire were analysed using descriptive statistics which
include frequency counts and percentage frequency. The reliability of the tests and the questionnaire
were tested using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient. The six Grade 11 Life Sciences teachers were
interviewed after the learners carried out the animal organ dissections. Ethical clearance was
approved by the University of Pretoria’sEthics committee.

Findings and discussion

Biographical information

The six teachers’ ages ranged between 25- 49 years. The majority of teachers (84%) were female.
All six teachers were Christians. Regarding the teachers’ ethnic background, (33%) were “African”
Northern Sotho, 33% were Afrikaans and 33% English.The learners’ ages range between 15-20
years. The majority of learners (61%) were female. Regarding religious background, (85 %) were
Christians and 15 % was divided amongst the other religions.The majority (72%) were “African”
(Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Southern Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Xhosa and Zulu), 22% were
English and 6% Afrikaans.

Learners’ engagement and usage of animal organ dissections in the development of problem-
solving skills

The issue of how learners engaged with animal organ dissections and its use in developing problem-
solving skills was addressed by the data that came from the pre-test, post-test, lesson observations
and the questionnaire.

The researcher considered it essential to establish if learners understood what animal organ
dissections was and if they had any previous experience with dissections as this would have an

60
impact on how they engaged with dissections. While 94.64% said that they understood what animal
organ dissections was about, only 42.86% indicated that they had carried out animal organ
dissections in the previous grades. The concern then would be how these learners would engage
with animal organ dissections to develop problem-solving skills when 57.14% of them had no
hands-on experience with animal organ dissections (See Figure 1).

42.86% Carried out dissections

Never carried out

57.14% dissections

Figure 1. Prior experiences of learners with dissections

As a way of establishing how the learners would engage with dissections to develop problem-
solving skills, the learners were given a pre-test with predominantly problem-solving questions,
before carrying out the animal organ dissections. A post-test was also administered to the learners
after carrying out animal organ dissections to find out if learners had engaged with animal organ
dissections to develop problem-solving skills. This was done by determining if there was a
significant difference in the means between the pre-test and the post-test. The pre-test mean of all
the 224 learners is 23.41 out of the total mark of 75 and the post-test mean is 45.64 which showed a
difference in means of 22.23. The Match T-test results showed a p-value < 0.0001 which was less
than 0.05 thus showing that there was a statistically significant difference between the means of the
pre-test and the post-test as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparison of the means of the pre-test and post-test for the total mark
Variable Mean
Pre-test 23.41
Post-test 45.64
Difference between the mean 22.23
Match T-test: p < 0.0001
H 0: A = B H1: A ≠ B (α = p < 0.05)
The null hypothesis, H0, which predicted that the mean of the pre-test was equal to the mean of the
post-test, was therefore rejected. The researcher could therefore argue that the learners’ engagement
with dissections possibly resulted in the improvement of their scores in the test overall. This
argument was supported by the distribution of data shown by the box and whisker plots in which the
same scores of the pre-test and the post-test were used (see Figure 2)

61
 Median; Box: 25%-75%; Whisker: Non-Outlier Range
80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10 Median
25%-75%
Non-Outlier Range
0 Outliers
ATotal BTotal Extremes

Figure 2.Box and whisker plots showing data distribution of the pre-test and
post-test scores for the totals

The median was 23 for the pre-test and 46 for the post-test showing that the pre-test median was
doubled. It was noted that the pre-test had about five outliers above the 75% quartile which
influenced the pre-test mean. This meant that if there were no outliers, the mean for the pre-test
would have been lower than 23.41 and this would have increased the differences between the pre-
test and post-test means. These results may be used to argue that even though 57.14% were
engaging with hands-on animal organ dissections for the first time, they still managed to improve
their performance in the test which had predominantly problem-solving questions.

The differences between the means of the schools were used in the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
taking into consideration the total mark. The p-value was 0.0014 which is less than the level of
significance (0.05) which showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the
means of the schools which is attributed to the differences between the school environments. This
result did not come as a surprise to the researcher because the four selected schools were from
diverse environments. The differences between the schools included the availability or lack of
laboratory facilities and apparatus in the four schools. Another difference which the researcher
noticed during the lesson observations was the different teaching approaches used by the six
teachers which resulted in different levels of engagement with animal organ dissections by the
learners from the different schools.

The Scheffe’s test was used to establish if there were significant differences between group means
of schools in pairs. For the total mark, the pair of School B and C had a p-value of -1.410. This
showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the means of the two schools.
School B, as a former Model C public school has all the facilities the learners require for animal
organ dissections while School C is an independent school which also has the facilities the learners
needed for dissections. The significant difference between the means of these two schools, as noted
by the researcher during the lesson observations, could be attributed to the way in which the
learners engaged with the animal organ dissections during the lesson which resulted in the learners
of School B showing a greater improvement between its pre-test and post-test. The School B
learners mostly worked independently without much assistance from the teachers which could have
encouraged them to explore and get the answers for the challenging questions given to them. On the
other hand, School C had their teacher hands-on throughout the lesson which might have led the
learners to depend too much on her. When it came to answering of questions which were more
challenging, they then found themselves not quite prepared to work independently and this resulted
in a lower magnitude of improvement than School B. The researcher is of the opinion that the same
explanation could be given as to why there were significant differences between the means of the
pair comprising Schools D and C. School D learners mostly worked independently and School C
teacher was mostly hands-on. The scores of the learners show that the learners that worked mostly
independently scored higher than the spoon-fed learners, hence the differences between the two

62
schools showed that School D proved to be stronger than School C. Taking all six variables into
consideration, the means of School A did not have statistically significant differences with the
means of any of the other 3 schools. This could have been because School A was the most
disadvantaged school in terms of resources like dissection apparatus, laboratory facilities and had
many learners in one group and this might have affected the means of the group.

During the lessons observations, the researcher also focused on how the learners engaged with
animal organ dissections to improve problem-solving skills. She noted with great interest that most
learners did not just cut the organ and draw but they dissected, attached labels on the toothpicks and
placed them on the identified parts. As the learners did that, many group discussions and debates
ensued that were quite constructive to improve their problem-solving abilities. She noted with great
interest that the Schools B and D, which had the least help from the teachers, resulted in differences
between the means for the problem-solving questions of 18.89 and 19.64 respectively which were
much higher than that of Schools A and C which had 15.64 and 11.83 respectively. The researcher
is of the opinion that the holistic learner-centred approach with minimal assistance from the
teachers encouraged these learners to explore more on their dissected organs and managed to
improve their problem-solving skills more than the other two schools who were over-assisted by
their teachers.

In the questionnaire completed by the learners, they also acknowledged that animal organ
dissections were helpful in improving their problem-solving skills. Above 90% of the learners
acknowledged that animal organ dissections helped them to understand the structure and functions
of the kidney, to improve their investigative skills and to develop skills to solve real life problems.
The researcher asserts that if the learners had this opinion on animal organ dissections, it meant that
they would engage with it more and in so doing acquire the necessary skills which they believed
would be gained from animal organ dissections. Besides the above-mentioned opinions, 92.86% of
learners were of the opinion that animal organ dissections would give them first-hand information
about the anatomy of the organ they were studying, 90.18% acknowledged that it would help them
to know more about their own bodies and 73.66% preferred to be tested after animal organ
dissections to establish how much skill they had acquired.

The improvement of the teachers’ teaching strategies and the problem-solving skills of learners by
using animal organ dissections

The issue of how teachers use animal organ dissections to improve their teaching strategies and the
problem-solving skills of Grade 11 learners was addressed by the data that came from the semi-
structured interviews, lesson observations, worksheets given to learners and lesson plans.

That, together with the other four teachers, added that when their learners had dissected, drawn and
labelled the diagram, they would ask them questions related to real life situations regarding the
excretory system. Mary and Tia confirmed that their learners would be expected to answer the
problem-solving task given by the teacher which would be related to what was observed on the
dissected organ. Two teachers (Yvonne and Bertha) acknowledged that it was possible to use
animal organ dissections to improve teaching strategies in problem-solving but it required a lot of
guidance of the learners by the teachers towards the development of the skill as they dissected. The
learners would thus focus on the important parts of the organ that would help them answer the
problem-solving tasks.
Yvonne was quoted saying:

“I think if you use dissections to improve problem-solving skills you have to consolidate with worksheets,
you have to consolidate with real life examples. It is not something like they can just have the dissection and
be expected to learn from that. You actually have to help them consolidate what they have seen and I think

63
 during the dissection you also have to lead them then, if you want them to develop problem-solving skills,
you have to lead them to think in that direction during the dissection. It is not something where you can just
let the learners do a dissection with no guidance and you have to guide them more in what you are going to
be, what problem you would want them to solve afterwards”.

Yvonne’s opinion concurs with Hofstein and Lunetta(2004) in that animal dissections do not only
promote science content, it also promotes science process skills, creative thinking, problem-solving
ability, and the scientific method. The researcher noticed that in some instances the animal organ
dissections lessons coupled with the problem-solving pre-test and post-test had been an eye-opener
to the teachers. It was evident during the interviews, that the teachers had realised that it was
possible to use animal organ dissections to develop problem-solving skills in their learners. The
teachers were citing many examples in which they could let their learners dissect and then give
them problem-solving tasks that would guide them towards the development of problem-solving
skills. Some teachers like Mary, Yvonne and Tia even acknowledged that using animal organ
dissections to develop teaching strategies in problem-solving is something that they had not
considered. Now that we had done it together, they had so many ideas and topics in which they
were going to use animal organ dissections. This means that they were not only going to use the
animal organ dissections for problem-solving in the excretory system, but other topics as well
which was gratifying. This is evidenced by Mary and Tia’s arguments. Tia suggested:

“Well I suppose if you use like the example of diabetes and the kidney when they dissect the kidney and you
ask them to identify the nephronand then if they can link that to the diabetes where I could ask them that if
there is a problem with the proximal convoluted tubule which is supposed to absorb all the glucose, where
does that glucose go, then they can follow it down through the nephron to the urethra and they can see why
there’s glucose in the urine and then obviously that would lead to the diagnosis of diabetes”.

Mary supported Tia’s idea by citing a different example of how she would use animal organ
dissections to improve the problem-solving skills:

“Ja, let me try to think now, I am busy now with different animal families. So you can perhaps give them as
a challenge and say I have now an example of a plant family now you must dissect it and tell me all the
different features. Does it have an endoskeleton or exoskeleton, blood system or not. They investigate all the
different features. So you don’t tell them beforehand look for this and this stuff. You give them the sample
saying you must now discover what is in there. So that can perhaps be more challenging, they already know
the diagram and they know okay this is supposed to be there and there. You give them something that they
have never seen before. So perhaps that is a good idea to do it from that angle as well and they acquire
investigative skill for the problem in front of them that they then solve”.

During the lesson observations, the researcher noted that the teachers gave the learners the
worksheets which required them to dissect, draw and label the diagram. That and Mark’s worksheet
also required the learners to relate the observed structures to their functions. The worksheets given
to the learners showed that the teachers had no intention to develop any other skill in the learners
except to dissect, draw and label the organ. This did not come as much of a surprise to the
researcher because one of the teachers was Mark, the same teacher that had shown lack of
understanding of problem-solving strategies during the interview. It may be assumed that teachers
like Mark who still need to be educated on problem-solving strategies, still exist in our education
system. Such teachers need to be well-acquainted with problem-solving strategies to facilitate
delivery and instil problem-solving skills in their learners.

The task which required the learners to focus on the dissected organ in such a manner that they
would solve the given problems was the pre-test and the post-test which was developed by the
researcher. It may be assumed that the Life Sciences teachers up to the day of the lesson
observations had not considered using animal organ dissections as a teaching strategy in problem-
solving. Even though the teachers had not used animal organ dissections in problem-solving before,
they showed enthusiasm in encouraging the learners to write the post-test and complete it. Maybe

64
they were also keen to see if animal organ dissections could be used to develop problem-solving
skills. Mark acknowledged that the animal organ dissections had helped his learners to develop
problem-solving skills as he argued:

“You know it brings a lot of attention to most of the learners you know. Learners really want to see that
which they saw in a text book, in real. They seem to enjoy it very much and I think it works well for them. I
saw it in an exercise I gave them afterwards you know it proved to me really the questions that I gave before
and after the dissection, you know it proved to me they were very much on the answers, after the dissection
than before the dissection itself”.

It is then imperative to note that, even though the Grade 11 Life Sciences teachers were not yet
using animal organ dissections to improve teaching strategies in problem-solving, the pre-test, the
animal organ dissections lessons and the post-test, which was predominantly problem-solving
questions, opened a new door of possible teaching and learning method which they had not yet
explored even with an average of 15 years teaching experience. They acknowledged that if the
problem-solving skill was well-developed in learners, it would help them in higher education levels
and even in real life.

Conclusion

The pre-test, post-test results, the lessons observations data and the questionnaire responses all
indicate that learners may engage with animal organ dissections and use it to develop or improve
their problem-solving skills. They can explore the organ, debate on what was observed, discuss
what was observed in groups challenging each other with real life situations related to their
observations, respond to problem-solving tasks given by the teachers and can also become less
dependent on the teacher. The researcher considered it vital to ensure that teachers are encouraged
to improve their teaching strategies by using animal organ dissections in problem-solving. During
the process the learners acquire practical, enquiry, investigative, observation and problem-solving
skills, which can help them to generally improve their performance in the subject and at tertiary
level. (Preszler et al., 2007 and McCain, 2005).There is more to animal organ dissections than just
to cut, draw and label as a way of complying with the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) of the
Department of Education (DoE).

References
Capps, D. K., Constas, M. A., & Crawford, B. A. (2012). A review of empirical literature on
inquiry professional development: alignment with best practices and a critique of the
findings. Journal of Science Teacher Education 23, 291-318.
Department of Education. (2003). The National Curriculum Statement. Grades 10-12 (Life
Sciences). Government Printers: Pretoria. Retrieved 14 June 2010 from
www.education.gov.za
Hofstein, A., &Lunetta, V. N. (2004). The laboratory in science education: Foundation for
the 21st century. Science Education,88, 28-54.
Hudson, S. B., McMahon, K. C., & Overstreet, C. M. (2002). The 2000 National Survey of
Science and Mathematics: Compendium of Tables, Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Horizon
Research. Retrieved 23 April 2011 from http://horizon-research.com/reports
McCain, T. (2005).Teaching for tomorrow: Teaching content and problem-solving skills.
California: Sage.
National Research Council (NRC). (2000). Inquiry and the national science education
standards: A guide for teaching and learning. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.
Preszler, R. W., Dawe, A., Shuster, C. B., & Shuster, M. (2007).Assessment of the effects of
student response systems on student learning and attitudes over a broad range of Biology
courses.CBE Life Sciences Education 6, 29-41.

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Roehrig, G. H., Dubinsky, J. M., MacNabb, C., Michlin, M., & Schmitt, L. (2012). Teaching
Neuroscience to science teachers: Facilitating the translation of inquiry-based teaching
instruction to the classroom. Life Sciences Education 11, 413-424.
Smith, P. S., Banilower, E. R., McMahon, K.C., & Weiss, I. R. (2002). The National Survey of
Science and Mathematics Education: Trends from 1977 to 2000, Chapel Hill, North carolina:
Horizon Research. Retrieved 30 September 2010 from http://2000survey.horizon-
research.com/reports/trends.php

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Potential artefacts of cross-sectional and longitudinal surveys for tracking
developmental trends in student misconceptions

Sean Lawrence and Martie Sanders

Animal, Plant, and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
[email protected] and [email protected]

This is a methodological paper that investigates the benefits and problems of using cross-sectionalor
longitudinal studies to investigate developmental trends in students’ unscientific ideas about
evolution, and the impact of the research design on developmental trends found. The cross-sectional
study gathered data in one year from75 Grade 10s, 79 Grade 11s, and 23 Grade 12s, whilst the
longitudinal study tracked a single cohort of 27 students for a period of three years. A nineteen-item
true-false diagnostic quiz with a confidence scale indicating students’ belief about the correctness of
their answers was used. Factors affecting the findings were the different cohort groups in the cross-
sectional study and the attrition of weaker students in the longitudinal study. This paper highlights
that the validity of claims and inferences about developmental patterns are affected by the research
design and therefore may not be an accurate reflection of changes in learning. This leaves
researches who choose cross-sectional studies for pragmatic reasons with a challenge, as it affects
the validity of their claims. The findings have broader relevance than just for Life Sciences teachers.

Background to the study

Globally many students have misconceptions about evolution (e.g.BouJaoude et al., 2011 [Egypt &
Lebanon]; Prinouet al., 2008 [Greece]; Moore et al., 2006 [USA]). Growing research in South
Africa has indicated that many of our learners also have misconceptions (Kagan & Sanders, 2013;
Schroder, 2012; Yalvac, 2011).Having misconceptions about evolution is problematic for several
reasons. Firstly, if students have misconceptions then they have incorrect subject matter knowledge
and a poor understanding of evolution concepts, resulting in low marks. Secondly, a low level of
knowledge means low literacy levels. Thirdly, because evolution provides an explanatory
framework for understanding biology, those with misconceptions must be missing this framework
for understanding and are likely to struggle to learn biology. Fourthly, misconceptions interfere
with new learning (Gilbert, Osborne, & Fensham, 1982).As advised by Ausubel, for successful
teaching it is important that teachers identify their students’ prior ideas, and plan their lessons to
accommodate them. Effective teachers therefore tend to develop a repertoire of diagnostic
instruments which are quick and easy to use, and which provide immediate valid feedback about
students’ prior ideas. Whilst information about such ideas is important for students, it also provides
valuable information for the teacher about the nature and extent of students’ ideas. This, in turn,
facilitates decisions about what concepts need to be addressed in lessons, and whether individual or
whole class strategies might be required. This holds true for teachers of all subjects, so this study is
of wider relevance than just for Life Sciences teachers.
In South Africa, different aspects of evolution are taught in Grades 10, 11 and 12 Life Sciences. The
first author conducted a developmental study (Lawrence, 2011) to track changes in students’
misconceptions about evolution during the normal course of teaching (i.e. with no special
intervention) as they progressed from Grade 10 to Grade 12. A cross-sectional design had to be
used because of the limited time allocated for the study (five months).

Problems motivating the study

Very little research has been done tracking long-term developmental changes in misconceptions
about evolution. Furthermore, the few developmental studies done tend to be cross-sectional studies
(collecting data at one time, from the different age cohorts, to infer trends) rather than longitudinal
(observing the same individuals over a period of at least a year, to track changes) (White & Arzi,

67
2005). These authors analysed developmental studies in four major science education journals, and
found fewer than 2% of them were longitudinal studies.
Deciding whether to use a cross-sectional or longitudinal study in developmental research is
difficult because both have benefits and drawbacks (White & Arzi, 2005; Tytler,
2009;Leedy&Ormrod, 2010), and researchers’ choice of design is often decided on pragmatic
grounds rather than for reasons of research rigour. Cross-sectional studieshave the advantage that
data from the different age-cohorts being investigated can be collected in a relatively short time,
which is why almost all developmental studies are cross-sectional. However, such studies have the
problem that some cohorts may not be typical which could distort inferences made about
development trends, thus revealing validity problems (White & Arzi, 2005). Leedy & Ormrod
(2010) also point out that because of this correlations between characteristics of different groups
cannot be studied. Tracking the progress of one cohort (as done in longitudinal studies) avoids the
problem of atypical groups. However, because longitudinal studies track a cohort over long periods,
repeated ‘measurements’ are needed and data often takes years to collect, resulting in subject
attrition. This results in several drawbacks: increasing maturity of the cohort may distort results; a
‘practice effect’ may affect scores ;and the final cohort may be biased because those dropping out
are in some way different to those who remain in the study (Anstey & Hofer, 2003; Hilton &
Patrick, 1970). These concerns should interest all researchers, no matter what their subject area is.

The aims of the study

Different stakeholders have different concerns about the validity of research in which students’
prior ideas are investigated. Teachers investigating the ideas of their own students prior to teaching
new work, or looking at developmental trends in their students’ ideas to investigate long-term
conceptual changes and to evaluate teaching success, are likely to be concerned about the internal
validity of such instruments (do they measure what they claim to measure). However, such
instruments are also useful for others outside the classroom, so external validity (how generalizable
the results are) becomes a matter of concern. These two aspects became the focus of this paper,
determining the two main aims. The first was to investigate the instrument itself to see whether
guessed answers to a true/false quiz might affect the validity of the results. The second aim was to
compare the results obtained from a cross-sectional survey with the results of a longitudinal study to
see how each design affected the developmental trends found. This was done to see whether results
of the more pragmatic cross-sectional survey might raise validity concerns about developmental
trends found. Three research questions were used to operationalize the aims:
1. To what extent might guessed answers affect the validity of the test results?
2. To what extent might the development trends identified in the two types of studies be artefacts of
the research design?
a) To what extent do the two designs (cross-sectional and longitudinal) affect the validity of the
claims made?
b) Does student attrition over the three years bias the sample?

The conceptual framework

Conceptual frameworks involve the concepts and theories associated with the research and the
relationships between them (Miles & Huberman, 1994). A thoroughly considered framework is
crucially important because it helps researchers to justify the research, to make reasoned
predictions, to develop realistic and relevant research questions, to select appropriate methods, and
to interpret the data (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Because this paper is about methodology, the
conceptual framework deals with methodological issues of concern. The two issues of concern are
the format (structure) of the test, and the type of research design used.
First issue of concern: In this research a true/false diagnostic quiz was used to diagnose prior
unscientific ideas about evolution, because it is quick and easy to administer and analyse. However,
68
Towns and Robinson (1993) discuss the validity problems associated with students’ use of test-
wiseness strategies for objective-type test items. For true/false items students who guess blindly
have a 50% chance of guessing correctly, even if they do not know an answer, so information
derived from the item about their knowledge may be misleading. A three-point confidence scale
was therefore added to the items (‘sure’, ‘think so’, and ‘guessing’). This provided information
which allowed for the implications of guessed answers to be investigated, as discussed by Kagan, &
Sanders (2013).
Second issue of concern: Developmental studies investigate changes of a particular characteristic
over time and many researchers argue that longitudinal studies are a better indicator of how learning
takes place than are cross-sectional studies (Leedy&Ormrod, 2010;Tytler, 2009). White &Arzi,
(2005) point out that learning and understanding of science take a long time to occur and the
consequences may take a long time to appear. However, as discussed already, each type of design
has its advantages and disadvantages. Understanding these formed an important component of the
conceptual framework for this methodological study.

Research design and methods

Research approach and sample: Two surveys (one cross-sectional and one longitudinal) provided
the data for this paper. The participants were students in the Life Sciences course taught by the first
author, and thus comprised a convenience sample. The cross-sectional study involved 177 students
(Grade 10, n=75; Grade 11, n=79; Grade 12, n=23). The longitudinal study tracked the original
Grade 10 cohort as they progressed through Grade 11 to Grade 12. However, subject attrition
resulted in a final sample of only 27 students.
Research instrument: A nineteen-item true / false diagnostic quiz, with a confidence scaleto
determine students’ certainty levels about their answers being correct (sure, think so, guessed), was
used to identify unscientific ideas held by the students before they started learning any evolution-
related topics each year. The instrument was administered during their lessons as a routine
diagnosis of prior ideas (part of their learning of evolution).
Complying with ethics requirements: University Ethics Clearance was obtained separately for the
two studies, and all the usual ethics requirements were followed.Permission to conduct the study
was obtained from the Gauteng Department Education and the principal of the school.Students were
fully informed of the purpose of the research and the diagnostic activity, and voluntary consent was
sought from students and their parents for the results of the quiz to be used for the research.
Students were also guaranteed anonymity and confidentiality of their answers.
Improving the rigour of the research: Quality research requires careful attention to rigour
(reliability and validity)to reduce error. Steps to improve rigour included: 1) The instruments were
face validated during development to identify any potential problems in wording and language
before the instruments were used. 2) A pilot study was conducted to identify and correct
unanticipated problems when the instrument was actually used, so these could be fixed before the
main study.3) Accuracy checks were done for data capture and statistical analyses. 4) Data from
two sources was triangulated to improve the validity of claims made (although not reported on in
this paper).
Data analysis: This was largely statistical, in an effort to determine whether differences in mean
scores obtained were statistically significant or likely to have occurred by chance.
• A binomial test was used to determine the probability of guessed answers being significantly
different from the 50:50 chance of getting an answer correct or incorrect predicted for blind
guessing.
• The significance of differences between two groups (the original Grade 10 cohort which
remained in the study, versus those who dropped out) was checked using paired t-tests.

69
• Mean scores for the ‘misconceptions’ quiz for the three grades in each study were compared by
analysis of variance (ANOVA), with a post-hoc Tukey analysis planned to determine where
significant differences lay.
• Chi-squared tests (χ2)were used to see whether differences in frequencies observed for each quiz
statement over the years were statistically significant.
Results and discussion

1. To what extent might guessed answers affect the validity of the test results
In the three grades for the longitudinal study a total of 205 students guessed their answers, with
109(53%) guessing correctly and 96 (47%) guessing incorrectly. The binomial test yields a ‘non-
significant’ p-value of 0.2, suggesting that statistically the chances are no different from the 50:50
chance of guessing correctly predicted for blind guessing. If they had some idea of the answer, and
used this knowledge as a test-wiseness strategy to improve their chances of getting a correct answer,
the binomial test is more likely to have a low p-value, tending towards significance (0.05). This
supports a similar finding in another South African study using a very similar instrument (Kagan &
Sanders, 2012).Consequently all guessed answers were omitted for all further analyses.
2a. To what extent do the two designs (cross-sectional and longitudinal) affect the validity of the
claims made?
This question was investigated in three ways:
i) The first comparison was a visual one, based on graphs for the misconceptions scores (see Figure
1). Trends show up very clearly in the graphs. The items were sequenced to show the four
common trends found in the cross-sectional study (decreasing misconceptions across the three
years; a decrease in Grade 11 followed by an increase in Grade 12; an increase in Grade11
followed by a decrease in Grade 12; increasing misconceptions across the three grades). Items
forthe longitudinal study graph were matched to facilitate comparisons. This showed very clearly
where trends from the cross-sectional study were not repeated in the longitudinal, suggesting that
trends in some cases may be artefacts of the cross-sectional design, and definitely raising validity
concerns about any claims made from the studies. For example, the statement “evolution
explains how the Earth was created” increased for each grade in the cross-sectional study with a
high increase in Grade 12.This trend was not repeated for the longitudinal study where the same
(but reduced) original Grade 10 cohort was followed for three years, and in fact seems to be
reversed. This may suggest a cohort problem in cross-sectional study, a validity threat which
numerous authors warn about.
ii) In order to determine whether the differences between grades for the mean scores for the
‘misconceptions test’ were statistically significant an ANOVA was conducted for the cross-
sectional and longitudinal studies. The planned post-hoc Tukey test to see where differences lay
was not done, as no statistically significant differences were found between the grades for either
design. The original ANOVA results for the cross-sectional study had included the guessed
answers, and did show statistically significant differences between the mean number of
misconceptions between grades. However, when guessed answers were excluded in this analysis,
the differences in the means for the cross-sectional study were not statistically significant. The
ANOVA for the longitudinal study (p=0.1) showed that the differences between Grade 10, 11
and 12 scores for the single cohort still did not reach the traditional level of significance level of
0.05 (see Table1).

70
 Table 1: Comparison of ANOVA analyses of mean scores for both designs
Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design
Grade 10 8.2 (43%) 8.6 (45%)
Grade 11 7.6 (40%) 8.0 (42%)
Grade 12 7.8 (41%) 7.2 (37%)
p values for ANOVA p=0.33 p=0.10

Figure 1: Comparison of developmental trends in the two designs

nd longitudinal

iii) The third comparison focussed on an analysis of the individual misconceptions. Because the
data was nominal (have the misconception / do not have the misconception) chi–squared tests
were done to determine if there were significant differences in frequencies of each
misconception over the three years for each design. Only three misconceptions in each study
design showed the differences to be statistically significant, and only two were common to the
two designs. This was very disappointing for the teacher in the study, but confirms the reports in
the literature that true misconceptions tend to be resistant to change. The misconception
“evolution explains that humans evolved from apes” (a topic addressed in the curriculum)

71
 showed statistically significant differences for both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
(p=0.01and p=0.02 respectively).
McMillan & Schumacher (2010, 141) point out that achieving statistical significance is directly
related to the sample size-the smaller the sample the larger the difference needed to be
statistically significant. The problem of the small sample size, particularly for the longitudinal
study, could have reduced the chances of detecting significant differences if they existed.
2b. Does student attrition over the three years bias the sample?
In the longitudinal study only the 27 of the original 75 learners remained in the study. Nineteen
learners (25%) failed and had to repeat the year;12 (16%) changed schools;8 (11%) changed
subjects; 6 (8%) were removed from the study because their data sets were incomplete; and 3
were unaccounted for. A t-test was used to determine whether the Life Sciences marks of
students who remained differed significantly from those who dropped out, and whether the mean
‘misconceptions’ scores differed significantly.
The difference between the Life Sciences performance of those who dropped out (31.2%) and
those who remained in the study (48.4%) was highly significant (p=0.0001), showing that the
students who dropped out tended to be weaker students, leaving an academically stronger group
in the study. This means the sample for the longitudinal study is biased, compromising internal
validity claims for the study, which may have underestimated the number of misconceptions if
results are to be generalised to the larger population. One would expect that the students who
dropped out would also have had more misconceptions, but this was not the case. There was, in
fact, no statistically significant difference (p= 0.19) in the mean number of misconceptions for
the group that remained (8.6) and the group that dropped out (8.1).
An additional factor probable influences any claims made from the longitudinal study would also
have been affected by high attrition rate (60%) which left a very small sample (n=27) in the
longitudinal study. This affects the external validity of any claims made, making generalisation
of the findings from the sample to the larger populations of Life Sciences students questionable.

Concluding remarks
The importance of investigating developmental trends in research about learning has been
emphasised. However, issues arise when researchers have to decide what design (cross-sectional or
longitudinal) to use for their research. Does one select a design based on the strengths and
limitations of the design and choose a design that may best affect the credibility of the results, or
choose one that is more pragmatic (practical)?
The study reported in this paper showed that the validity of the results from the original cross-
sectional study, used because of time constraints during the study, was probably influenced by the
different cohorts used. Although this problem was overcome by doing a second study in which one
cohort was tracked for three years, the study took much longer and was affected by the attrition of
many academically weak students, which left a very small biased sample which compromised the
external validity of the study. Not discussed in the paper, but still a source of concern, was the
possible ‘practice effect’ of students completing the same instrument each year.
When discussing results and drawing conclusions it is important for researchers to consider how the
limitations of the design may affect conclusions drawn about developmental trends, and to
acknowledge that some findings are likely to be artefacts of the survey design used. This study
showed that claims made from both designs could contain potential artefacts which raise questions
about the validity of the findings. In particular, the developmental pattern identified in the cross-
sectional survey where Grade 12 misconceptions increased for four particular misconceptions may
be misinterpreted when they could be due to the presence of an atypical group. The longitudinal
study may show more accurate trends, but may under-estimate the presence of misconceptions if
attempts are made to generalise the results to the broader population, because attrition probably left
the stronger students in the sample.
72
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 Visitor views of human origins in the Cradle of Humankind, South Africa.

Anthony Lelliott
Marang Centre for Maths and Science Education, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa.
[email protected]

Relatively little is known about the general public’s views of evolution, particularly with respect to
humans, and this research addresses the issue of visitor perceptions of human evolution at
Maropeng Visitor Centre in the Cradle of Humankind, West of Pretoria. In this first phase of a
larger project, visitors who exited the Visitor Centre were invited to complete a survey
questionnaire asking questions about their knowledge of hominids as well as their views of human
evolution. Over 430 ‘general public’ visitors were surveyed between April and July 2013. The
results analysed indicate that approximately 80% have not visited the centre before. While only one
in ten visitors have heard of the newly discovered Australopithecine (A. sediba), the great majority
(80%) have heard of “Mrs.Ples” (the Australopithecine discovered in the area in 1947). The
respondents' knowledge of this hominid referred to fossils; skull; skeleton; early human and the fact
that it was found in the Sterkfontein area. The participants were also asked about their acceptance
of evolution of humans from an ape-like ancestor. A slightly majority (58%) accept the concept of
human evolution, though the acceptance amongst the South African general public is likely to be
considerably lower. Those who do not accept the idea of human evolution mostly refer to religious
reasons for their view (invoking God or the bible), while those who do accept evolution refer to the
evidence provided by fossils and comparative anatomy in support of their opinion. These outcomes,
and others currently being analysed, have relevance not only for the Cradle of Humankind visitor
centres, but for the school curriculum and the public engagement with science generally. The study
will continue in subsequent years, and collect more detailed data using interviews.

Introduction
Worldwide, the scientific literacy of the general population is regarded as being less-than-ideal
(Roberts, 2007). In South Africa, “African Origins” is a focus area of the Department of Science
and Technology spearheaded by the South African Agency for Science and Technology
Advancement (SAASTA). This focus area covers interdisciplinary research programmes in
Palaeontology, Archaeology and Genetics, and includes the evolution of humankind, as exemplified
in numerous sites in the Cradle of Humankind (CoH). Relatively little is known about the general
public’s views of evolution, particularly with respect to humans. This is true internationally (e.g.
Besterman & La Velle, 2007; Spiegel, Evans, Gram, & Diamond, 2006) as well as locally (Pillay,
2011).
The study provides valuable information on why people visit the CoH, how they view the concept
of evolution, and what features of the visitor centres may influence visitors’ views. This
information will be valuable for various reasons: as an advance of knowledge in its own right, to
advance policies of the South African government with respect to scientific literacy, to develop the
field of palaeontology in the Gauteng region and to inform players in the CoH how to better attract
visitors to their facilities.
Literature Review
Issues regarding the public’s understanding and acceptance of human evolution that the study
examines are not specific to the Cradle, and are the subject of research elsewhere (e.g. McCrory &
Murphy, 2009; Meikle & Scott, 2010). Evolution was not taught in South African schools for
decades, and it is unknown whether this fundamental biological concept has credence with the
general public. While evolution as a concept may be accepted by people, when applied to the
human race many people have misgivings. This may be particularly apposite in South Africa, given
its history over the past century (Nkomo & Dolby, 2004).

74
Although relatively little published work exists on views towards human evolution in South Africa,
the British Council’s Darwin International Survey carried out in 2009 provided some limited data.
For example 73% of South Africans have not heard of Charles Darwin; 43% believe in a creationist
view of human origins; while 54% agree that “it is possible to believe in a God and still hold the
view that … human life evolved over time”
(http://www.evolutietheorie.ugent.be/files/survey_details.pdf). Also in South Africa, Masters
research reports have examined the issues involved in the teaching and learning of evolution in
schools(e.g. Pillay, 2011). Although the teaching of evolution is not a focus of the current study, the
proposed extension to the research will examine the role of the revised South African curricula in
engaging school students with concepts of evolution. A small study by Thackeray and Mathers
(1997) looked at public awareness of Mrs. Ples in the Pretoria area, and found that only 13% had
heard of the fossil, while 65% of visitors to the Transvaal Museum had heard of her.
In the museum environment in the USA, Storksdieck and Stein (2006) found that approximately
half of museum audiences accepted the scientific explanation for human origins compared to only
27% of the national sample. However, creationist views are also often endorsed for human origins,
and many museum visitors have difficulty in understanding the processes of evolution and hold
alternative conceptions about it (Abraham-Silver & Kisiel, 2008; Borun, 2002). Some recent small-
scale studies have shown that museums can contribute to changing visitors’ views about evolution,
particularly if conceptual and developmental models are used as part of the exhibit foci. In the first
study Spiegel and colleagues showed that, depending on the type of organism they are considering,
visitors reasoned differently about evolution. Visitors tended to use evolutionary knowledge they
possessed, and combined it with intuitive reasoning or, less often, creationist reasoning (Spiegel et
al., 2006). More recently, Spiegel found that a single visit to an interactive exhibition on evolution
resulted in incremental changes in their scientific understanding of evolution, regardless of their
existing views towards it (Spiegel et al., 2012).
The Study
This research addresses the issue of visitor perceptions of human evolution. Maropeng and
Sterkfontein Visitor Centres (MVC and SVC) are institutions which aim to provide visitors with
positive experiences of science-related activities, yet their impact is relatively unknown. This
project has the following premise: we know very little about why the public visit the Cradle of
Humankind. What is their interest in visiting such science centres? Further, we do not know
whether their visit influences them with respect to their own thinking about human evolution.
Finally, it is important to know what aspects (if any) of the Visitor Centres may influence the
visitors’ thinking. The research question which this paper aims to answer is as follows:
What are the views of the general public visiting the Cradle of Humankind concerning human
origins?
Two theoretical models are used to frame the research the Contextual Model of Learning (CLM)
and ‘reasoning about evolution’. First, the CLM, developed by Falk &Dierking(Falk & Dierking,
1992; Falk & Dierking, 2000)provides a framework to infer how learning in free-choice
environments (such as visitor centres) involves the three overlapping contexts of the personal, the
physical and the sociocultural. This study focuses on the personal and physical aspects of the CLM,
as interactions between visitors were not examined. Second, the reasoning about evolution patterns
of Spiegel and colleagues (Spiegel et al., 2012; Spiegel et al., 2006) will be used to examine
participants’ responses from the interview data. Both these frameworks will enable theorising about
visitors’ views of human origins, and consider how sites such as the Cradle of Humankind can best
engage with the various different ‘publics’ visiting it.
Methods
The research is located in the mixed methods paradigm (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004), and is
based on the epistemological assumptions of a ‘modest realist’ stance (Bricmont & Sokal, 2001;

75
Osborne, 1996). This standpoint accepts that there is an ontological reality which researchers
investigate, but that our attempts to determine reality will be a social construction of it. The
methods of research are based in this epistemology, and in addition to the collection of quantitative
data, will obtain rich detailed descriptions of social practices in a second phase of the study.
Qualitative studies carried out in museums and science centres normally use methods such as
interviews and observation which obtain detailed descriptions of the participants (Falk & Dierking,
2000), and in 2014-15 the study will use similar methods.
For the first phase of the study, the principal method of data collection was a survey of the general
public visiting MVC and SVC, following studies in similar contexts (see Scott, 2007). Visitors who
exited the visitor centres were invited to complete a survey questionnaire eliciting demographic
information and their views about aspects of the centre and human origins. The questions in the
survey which are analysed in this paper are as follows:
• Have you visited Maropeng/Sterkfontein before?
• Have you heard of “Mrs Ples”? If so, who or what is she? Where did you hear about her?
• Have you heard of “Karabo” (aka Sediba)? If so, who or what is he? Where did you hear
about him?
• Do you accept that humans evolved from an ape-like ancestor? Y/N
o Explain your thinking in giving this answer.
The first two questions aim to ascertain knowledge about fossil hominins found in the CoH.
Mrs.Ples is the nickname of a partial skull of Australopithecus africanus found at Sterkfontein by
Robert Broom in 1947 (Broom & Robinson, 1949). More recent analysis of the skull suggests that it
may be a male rather than a female specimen. “Karabo” is the nickname given to the partial
skeleton of Australopithecus sediba found in 2008-09 by palaeoanthropologist Lee Berger and his
team at Malapa in the CoH. The name “Karabo” isn’t very well known, and the fossil is more
commonly referred to as sediba. Whereas Mrs.Ples is relatively well-known to the South African
public over the past 60 years, sediba is a well-publicised but recent find (Berger et al., 2010). The
final question was devised to ascertain the visitors’ view on human evolution, and was worded to
try and avoid the notion of ‘belief’. However, “evolved from” and “ape-like ancestor” are loaded
terms, and tend to elicit a response which visitors have brought with them to the VC rather than
anything they experienced during their visit (Scott, 2007).
437 ‘general public’ visitors to the Maropeng Visitor Centre were surveyed between April and July
2013, mainly during weekends and public holidays. The process involved the researcher or assistant
approaching all ‘general public’ visitors who were exiting the ‘tumulus’ hall at Maropeng. Visitors
were invited to complete the survey either individually or in pairs or groups. A log was kept of
those who declined to participate, but many visitors would pass by and avoid the research team
altogether so that the actual number of participants was considerably fewer than the total number of
visitors on each survey day.
Findings
Using total ticket sales for each day, it was calculated that the data collected (N=437 at Maropeng)
represents a mean 15% of visitors surveyed daily. These results show that approximately 80% have
not visited the centre before, and a similar number consider that their visit made an impression on
them. The great majority (81%) have heard of “Mrs.Ples” (the Australopithecine fossil skull
discovered in the area in 1947 by Dr. Robert Broom). Figure 1 shows the commonest answers to the
question “Who or what is she” (62% answered the question, and the percentages shown have been
calculated from these respondents. The most common answers were a fossil, a skull, an early
human, or an answer which included one of these ideas. Nearly 20% knew that the skull was found
at the Sterkfontein caves, while about 10% knew at least part of the scientific name:
Australopithicusafricanus. Over the past decade, there have been debates as to whether the fossil is
a male or a female, and some of the respondents appear to have picked up on this academic debate
76
(which has been reported in the media) as about 10% questioned the sex of the specimen as possible
a male.

35

Percentage  of  respondents

30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Figure 1. Respondents’ ideas of the nature of Mrs.Ples (N=271)

Regarding where they had heard of Mrs.Ples, 68% (n=298) answered the question. 27% stated that
they heard at one of the visitor centres in the Cradle of Humankind, 1 in 4 referred to hearing from
the media, and 17% cited during their education (several respondents stated more than one answer).
In contrast to Mrs.Ples, only 1 in 10 visitors have heard of the newly discovered Australopithecine
(A. sediba). Of the few who did answer, the respondents were similar to the answers provided for
Mrs.Ples regarding sediba’s nature, and where they had heard of him.
The participants were also asked about their acceptance of evolution of humans from an ape-like
ancestor. 58% of Maropeng respondents agreed that they accept the concept, 1 in 4 disagreed, while
16% did not state their opinion, or gave another answer. The most interesting answers in the
questionnaire came from the participants’ responses to “Explain your thinking in giving [your]
answer”. 61% of the respondents gave an explanation, and the following findings refer to that
proportion of the participants who were interested and literate enough to respond, recalculated to
100%. The respondents’ explanations fell into the two clear groups of agreement or disagreement,
with some expanding on their “maybe” or “yes and no” answers. A summary of the ‘agreement’
respondents’ answers is shown in Figure 2.

77
 25

Percentage  of  respondents

20

15

10

Figure 2. Summary of explanations of respondents who accept that humans evolved from an ape-
like ancestor (n=255)
Of those who agreed with the statement, the largest combined category (23%)was the respondents
who cited various forms of evidence to back up their assertion. This included anatomical (8%),
genetic (7%), fossil (6%), and behavioural (3%) facts in support of evolution, for example:
“Facial features, ability to use hands to grip tools etc” (1/5 83)
“The ape-like ancestors had many physical features that evolved into current human species – based on mode of
erect mobility and use of the ‘thumb’” (2/6 30)
“In DNA terms all creatures of our configuration are ‘related’” (26/5 38)
“Genetic makeup is similar to man” (11/5 28)
“Fossils give an indication as to where we evolved from” (16/6 26)
“There are enough fossils chronicaling this” (sic) (18/5 3)
“The way that we eat and socialize with our species” (9/6 2)
“We resemble many behaviours of theirs” (9/6 23)
Note that some of the examples refer to human similarities to apes, rather than to an ape-like
ancestor.
The next largest category (19%) was those respondents who referred to evolution in their
explanation. Comments ranged from simple one-word answers, to more detailed explanations, as
follows: “Evolution” (14/7 38); “I believe in the theory of evolution” (1/5 71); “Origin of the
species” (16/6 18);
“Evolution is obvious if you see how humans have adapted in modern times. There is enough scientific evidence to
prove this” (1/5 2)
“I believe that what we know about evolution is basically only certain animals who adapt to their conditions. This
are like animals adapted to such an extent to become humans as we know them” (9/6 33)
“If you look at apes today you can still see in some ways how they have evolved to become humans – just how time
progressed and evolution set in” (2/6 32)
14% of the explanations appealed to ‘science’ or ‘logic’, without much further explanation. For
example: “Scientific evidence” (11/5 26 & 14/7 41); “Because it is logical” (9/6 31);
“Absolutely – science has proved it with definite evidence” (1/5 31)
“It seems obvious and is the best/most logical explanation we have” (1/5 25)

78
 “Research and other discovery points to this. More scientific proof exists than can be found in other theories”
(14/7 5)
Other explanations (12%) referred to evidence, but did not actually specify what the evidence is, for
example: “Evidence” (1/5 1 & 9/6 8);
“The evidence overwhelmingly points in that direction” (1/5 86)
“The research & evidence leads to this conclusion” (13/7 31)
Finally, 9% of the explanations cited ‘similarities’ between humansandapes (or ape-like ancestors),
but did not specify what such similarities are, for example:
“Similarity in looks” (18/5 10)
“To [sic] many similarities between the two species to not be related somehow” (16/6 22)
“It has always been in my mind as to why the resemblance was so much!” (13/7 38)
A summary of the respondents whose explanation did not agree with the statement is shown in
Figure 3. The most common explanation of these respondents was of God as a Creator (9%), for
example “God created us” (14/7 20); “God created everything” (16/6 12); “We were all created by
an all-powerful being. GOD” (1/5 47). The next most common explanation by these respondents
was a statement that they do not accept evolution (5%), for example “I am not convinced” (14/7 6);
“There is no proven link in evolution theory” (13/7 30); “We are special” (14/7 30). Along similar
lines, 4% of the disagreeing respondents appealed to the Bible as the source of authority. For
example, “Bible says NO to evolution” (16/6 35);
“I am a Christian and believe the Bible is the truth and God created us as human beings” (1/5 38)
“The Bible’s description makes more sense as far as our make-up as physical/spiritual and mental (emotional)
beings (16/6 39)

10
Percentage  of  respondents

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

Figure 3.Summary of explanations of respondents who do not accept that humans evolved from an
ape-like ancestor (n= 108)
The remaining explanations of the respondents who disagreed with the statement covered such
areas as the evidence for evolution being insufficient; Christian and other unspecified religious
beliefs as well as a small percentage (2.5%) who provided some evidence for creationism. Some
examples of these explanations are as follows”
“Don’t believe in evolution. Believe that an ape its an ape, human being is a human being – cause all this things I
have seen there, there is no full evidence to convince me. God is a creator.” (18/5 4)

79
 “Then humans would still be evolving – and this doesn’t seem to be the case. It also contradicts with Christian
views” (1/5 81)
“When God created man, he wasn’t confused and started with a Ape. Why there aren’t there and half ape half
human species today?” (1/5 39)
“God created humans, not an evolution from primates strongly reaffirmed by mankind source being one women as
started by display at Maropeng” (1/5 49)
Clearly there is a wide variety of views, many of which display more about what visitors bring in
with them to the Visitor Centre than what is shown to them in the exhibits (Scott, 2007).
Discussion and Implications
It is pleasing to note that 81% of Maropeng visitors have heard of Mrs.Ples. This is more than the
study by Thackeray and Mathers (1997), who cite a figure of 65% of visitors to the Transvaal
Museum. The relatively high figure suggests that, amongst visitors to the Cradle of Humankind at
least, South Africa’s most famous fossil is well known. As well as having heard of Mrs.Ples, there
is a degree of knowledge regarding what she is. Again, this suggests that aspects of palaeontological
knowledge regarding the hominid’s fossil skull are becoming part of the ‘scientific literacy; of
visitors to Maropeng.
Knowledge of Australopithecus sediba (“Karabo”) is very low, at only 10%, which suggests that it
takes time for fossil discoveries to reach the general public, even when they have been well-
publicised. The displays at Maropeng were designed before sediba’s discovery, and it would be
advisable for the centre to produce an exhibit on this scientifically and culturally valuable fossil, so
that it becomes more well-known. Many museums around the world have a site devoted to topical
issues or new discoveries, which expose visitors to current scientific matters.
While a slightly majority (58%) do accept the concept of human evolution, other studies have found
that visitors to museums are more likely to endorse evolution as the explanation of human origins
compared with the general public (Storksdieck & Stein, 2006).This would suggest that the
acceptance amongst the South African general public is likely to be lower than 50%.
A significant proportion of the ‘agree’ respondents referred to the concept of evidence to support
their agreement (even if the evidence was not provided). Many others referred to evolution or
appealed to science or logic to support their explanation. In contrast, few of the ‘disagree’
respondents used the concept of evidence. Instead, they appealed to their own absolutes such as
God as the Creator, and the Bible as truth. This suggests very different ways of thinking between
the two groups based on “non-overlapping magisteria-type thinking” (Gould, 1997).
Further research in subsequent years will provide an indication of public’s interests (‘personal
factors’) when visiting science centres as a leisure-time activity, as well as their views of the
exhibits and experiences provided (‘physical factors’).
With thanks to the Palaeontological Scientific Trust for funding the project.

References
Abraham-Silver, L., & Kisiel, J. (2008). Comparing Visitors' Conceptions of Evolution: Examining
Understanding Outside the United States. Visitor Studies, 11(1), 41 - 54.
Berger, L. R., de Ruiter, D. J., Churchill, S. E., Schmid, P., Carlson, K. J., Dirks, P. H. G. M., &
Kibii, J. M. (2010). Australopithecus sediba: A New Species of Homo-Like Australopith
from South Africa. Science, 328(5975), 195-204. doi: 10.1126/science.1184944
Besterman, H., & La Velle, L. B. (2007). Using Human Evolution to Teach Evolutionary Theory.
Journal of Biological Education, 41(2), 76-81.
Borun, M. (2002). Being Human: a Design in Process: University of Pennsylvania Museum.
Bricmont, J., & Sokal, A. (2001). Defense of a Modest Scientific Realism. Paper presented at the
Zentrum für interdisziplinäre Forschung (ZiF) Conference, University of Bielefeld,

80
 Germany.
Broom, R., & Robinson, J. T. (1949). A new type of fossil man. Nature, 164(322-).
Falk, J. H., & Dierking, L. D. (1992). The Museum Experience. Washington DC: Whalesback
Books.
Falk, J. H., & Dierking, L. D. (2000). Learning from museums: Visitor experiences and their
making of meaning. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press.
Gould, S. J. (1997). Nonoverlapping Magisteria. Natural History, 106, 16-22.
Johnson, R. B., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2004). Mixed Methods research: A Research Paradigm
Whose Time Has Come. Educational Researcher, 33(7), pp.14-26.
McCrory, C., & Murphy, C. (2009). The Growing Visibility of Creationism in Northern Ireland:
Are New Science Teachers Equipped to Deal with the Issues? Evolution: Education and
Outreach, 2(3), 372-385. doi: 10.1007/s12052-009-0141-4
Meikle, W., & Scott, E. (2010). Why Are There Still Monkeys? Evolution: Education and
Outreach, 3(4), 573-575. doi: 10.1007/s12052-010-0293-2
Nkomo, M., & Dolby, N. (2004). Common Origins, Common Futures: Reflections on Identity and
Difference in Education. Perspectives in Education, 22(4), 1-10.
Osborne, J. (1996). Beyond Constructivism. Science Education, 80(1), 53-82.
Pillay, C. M. (2011). The difficulties faced by some teachers with strong religious beliefs when they
teach evolution. (Thesis (M Ed )), University of the Witwatersrand, 2011. Retrieved from
http://wiredspace.wits.ac.za/handle/10539/11410
Roberts, D. A. (2007). Scientific literacy/Science literacy. In S. K. Abell & N. Lederman (Eds.),
Handbook of research on science education (pp. 729-780). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Scott, M. (2007). Rethinking evolution in the museum: envisioning African origins: Routledge.
Spiegel, A., Evans, E., Frazier, B., Hazel, A., Tare, M., Gram, W., & Diamond, J. (2012). Changing
Museum Visitors’ Conceptions of Evolution. Evolution: Education and Outreach, 5(1), 43-
61. doi: 10.1007/s12052-012-0399-9
Spiegel, A., Evans, E. M., Gram, W., & Diamond, J. (2006). Museum visitors’ understanding of
evolution. Museums & Social Issues, 1(1), 69-86.
Storksdieck, M., & Stein, J. (2006). What They Bring with Them: Museum Visitors’ Perspectives
on Evolution. ASTC Dimensions, March/April, 8-9.
Thackeray, J. F., & Mathers, K. (1997). Evaluating public awareness of `Mrs Ples' and
palaeontological heritage. South African Journal of Science, 93(4), 172-173.

81
 Conceptualization of the Mole: An Argument for a Refined Conception of the
Mole for Effective Teaching of Stoichiometry

Stephen Andrew Malcolm1, Marissa Rollnick 2, & Madlivane Elizabeth Mavhunga 3

1
MSc in Science Education Programme, Wits School of Education, University of the
Witwatersrand, South Africa. 2,3 Marang Centre for Maths and Science Education, University of the
Witwatersrand, South Africa.
1
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Introduction
This paper is a concept paper reflecting on the conceptualization of the concept of a ‘mole’ in the
literature. The focus of this paper is to problematize the conceptualization of the mole concept in
the literature and argues for a refined conception. The importance of a refined conception is due the
central role that the mole plays in reaction stoichiometry and the difficulties learners have in
stoichiometry.
Rationale
The mole concept and reaction stoichiometry are two domains within chemistry, taught at
secondary school level that learners generally tend to find problematic (Huddle & Pillay, 1996).
Learners that move on to study chemistry at a tertiary level tend to lack the necessary proficiency
and basis for success and generally perform poorly despite these topics being covered in the
secondary school curriculum. The disparity between learners’ lack of proficiency in stoichiometry
at a tertiary level and having being taught the content in secondary school could possibly be
attributed to a poor subject knowledge base and pedagogical content knowledge (Departments of
Basic Education & Higher Education and Training, 2011).
Some indicators in teaching practice of teachers with low levels of content knowledge include
expressing the same alternative conceptions as those held by learners (van Driel, Verloop & de Vos,
1998; Gess-Newsome, 1999). Teachers’ content knowledge is important for developing conceptual
understanding. Furió, Azcona, Guisasola and Ratcliffe (2000) state that good teaching of a subject
requires teachers to have excellent knowledge of the concepts and theories of the discipline they are
teaching. Possessing content knowledge is therefore a key component of developing PCK and hence
effective teaching (Hill, Ball & Schilling, 2008).
In the literature it is evident that the mole concept is poorly conceptualised by a majority of teachers
and often incorrectly defined in a large portion of school textbooks thereby preventing proper
comprehension by learners (Cervellati, Montuschi, Perugini, Grimellni-Tomasini & Balandi, 1982;.
Staver & Lumpe, 1993; Krishnan & Howe, 1994; Furió et al., 2000). The misconceptions and
difficulties in stoichiometry are related to learners’ conception of the mole (Novick & Menis, 1976;
Lazonby, Morris & Waddington, 1982; Cervellati et al., 1982; Tullberg, Strömdahl, Lybeck, 1994).
According to Strömdahl, Tullberg and Lybeck (1994) learners’ conception of the mole is a
reflection of the educator’s conception and of the conception presented in textbooks. The
conceptualization of the mole, a central concept in chemistry and important in stoichiometry (Klob,
1978), is essential in the transformation of a teachers’ subject matter knowledge into forms that are
accessible to learners and therefore effective teaching of this concept (Geddis & Wood, 1997)
Conceptualization of the Mole
Strömdahl et al. (1994) categorised teachers’ conceptions of the mole into four fundamental
categories. The teaching approach when teaching the mole is therefore strongly bound to the
teachers’ conception of the mole (Tullberg et al., 1994). These four categorizations involve the
definition of the mole as an SI unit and three alternative definitions of the mole that are inconsistent

82
with the SI definition for the amount of substance as an independent physical quantity and of the
mole as its unit and therefore pose problems when teaching the mole (Dierks, 1981; Strömdahl et
al., 1994). According to Strömdahl et al. (1994) the meaning given to the mole in one of these
fundamentals is incompatible with the meaning in another and if teachers do not consciously
separate these fundamentals they will not have a clear logical comprehension of the mole and
neither will their learners.
The International System of Units establishes of a small number of base units, from which others
are derived that are agreed on internally and recommended for use throughout science, technology
and commerce (Taylor & Thompson, 2008). It establishes a system of quantities and a set of
algebraic equations that define the relationships between quantities (Bureau International des Poids
et Mesures, 2006). Each quantity is by convention independent and has a single SI unit, which are
in some instances often interdependent (BIPM, 2006; Taylor & Thompson, 2008). For example, the
SI unit for length, the meter, incorporates the second and the mole incorporates the kilogram
(BPIM, 2006).
Firstly, in the conceptualization of the mole as an SI unit the definition needs to be outlined. The
mole is defined as the amount of substance of specified chemical formula which contains as many
elementary entities as there are carbon atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon-12 (Allsop, 1977; Klob, 1978;
Furió et al., 2000). The elementary entities need to be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions,
electrons or other entities (Klob, 1978; Furió et al., 2000). According to Allsop (1977) this
definition is equivalent to saying that one mole of any substance is equivalent to the amount that
contains Avogadro’s constant of its particles as defined on the carbon-12 scale. Avogadro’s
constant is the proportionality factor that allows the amount of substance to be defined in terms of
the number of specified elementary particles of that substance (Nelson, 1991).
There are some aspects of the definition of the mole that are problematic. There is debate within the
scientific community due to deviations from the basic principles for formulating the units for basic
quantities (Aleksandrov, 1989). Firstly, there is no clear and unambiguous definition for the basic
concept amount of substance, the physical quantity for which the mole is the unit (Aleksandrov,
1989). Secondly, by definition, a unit for a physical quantity should elucidate how objective
quantitative information on the physical quantity can be obtained by means of measurement but the
mole differs in this respect since there is no method or instrument for measuring the mole
(Aleksandrov, 1989). In the definitions of the mole the existence of a measure of the quantity of
substance that is proportional yet distinct from the number of entities that a sample contains is
presupposed but what this measure is and how it differs from the number of entities is not made
explicit (Nelson, 1991). As such, according to Aleksandrov (1989) the mole therefore differs from
other fundamental units for physical quantities and that in its current treatment it is a mathematical
quantity. There are currently a number of proposals to improve the SI scheme of the mole to rectify
these issues, the most relevant of these for this discussion being to refer to ‘n’ as chemical amount
and define it as ‘the macroscopic measure of the amount of a substance that corresponds at an
atomic level to the number of specified chemical entities the substance contains’ (Nelson, 2013).
An understanding of what the ‘mole concept’ is essential if learners’ are to solve stoichiometric
problems (Klob, 1978). However there is mounting concern over the past few decades with the
teaching and learning on the concept of mole (Furió et al., 2000). The mole is a difficult concept for
learners to grasp with suggestions that it is beyond the grasp of the average learner, even with the
help of the teacher (Novick & Menis, 1976; Allsop, 1977). However, according to Nelson (2013)
surveys of educators have revealed that many do not have a proper understanding of it. Furió et al.
(2000) suggest that this is possibly due to the lack of knowledge teachers have of the socio-
historical contexts of the concept and the evolution of its meaning as a mass value due to Ostwald’s
scepticism of the atomic-molecular theory to the SI unit for the amount of substance (Furió et al.,
2000).
As has been mentioned, Strömdahl et al. (1994) categorised teachers’ conceptions of the mole into

83
four fundamental categories, three of which are repeatedly used by teachers despite the definition of
the mole introduced in 1967. According to Dierks (1982) this probably continues to contribute to
the difficulty associated when discussing the mole.
The first category conceptualizes the mole as a portion of substance, a physical, concrete portion of
a substance that has the property of being able to react chemically with other substances in whole
value ratios (Strömdahl et al., 1994). The mole has nothing to do with physical quantities or units
and this conceptualization is often used in textbooks relating to reaction stoichiometry since few
textbooks explain reaction coefficients in terms of a standard number of particles (Cervellati et al.,
1982; Strömdahl et al., 1994).
The second category of teachers’ conceptions of the mole is as an elementary entity of specific mass
(Strömdahl et al.. 1994). The term mole is used synonymously with terms such as gram-atomic
weight, gram-molecule weight and gram-formula weight and one mole is considered as a unit of
mass (Strömdahl et al., 1994). This conceptualization is seen in some of the erroneous definitions
of the mole such as ‘the weight of a substance in grams numerically equal to its molecular weight’
(Klob, 1978). One possible reason for this is due to the lack of definiteness in the ‘amount of
material’, since it can be considered as a mass and possible reasons for this are due to the historical
development of the concept and gradual change in the meaning of the mole before the concept was
introduced as an SI unit (Aleksandrov, 1989; Furió et al., 2000).
In the third category of conception of the mole is as a quantity that is equivalent to Avogadro’s
number (Strömdahl et al., 1994). The mole is comparable to numbers such as one dozen since it is
conceptualized as a number that is equivalent to Avogadro’s constant and the mole is considered
only as a counting unit (Nelson, 1991; Tullberg et al., 1994; Strömdahl et al.. 1994). The problem is
the mole as a counting unit and number cannot be the unit for a measurable physical quantity
(Dierks, 1982; Aleksandrov, 1989). This conceptualization of the mole is seen in the erroneous
definitions of the mole such as ‘a unit of number equal to Avogadro’s number’ (Klob, 1978).
Teachers as well as textbooks that hold this conceptualization of the mole also use the term ‘number
of moles’ derived from the operational definition of the mole as a number of elementary units
(Furió et al., 2000). A second problem with this conceptualization of the mole is the lack of
understanding that the magnitude of Avogadro’s number is experimentally, or empirically
determined (Cervellati et al., 1982). Little emphasis is placed in textbooks about the empirical
nature of this constant (Cervellati et al., 1982).
The fourth category of the conceptualization of the mole, which is consistent with the SI definition,
is that the mole is a unit of the physical quantity amount of substance (Strömdahl et al., 1994).
Within this conceptualization, related concepts of mass, volume and number, used in teaching
quantitative aspects of chemical change and their relationship between each other are taught as
functional mathematical relationships using proportionality to the amount of substance in terms of
an elementary entity (Tullberg et al., 1994; Strömdahl et al., 1994). Within this framework there is
a need to clearly distinguish between the amount of substance (n), mass (m), volume (V) and
number of elementary entities (N) (Furió et al., 2000). Secondly the functional relatedness of the
amount of substance with these quantities are related through operative expressions and various
proportionality constants such as molar mass (M), molar volume (Vm) and Avogadro’s constant
(NA) respectively (Strömdahl et al., 1994; Furió et al., 2000). These operative functions are shown
in Figure 1. Within this framework the term molar mass can be used unambiguously as the mass of
that portion of the substance which is a mole of that substance (Ainley, 1991). This fourth
conceptualization represents the correct, factual content knowledge related to the mole.

84
 Figure 1. The Amount of substance in relation to the quantities mass, volume and number of
elementary entities (Furió et al., 2000)
In order to ensure that learners develop the correct conception of the mole, which has become a
unifying method for measuring the amount of substance when teaching quantitative aspects of
chemistry it is essential that the SI approach is used from the outset (Lazonby et al., 1982; Nelson,
1991). The question is how to effectively convey the correct factual knowledge when teaching the
mole concept?
Some authors suggest that a possible solution to the ‘mole problem’ is to focus on language usage,
nomenclature and semantics. For example, in terms of language usage the use of the term relative
mass of elements, molecules or compounds should be avoided as this is inconsistent with every-day
usage (Ainley, 1991). In terms of nomenclature, in naming the masses of groups of atoms,
molecules and ionic compounds; different terms such as atomic mass, molecular mass and formula
mass are applied depending on the entities that constitute the substance (Ainley, 1991). Ainley
(1991) suggests that the term formula mass be applied consistently to all collections of atoms and
that atomic mass unit (amu) be used as the standard for expressing the mass of a particle. The term
‘amount of substance’ is often not used by teachers and hence learners do not identify the mole as
an SI unit and learners tend to identify amount of substance with mass or volume (Furió, Azcona &
Guisasola, 2002). In the context of South Africa, where the majority of learners are English second
language learners the familiar everyday language used in specific contexts in science, where
‘amount’ is often associated with mass or volume, could be problematic (Johnstone & Selepeng,
2001; Ali & Ismail, 2006). One way to avoid this problem is for educators to carefully check that
the meaning of ‘amount of substance’ is shared by learners and teachers (Johnstone & Selepeng,
2001). Teachers also need to avoid semantic mistakes due to, what Pekdağ and Azizoğlu (2013)
refer to as a missing concept and define as a ‘concept missing at either the macroscopic,
microscopic or symbolic level of representation’. For example, asking learners ‘how many moles
are in 20 g of ammonia’, is missing the macroscopic level of representation and should rather be
phrased as ‘what is the amount of substance in 20 g of the gaseous compound ammonia’. This
would also ensure that these expressions are compatible with the SI definition as the elementary
entities are stated and the amount of substance is expressed by associating it with the macroscopic
form of the substance.
What is of greater importance is the realisation that in chemistry, learners’ thinking is at a

85
macroscopic level, based on personal experience with objects and events associated with chemical
processes however chemical reactions and the accompanying stoichiometry are explained by
chemists at the invisible level of atoms, ions and molecules (Bond-Robinson, 2005). In order for
learners to understand the concepts they need to be able to correlate the visible chemical changes at
the macroscopic level with the mental model of the entities reacting at the sub-microscopic level
which learners need to express symbolically (Bond-Robinson, 2005). Teachers need to ensure that
they explicitly link the mass, molar mass, number of particles and molar volume through the
mathematical relationships and the relevant proportionality constant and not mismatch expressions
by using the amount of substance concept as an equivalent to these terms (Strömdahl et al., 1994;
Furió et al., 2000; Pekdağ & Azizoğlu, 2013).
The mole concept should be introduced as the relationship between the amount of substance and
number of particles (Allsop, 1977). The mole therefore provides the link, through the mathematical
relationships between the macroscopic properties such as mass or volume and establishes the
relationship between the amount of substance and the number of elementary particles in order to
make the counting of particles easier (Furió et al., 2000). Such a link is shown in the representation
from a chemistry textbook in Figure 2 that can be used in teaching. Such a link can prove useful for
learners and can be easily translated into the mass of one mole of a substance, moving from the
microscopic to the macroscopic and working with quantities large enough to handle sufficiently by
weighing them, converting the mass in grams to the amount of substance in moles, or vice versa
(Klob, 1976; Ainsley, 1991; Strömdahl et al., 1994).
This approach can be used and aligned to the conceptualization of the mole as the SI unit if teachers
make learners explicitly aware that Avogadro’s number is an approximation thereby avoiding
misconceptions that hinder their ability to solve stoichiometric problems which are related to the
definition of the mole (Staver & Lumpe, 1993; Strömdahl et al., 1994; Tullberg et al., 1994).
Conceptualizing the mole as the SI unit for the amount of substance, the correct view as held by the
scientific community, and an understanding of the problems associated with the construction of
these concepts, would indicate high grade knowledge of the concepts and theories of the discipline
of chemistry (Furió et al., 2000). When teaching of the mole, the conceptualization that is consistent
with the SI system is the only way to alleviate the problems learners have in understanding the
amount of substance (Ainley, 1991). However, the dilemmas associated with conceptualization of
the mole as an SI unit needs to be recognised by teachers and effectively managed, an indication of
curricular saliency (Geddis & Wood, 1997). The usefulness of regarding the mole as a counting
unit, equivalent to Avogadro’s number is essential in establishing the links between number of
elementary particles, mass or volume and the amount of substance (Klob, 1978; Furió et al., 2000).
However, since Avogadro’s number is huge, abstract and theoretical in nature it is often useful to
compare the mole to collective numbers such as a dozen since the analogy is a helpful for learners
that struggle thinking in abstract terms and therefore comprehend it better (Klob, 1978; Staver &
Lumpe, 1993; Strömdahl et al., 1994). Using this analogy helps learners understand the number of
particles represented in the mole but it is important to point out the limitations of the analogy, where
the analogy applies to the mole and particularly where it doesn’t apply such as highlighting that
Avogadro’s number is an empirical value determined experimentally (Staver & Lumpe, 1993;
Piepgrass, 1998).

86
 Figure 2. A representation showing the link between macroscopic and sub-microscopic view of
matter using the mole concept and relationship between amount of substance and number of
particles. Silberberg, (2006).
In conclusion, to ensure learners correctly conceptualize the mole, teachers’ need to ensure they
have the correct conceptualization of the mole as the SI unit for the amount of substance. However,
it is important to transform this knowledge in a way learners can grasp. Using the mole as a link
between the macroscopic and microscopic view of matter is curricular salient. The challenge is to
ensure that this done is a manner that avoids developing further misconceptions.
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Ainley, D. (1991). Mole Catchers?. Education in Chemistry, 28 (1), 18-19.
Aleksandrov, Y. I. (1989). The Mole: Myths and Reality. Measurement Techniques, 32 (1), 82 – 87.
Ali, M. & Ismail, Z. (2006). Comprehension Level of Non-Technical Terms in Science: Are we
ready for English, Jurnal Pendidik dan Pendidikan, (21), 73 – 83.
Allsop, R. T. (1977). The Place and Importance of the Mole in School Chemistry Courses. Physics
Education, 12, 285 – 288.
Ball, D. L., Thames, M. H. & Phelps, G. (2008). Content Knowledge for Teaching: What Makes it
Special? Journal of Teacher Education, 59 (5), 389 – 407.
Bond-Robinson, J. (2005). Identifying Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) in the Chemistry
Laboratory. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 6 (2), 83 – 103.
Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BPIM), (2006). The International System of Units. (8th
Ed). Paris, STEDI Media.
Cervellati, R., Montuschi, A., Perugini, D., Grimellni-Toomasini, N. & Balandi, B. P. (1982).
Investigation of Secondary School Students’ Understanding of the Mole Concept in Italy.
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Concepts ‘Amount of Substance’ and ‘Mole’: A Review of the Literature. Chemistry
Education, 3, 277 - 292.
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Exploring pre-service teacher’s preferences of laboratory activities in
undergraduate science courses

Leonard Molefe 1 & Michèle Stears 2

1
School of Education, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
2
School of Education, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
1 2
[email protected], [email protected]

In South Africa, the National Education policy documents for initial teacher education place great
emphasis on teachers’ competence in the knowledge, skills, values, principles, methods and
procedures relevant to each phase, subject, discipline or practice. For higher education practitioners,
practical work provides the basis for students’ acquisition of techniques and practical skills, which
include science process skills, and development of scientific knowledge and scientific attitudes in
any undergraduate programme. The present study thus focuses on the views of 71 pre-service
teachers of the practical activities they engaged in during their undergraduate science courses. By
using Likert scales and open-ended questions of a questionnaire, it was possible to explore the
teachers’ perceptions of their practical activities. The open-ended questions, which are the focus of
the present study, provided qualitative in-depth data that highlighted teachers’ preferences of types
of laboratory activities.

Introduction
This study reports on research conducted into student teachers’ (i.e., pre-service teachers) views of
the practical activities they engaged in at the university where the research was conducted. The
research is part of a larger study investigating both university lecturers and student teachers at the
University, with the intention of gaining insight into their views regarding various aspects related to
science processes. The research is regarded as important because science education practitioners
place emphasis on students’ competences in techniques and practical skills, scientific knowledge
and scientific attitudes in any undergraduate science programme (Coll & Eames, 2008). As most
science process skills are taught and learnt during practical activities the focus was on practical
activities.
Literature review
Research has established that development of skills, knowledge and attitudes should be in tandem
with the context in which teaching and learning occurs, both in higher education (Leggett, Kinnear,
Boyce & Bennett, 2004), and in secondary education (Molefe, 2011). Whether it is at classroom
level (Ornstein, 2006) or beyond (Molefe, 2011), emphasis on interesting and relevant hands-on
laboratory activities and high levels of experimentation may enhance the development of the above
knowledge and skills. If student teachers have positive attitudes towards the practical activities they
engage in, this could significantly influence their performance (Ornstein, 2006).
While many advocates of practical work provide elaborate purposes of practical activities, practical
work, especially the small-group type, could be aimed at developing experimental skills and
techniques (Woolnough & Allsop, 1985). Furthermore, it could enable students to gain a better
understanding of the theoretical aspects of the course, enable them learn the scientific approach, and
hone their motivational factors. Indeed Coil, Wenderroth, Cunningham and Dirks (2010) contend
that successful undergraduate programmes in science are those that enable students to think like
scientists. They argue further that acquisition of scientific and generic skills is a cornerstone of a
successful undergraduate degree. For them, if such skills are taught in an explicit and scaffolded
manner, they can improve students’ acquisition and/or development of science content. For Bilgin
(2006), practical activities (or hands-on activities) help students develop educational outcomes and
gain more experience by engaging in different instructional strategies that include (but not limited

89
to) inquiry, simulations, cooperative learning and web-based learning. However, interest in the
activities mentioned above is regarded as a significant factor (Arena, 1996).
The purpose of the study was thus to explore student teachers’ views of the hands-on laboratory
activities they engaged in, that is, practical activities which they found most interesting. The study
further draws from reasons behind their preferences to argue for feasible practices that integrate
experiences that students have of undergraduate laboratory activities, and thus make learning
science in a laboratory setting a more meaningful experience for them. The critical questions that
informed this study are:
§ Which practical activities do student teachers prefer to engage with in science courses?
§ Why do they prefer to engage in these practical activities?
Methods
A questionnaire was a source of data for the current investigation. The development of the
questionnaire used in this study is based on questionnaires developed by Ornstein (2006) and Coil
et al. (2010). This questionnaire was comprised of Likert scales and open-ended questions designed
to elicit information based on student teachers’ hands-on laboratory activities and science process
skills development. The sample comprised 71 third- and fourth-year students registered for a
bachelor of Education degree and registered for Biological Science Education, Physical Science
Education or Natural Science Learning Area respectively. The present report is only focused on the
qualitative in-depth data drawn from open-ended questions. Student were asked to describe the most
interesting laboratory activities that they engaged with in the different modules of the course they
were taking. Furthermore, they were requested to give reasons for their choices and to comment on
any other aspect they wished to.
Results and discussion
A total of seven themes emerged from the analysis of the variety of responses obtained from the 71
student teachers with regard to their experiences with laboratory work at the university. It is
important to note that as students were not restricted in their responses, a large variety of responses
were obtained, in contrast to an interview, where the researcher asks specific questions. Therefore
the data that produced each theme came from smaller numbers of students as they brought up
different aspects in their reflections. The themes are discussed below.
Scientific skills
The ability of laboratory work to facilitate development of scientific skills was a common response
given with 50 students mentioning a variety of scientific skills that encompassed science process
skills as well as manipulative skills (i.e., science doing skills). It should be noted that, in general,
the students had preferences based on a variety of content as well, and practical work on DNA in
Biological Science and separation techniques in Natural Sciences were selected by most students.
Although a surprisingly limited number (10) of the students commented on manipulative skills, it
was interesting that the basis for the students’ preferences of the content was their ability to hone
their observation skills (Figure 1). It therefore appears that students prefer those content topics that
allow them to develop process skills as well as manipulative skills. A Natural Sciences student gave
the following comment:
To observe salt being crystallised…and do this investigation [separation techniques] by yourself made the content in
the book much more easier to understand”.

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Figure 1. Basic and/or integrated science process skills mentioned by more than one student.

This reinforces the notion that “hands-on laboratory activities, inquiry and direct observation are an
integral component of good science classes” (Ornstein, 2006, p. 285; emphasis added), and that
understanding is enhanced when students are able to observe phenomena.
Relevance
The issue of relevance also emerged as a significant factor in all the courses, hence supporting a
perception that students are more interested in phenomena that they can relate to (Molefe, 2011).
Practicals on both Snell’s Law and on meiosis were mostly considered relevant. These suggest that
the students were able to reflect, for instance, on the concepts of Snell’s law in mirages, and on
those of meiosis in sexual reproduction. Development and application of scientific knowledge are
also important in science. For one student, practicals on filtration and evaporation
is useful in our daily lives and we can apply this knowledge to cooking.
Creativity
Furthermore, it was interesting to find that there were students who recognised and enjoyed
practical work that required some creativity in Biological Science and Natural Sciences, pointing to
the need for more student directed investigations (Molefe, 2011; Ornstein, 2006; So, 2003). A
number of activities made use of improvised materials and others consisted of simulations. One
student put it eloquently:
We simulated the process of natural selection through predation…it provided a close to real life situation for me”.
Linked to the school science curriculum
These emerged as activities that students particularly enjoyed, possibly because these activities
could be adapted for use in schools. Indeed one student finds
[proving that g=9.8 m.s2] interesting because the apparatus used are (sic) affordable & also can be used in under-
resourced schools.
Scientific attitudes
More than half of the students (41) mentioned affective responses that were elicited by practical
activities they engaged in. It is significant that fun and enjoyment of certain activities emerged as
prominent (in Biological Science and Natural Sciences) attitude-based emotions (Figure 2) because
while we expect our students to show positive attitudes towards science, our pedagogical
philosophies, especially in Life Sciences education, tend to fail many students (Coil et al., 2010).

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Figure 2. Attitude-based responses mentioned by more than one student.

Scientific knowledge and understanding

It should be noted that the present students did not make explicit comments about scientific
knowledge and understanding in their reflections on their practical activities. Their words and
phrases were interpreted and grouped into three categories presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Scientific knowledge and understanding words mentioned by more than one student.

The practical activities in the present study enabled the students to understand theory learnt better.
Indeed one student provided by far a better response:
The practical activities were linked to the theory being learned [and] that made understanding easier.
One student best reflected on a practical in relation to content on DNA, mRNA and amino acids in
his subject discipline - Biological Science education: “It was not like a formal practical but I learned
a lot through it”. Another student emphasised the role of practical activities in a better
understanding of concepts within a context of Natural Sciences:
It [practical on separation techniques] was simple and it gave me a better understanding of seperation (sic) in a
scientific way.
Types of learning
Coll and Eames (2008) argue that “students tend to prefer learning experiences that involve active
participation such as those provided in laboratory and various types of small group activities” (p.
251). A limited number of students in the present study were able to recognise and appreciate

92
opportunities for different types of learning that were embedded in the practicals. Such types
included collaborative or cooperative learning (also group work) in Biological Science and/or
Natural Sciences, problem solving in Biological Science and discovery learning in all courses.
Collaborative/cooperative learning
One Biological Science education student articulated a more detailed comment on collaborative
learning:
This practical [based on Transcription]…made me clear on the process of protein synthesis and we were gaining
knowledge from our peers not the lecturer even though we were following the given rules or procedures/guidelines.
One student provided a reason for suggesting group work:
Group work is the most effective strategy of learning to construct information.
Another Biological Science education student felt a practical on DNA, mRNA and amino acids was
the best because
it involved cooperative learning.
Problem solving
On the other hand, one student thought the same practical (i.e., on DNA, mRNA and amino acids)
involved…problem solving.
Discovery learning
With regard to discovery learning, one student suggested that
when doing science you must be able to find out hidden facts about certain things [and] think beyond what you see
in your eyez (sic).
A Natural Sciences student added:
This was the only practical [organisms in pond water] in which I discovered new things.
Conclusion
Making science a more meaningful experience is important, particularly in South Africa. As
referred to earlier, the National Education policy documents for initial teacher education place great
emphasis on teachers’ competence in the knowledge, skills, values, principles, methods and
procedures relevant to each phase, subject, discipline or practice. As this university aims to build a
sustainable new teacher education programme framed around comprehensive laboratory activities
and the associated development of pre-service teachers’ science process skills in its three science
education courses offered, the findings of this research will inform the design of such programmes.
Acknowledgements
The authors convey their gratitude to the science education students from the institution for
providing the resources for conducting this research study.
References
Arena, P. (1996). The role of relevance in the acquisition of science process skills. Australian
Science Teachers Journal, 42, 34-38.
Bilgin, I. (2006). The effects of hands-on activities incorporating a cooperative learning approach
on eight grade students’ science process skills and attitudes towards science. Journal of Baltic
Science Education, 9, 27-37.
Coil, C., Wenderoth, M.P., Cunningham, M. & Dirks, C. (2010). Teaching the process of science:
Faculty perceptions and an effective methodology. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 9, 524-535.
Coll, R.K. & Eames, C. (2008). Developing an understanding of higher education science and
engineering learning communities. Research in Science & Technological Education, 26, 245-
257.

93
Leggett, M., Kinnear, A., Boyce, M. & Bennett, I. (2004). Student and staff perceptions of the
importance of generic skills in science. Higher Education Research & Development, 23, 295-
312.
Molefe, L.M. (2011). A study of life sciences projects in science talent competitions in the Western
Cape, South Africa, with special reference to scientific skills and knowledge (Unpublished
doctoral thesis). University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa.
Norton, L., Aiyegbayo, O., Harrington, K., Elander, J. & Reddy, P. (2010). New lecturers’ beliefs
about learning, teaching and assessment in higher Education: The role of the PGCLTHE
programme. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 47, 345-356.
Ornstein, A. (2006). The frequency of hands-on experimentation and student attitudes towards
science: A statistically significant relation (2005-51-Ornstein). Journal of Science Education and
Technology, 15, 285-297.
So, W.M.W. (2003). Learning science through investigations: An experience with Hong Kong
primary school children. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 1, 175-
200.
Woolnough, B.E. & Allsop, T. (1985). Practical work in science. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

94
A  Review  of  Research  on  Language  in  South  African  Science  
Classrooms  (2000-­‐2012)  
Nhlakanipho Gumede1 & Audrey Msimanga2
1
Ntabasuka High School, KwaZulu-Natal Department of Education, KZN.
2
School of Education, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
1
[email protected], [email protected]

This paper presents a review of literature on language in the teaching and learning of science in
South Africa. We looked at research reported in the proceedings of SAARMSTE conferences as
well as the journal AJRMSTE in the years 2000-2012. Preliminary results indicate that research
conducted over the past twelve years on language in South African science classrooms has focussed
on identification of the challenges facing teachers and learners whose language is different from the
LOLT; strategies employed to cope with these challenges; and teachers views on language in the
science classroom. The coping strategies named most frequently were code-switching, grouping
learners by language as well as teacher and peer translation. We identified some under researched
areas such as the dynamics of learner use of home languages as a tool for meaning-making in
science classrooms, research-informed science teaching strategies for multilingual science
classrooms, understanding and facilitating learner transition from own language sense-making to
articulation of these understandings in the LOLT or the language of high stakes examinations as
well as teacher education programmes to prepare science teachers for these classrooms.

Introduction
The medium of instruction in most South African classrooms is English, yet the majority of
teachers and learners are not first speakers of the English language (Adler, 2001). This means that
for the majority of teachers and learners, teaching and learning happens in a language that is not
their own. Many learners from townships and rural areas are not able to write and speak English
freely (Probyn, 2006). Thus, science teachers in these contexts are faced with the challenge of
trying to close the gap between learner’s home language, the language of teaching and learning
(LOLT), which in most schools is English and the language of science.

Current debates on language policy in South Africa centre on the issue of LOLT. Meanwhile, many
teachers and learners are using their home languages in the science classroom, even at high school.
This paper presents a review of the research that has been reported in the proceedings of the annual
conference of the Southern African Association for Research in Mathematics, Science and
Technology Education (SAARMSTE) and what has been published in their journal, the African
Journal for Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education (AJRMSTE) on language
issues in South African science classrooms in the period 2000-2012. We start with these two
sources for pragmatic reasons. SAARMSTE provides a convenient forum for Southern African
scholars to share their ideas and research findings annually. Also, the annual conference attracts
both experienced and emerging researchers and thus research findings at different levels of
expertise and specialisation. AJRMSTE is a developmental journal for SAARMSTE.

Theoretical background
Research shows that where the medium of instruction is not the learner’s home language learners
struggle to learn science effectively. Learner difficulty with both the language of science and the
LOLT makes the teacher’s goal of assisting learners in achieving lesson outcomes unachievable
(Setati, Molefe & Langa, 2008). Language is important for thinking and learning. However, in
multilingual classrooms it is difficult to organize learner’s knowledge because science is taught in a
language that makes it hard for learners to talk about and think through scientific concepts (Probyn,  

95
2006). Thus, learning and teaching science in multilingual classroom in which the language of
teaching and learning is not the learners` mother tongue is complicated.

Wellington and Osborne (2001) pointed out that learning science has elements that are similar to
learning a new language since science has its conceptual and abstracted forms which have a very
specific register and sets of discourse. Scientific language is not the same as common language (not
even English) that is used for communication purposes. Science is taught in English but it is a
combination of different languages, such Latin and/or Greek; a combination and interaction of
words, pictures, diagrams and mathematical symbols. So it is an additional language for these South
African learners who are struggling to learn the English language at the same time. This places
additional demands on science teachers and learners. The teacher must maintain a balance of
complex and competing demands of helping learners in learning science as well as keeping learners
actively involved and talking using English (Wellington and Osborne, 2001).

Research has been conducted over the past few years on issues of language in South African science
classrooms. The findings of this research are reported at conferences or published in various
journals. For example, some of this research is reported at the annual conference of the Southern
African Association for research in Mathematics and Science Education (SAARMSTE). We
identified such research and explore its findings with a focus on the researchers’ recommendations.
Lastly we consider under researched areas in language issues in South African science classroom
for future consideration. This study investigates research that has been reported on issues of
language in the teaching and learning of science by English second language speakers in South
Africa from 2000 to 2012. It is guided by the following questions:

a) What research has been conducted on issues of language and the teaching and learning of
science by English second language speakers in South Africa over the past thirteen years?
b) From this research what are the key areas of focus for research on language and the teaching
and learning of science by English second language speakers in South Africa?
c) What are the implications of the research and its findings for future research and for practice?

Methodology of research
In this study we looked at research that has been published in the proceedings of the annual
conference of the Southern African Association for research in Mathematics, Science and
Technology Education (SAARMSTE). We also looked at what has been published in their journal,
the African Journal for Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education (AJRMSTE)
on the issues of learning science in the English language. We did both a quantitative and qualitative
analysis of the research publications. We counted the AJRMSTE papers and SAARMSTE
presentations identified for the thirteen year period and we did a thematic analysis of the papers
using research focus as categories.

Results and discussion

Preliminary results indicate that research conducted over the past twelve years on issues of language
in South African science classrooms has focussed, first on identifying the problems encountered by
teachers and learners whose language is different from the LOLT and then on strategies employed
to cope with these challenges as well as teachers views on some of the strategies. The strategies
named most frequently are code-switching; grouping learners by language as well as teacher and
peer translation (see Table 1).

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Table 1. Summary of papers presented at SAARMSTE and/or published in AJRMSTE on language
in South African science teaching and learning

Code Learner Discussions Language Sense-making Views on

switching language in learner policy in learner multilingualism
proficiency languages language
Number 5 2 3 2 1 3
of papers

The study shows that the issues of language have received considerable attention in South African
research. The findings show that in spite of a language policy that advocates for teaching in the
English language after Grade 3, teachers and learners shift between English and the mother tongue
in their classroom interactions. Teachers seemed to use language in ways that suit their different
contexts e.g. code-switching, peer interpretation, grouping learners according to their languages and
allowing them to interact in their mother tongue. However, research shows that teachers hold
varying views about code-switching. There was no indication in the literature reviewed that these
research findings find their way back to the practitioners, for example, as information to teachers to
use as part of their pedagogical toolkit for their multilingual contexts. We found one study on the
use of learner languages as a tool for meaning-making; none on teaching strategies to facilitate this
meaning-making use of language; none on strategies to enable transition to the LOLT (usually the
language of high stakes examinations); and none on teacher educators strategies to prepare science
teachers for these classrooms.
Implications for further research and practice
We identified some under researched areas and the key ones were a) the use of learners’ languages
as a tool for meaning-making in science classrooms, b) research-informed teaching strategies for
science teachers in such classrooms, c) teaching strategies for enabling learner transition from own
language sense-making to articulation of these understandings in the LOLT, the language of high
stakes examinations, and d) studies on the strategies that teacher educators in tertiary institutions
employ in preparing science teachers for these classrooms.
Conclusions
Our preliminary findings indicate research focus on how language as a barrier to science teaching
and learning as well as teacher and learner coping strategies such as code-switching, transliteration,
teacher and peer translation. Research is needed in the use of learner languages for meaning-
making, developing science teaching strategies for multilingual classrooms, learner transition from
own language to the LOLT as well as appropriate teacher education practice to prepare science
teachers for these classrooms.

References
Adler, J. (2001). Teaching Mathematics in Multilingual Classrooms. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Probyn, M. (2006). Language and Learning Science in South Africa. Language and Education 20(5): 391-414
Setati M, Molefe T. & M. Langa (2008). Using language as a transparent resource in the teaching and learning of
Mathematics in a Grade 11 multilingual classroom. Pythagoras, 67, 14-25
Wellington, J. & J. Osborne (2001). Language and literacy in Science Education. Buckingham: Open University Press

Acknowledgements

We wish to acknowledge the support we received from the University of the Witwatersrand in our
capacity as a student and a lecturer, respectively. This paper is an extension of the first author’s
research project conducted in partial fulfilment of a Bachelor of Education sponsored by a Fundza
Lushaka bursary. The project was supervised by the second author as a member of staff at the Wits
School of Education.

97
The Design of an Instrument to Measure Physical Sciences Teachers’ Topic Specific
Pedagogical Content Knowledge in Electrochemistry

Musawenkosi Ndlovu1, Elizabeth Mavhunga 2 and Marissa Rollnick3

Marang Centre for Mathematics and Science Education, Wits School of Education, Wits University,
South Africa
1
[email protected], [email protected] and [email protected]

Abstract
Research has ranked electrochemistry as one of the more difficult topics to teach and learn.
Examiners in South Africa have complained about the poor performance in electrochemistry related
concepts in Grade 12 public exams. This may suggest that the physical science teachers may not be
teaching it very well. Accomplished teachers use specialized knowledge to transform their
knowledge of subject matter into a form that can easily be understood by learners, known as
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Little is known about the quality of PCK of teachers within
this topic and currently there is no instrument to measure quality of topic-specific PCK of practicing
physical science teachers as there is paucity of instruments in the literature. The purpose of the
study was to design and validate an instrument that could be used to measure the quality topic
specific pedagogical content of knowledge (PCK) of practicing physical science teachers on
electrochemistry. After its conceptualization and development, the instrument was validated with 21
practicing science teachers. The Rasch Model was used to ascertain the validity of the instrument
through statistics of goodness of fit. The Model also determine the hierarchy of topic specific PCK.
The item and person reliability indices of the developed instrument were 0.97 and 0.89 respectively.
The results show that it is possible to design an instrument that is valid and reliable instrument the
findings suggest that TSPCK instrument might be used for teaching purposes so as to boost the
practicing teachers’ TSPCK on electrochemistry.

Key words: Pedagogical content knowledge, Topic specific pedagogical content of knowledge,
electrochemistry

Introduction and Background

Electrochemistry is considered by some teachers to be a difficult topic to teach because of its
abstract nature (Gannett & Treagust, 1992). Complaints by grade 12 South African examiners on
poor learner performance in public exams may lead to the conclusion that teachers do not teach
electrochemistry well, suggesting that it is important to investigate teachers’ knowledge with
respect to electrochemistry. Accomplished teachers use specialized knowledge to transform their
knowledge of subject matter into a form that can easily be understood by learners, known as
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). PCK, as defined by Shulman (1987), is special knowledge
used by teachers to transform subject matter into teachable form. However this knowledge is hidden
within teachers and there is debate about a common uniform understanding of its nature. There is
also a paucity of instruments in the literature for measuring the quality of PCK. In recent studies,
quantitative instruments were developed from teacher tasks, for instance in science (Park, Jang,
Chen, & Jung, 2011). Also topic specific tools exist in other science topics and are targeting pre-
service teachers e.g. in chemical equilibrium (Mavhunga & Rollnick, 2011). In electrochemistry,
Aydeniz & Kirbulut (2012) developed a Secondary Teachers’ Scientific Pedagogical Content
Knowledge (STSPCK) instrument. Still this tool is not suitable for our study as the STSPCK has
three categories only namely: assessment, curriculum, and instruction and this tool did not consider
the knowledge of the learners and the context in which the learners learn. Therefore this study aims
to develop and validate an instrument for measurement of PCK.

Teaching for conceptual understanding is linked to PCK. However, the quality of PCK particularly
in electrochemistry in Physical Science teachers is not known. Topic Specific PCK is different from

98
the generic PCK as it focuses on the transformation of the understanding of content of a particular
topic only. According to Mavhunga and Rollnick (2011) topic specific PCK for each topic is
different and specific to that topic since the teacher uses careful reasoning and specific
considerations to teach a certain topic. The idea of topic specific PCK (TSPCK) is derived from the
understanding that transformation of subject matter knowledge (SMK) is a cornerstone in the
formation of PCK. Teachers with high quality PCK were found to transform each topic in a certain
manner and could even give grounds for its teaching (Shulman, 1987) because of the way they think
through the specific topic. This study uses topic specific PCK as a theoretical framework to guide
the design of the instrument. Topic Specific framework identifies the following components of
TSPCK: (i) Learners’ Prior Knowledge including misconceptions; (ii) Curricular Saliency; (iii)
What makes topic easy or difficult to understand; (iv) Representations or models, including
powerful examples used by teachers; and (v) Conceptual teaching Strategies. The new instrument
was designed to elucidate according to these five components.

The study is guided by the following specific questions:

1. How can a valid instrument be designed for measuring the quality of teachers’ PCK in electrochemistry?
2. How valid is this instrument in measuring the Topic Specific PCK of a sample of experienced teachers in
electrochemistry in the Gauteng Province?

The developed instrument was used as a diagnostic tool to investigate the quality of TSPCK
strategies used by 21 Grade 12 Physical Science teachers at selected Johannesburg schools. In
addition to the validation of the instrument, the collected data provides insight into the teachers’
understanding of the importance of a topic within the curriculum, the learning difficulties,
representations and teaching strategies used by teachers to teach electrochemistry.

Methodology
The study was a methodology study which used a Mixed Methods (MM) approach. MM were used
because the design of the instrument requires both qualitative and quantitative methods in the
various steps towards its creation. This research can be described as methodological in the sense
that emphasis was on the process followed and subsequently the validity of the TSPCK tool on
electrochemistry. MM was employed to analyse data. MM helped us to understand the relationship
between TSPCK and CK better as well as the topic specificity nature of PCK. Literature indicates
that mixed methods provide accurate and increased levels of confidence in research findings
(Kellie, 2001) as well producing new knowledge by combination of findings from different
research approaches (Foss & Ellefsen, 2002). The design of the instrument was structured around
the five components of TSPCK and main concepts in electrochemistry identified in consultation
with a reference group of expert science educators, as key to the understanding of electrochemistry.
This was done in consultation with a reference group of experts in chemistry education. The
reference team assisted in establishing content validity, and aspects related to the accessibility of the
language of the instrument. Construct validity was determined by Rasch Model since each item in
terms of Rasch is not considered of equal strength and positive responses to each item are expected
to represent different levels of attribute. The design process followed the following steps
chronologically: (i) Conceptualization of test items, (ii) construction of the instrument and judgment
of items, (iii) piloting and construction of the actual instrument and finally validation of the
instrument. Following a series of refinement of the test items, the instrument was piloted and the
responses used to improve the instrument further. The final instrument consisted of semi-closed
questions with in-built spaces for written explanatory responses to get insight of teachers. Each
component of TSPCK is regarded as a test item comprised of two to three sub-questions. The
questions are in the form of teacher tasks, which ask the teachers about what he/ she will do in a
given scenario. The instrument had a total of 10 test items (see Table 1 for structure).

99
Table 1: Types of questions that were designed for the various components of TSPCK

Component Type of Question No of questions in each category

Learner prior knowledge Teaching scenarios asking for 3
teacher responses to particular
correct and incorrect learner
statements
Curricular saliency Questions about sequencing of one question had 3 sub-questions
concepts with other in the
curriculum, and identification of
Big Ideas
What is difficult to learn A direct question on why various 1
sub concepts are difficult to learn
Representations Teachers asked to respond to 1 question divided into 3 sub-
different representations commonly
questions
used in the teaching of the topic
Conceptual teaching Teachers respond to a scenario on 1 question with 4 scenarios of
strategies teaching of a difficult section of the
learners’ difficulties
topic

The designed TSPCK instrument was validated with 21 practicing physical science teachers to find
out if it was valid in measuring the quality of TSPCK.
An example of a question in the TSPCK instrument under the learner prior knowledge category is
shown in figure 1 below:

Figure 1: example of question in Learner Prior knowledge component

100
Fig 1: example of a question on Learner Prior knowledge

Validation of the TSPCK instrument

Before validation of instrument, Kane (2006) suggests that criteria or assumptions on which the
instrument is to be evaluated must be put forward so that the validator knows what to look for when
validating. Messick (1989) added that construct validity requires both interpretive and validity
arguments. These assumptions were laid down in interpretive arguments which provide the rational,
assumptions and expectations (Kane, 2006). On the other hand, the plausibility and coherence of
interpretive argument is provided in validity argument (Kane, p. 23). The assumptions were that
TSPCK existed as a construct separate from generic PCK and has 5 components that are hierarchal
in nature. The expectations were that the conceptual teaching strategies were the most difficulty
whereas the Learner prior knowledge is the least. Therefore, in this study, the Rasch Model tested
the validity argument i.e. if the theoretical assumptions in interpretive argument agree with
empirical evidence. The Rasch model also ascertained if both the items and the teachers’ responses
fell within the conventional accepted range of -2 and +2-statistics of goodness of fit.

Analysis
Data collected using the designed instrument were analysed in two parts: using quantitative
methods- the Rasch statistical package, secondly using qualitative methods by using task
performance analysis using the responses given by the teacher on each component of TSPCK. The
responses were marked with a TSPCK rubric on a scale from 1 (limited TSPCK) to 4 (Exemplary
TSPCK). The raters familiarised themselves with the rubric before scoring. Over 80% agreement
was achieved after a compelling argument where scores differed. The raw scores from the TSPCK
rubric were peer validated and an over 80% agreement was achieved. The scores from the rubric
were analysed using the Rasch statistical model that gives reliability of persons taking the test and
that of items. Teachers’ answers were also analysed qualitatively. The Rasch Winsteps MINISTEPS
programme converted the scores to a probability scale of equal interval enabling the calculation of
the item and person reliabilities (Bond & Fox, 2001). In short, Rasch model converts ordinal data
(raw scores of performance from rubric) to interval data (linear scores). The Rasch model
summarises completely a person’s standing on a variable, in this case, TSPCK. It is also used as
evidence of construct validity of the diagnostic test as well as provide estimate of internal
consistence of items. In addition Rasch calculates the persons and item reliability indices as well as
the rank or hierarchy of categories of TSPCK according to item difficulty.

Findings and discussions

As stated above there were no suitable existing instruments, so it was important to design an
instrument that was would measure the quality of TSPCK construct as it was the theoretical
framework guiding this study. This instrument was to be in alignment with the components of
TSPCK construct. In order to achieve this we followed a rigorous method of construction in the
design of the instrument. At each stage of instrument (i.e. from conceptualization to final instrument
that was validated) we were in regular consultation with a reference team of science experts in
chemistry education in order to ensure face validity, content validity and construct validity. The
experts checked ambiguity, wording, content alignment with grade 12 national curriculum standards
as well as alignment with topic specific PCK framework. We created the TSPCK instrument from
teacher tasks created in educational contexts. We also used authentic responses from chemistry
teachers obtained during piloting the draft tool with practicing teachers with many years of teaching
electrochemistry at grade 12. This was an earlier contribution towards the validity of the tool. The
teachers’ comments, their verbatim together with the comments from reference team of experts
helped to refine the tool. The different versions of the draft TSPCK instrument is a testimony on

101
how thorough the process followed in the design of the instrument was. The results show that it is
possible to design a valid TSPCK instrument with relevant criteria.

The results from Rasch statistical analysis show that the instrument is valid in measuring the quality
of topic specific PCK of the practicing physical science teachers on electrochemistry in
Johannesburg schools in the Gauteng province, South Africa (see fig.2)

Figure 2: Person-Item map (Rasch output)

In the bubble map, the light bubbles represent person probability measures and the dark ones
represent the item difficulty measures respectively. The Y-axes shows the ascending order of
measures of persons’ ability as well as the order of difficulty of test items. Moreover, the person
item map also indicates the person abilities and test items difficulty. Data was within the
conventional range of -2 and +2 Infit/outfit statistics thus indicating that the developed instrument is
valid. The validity of the instrument was found to be acceptable as measured by the statistics of
goodness of fit-Infit and Outfit. This means that both the persons and the test items worked
coherently to measure a single construct-topic specific PCK and the quality of the tool. If we recall
Rasch model provides two reliability estimates: one of persons taking the test and the one for the
items contained in the test. The item and person reliability and validity indices were calculated from
the model and are shown on Table 2.

102
Table 2: Person and item reliability (N=21)
Reliability Infit Outfit Fit statistics
Mean t-test Mean t-test
square (ZSTD) square (ZSTD)
All Rasch
Item Reliability 0.97 0.86 -0.5 0.77 -0.2 values are
within -2 and
Person Reliability 0.89 0.87 -0.3 0.77 -0.1 -2

Cronbach Alpha 0.84

(KR-20)

Item measure mean set to zero & Units per Logit (log-odds unit) =1 for the entire test (UIMEAN=0 and USCALE
=1)

The person and reliability indices were found to be acceptable. The reliability index of 0.6 is usually
the traditionally accepted minimum value (Bond & Fox, 1991). The internal consistency of the
instrument as measured by the Cronbach alpha value was found to be statistically significant as
well. This implies that the test was well balanced; it contained both difficult and easy items. This
means that it was able to distinguish between teachers with low topic specific PCK from those with
high topic specific PCK and hence the instrument is dependable. The high item reliability gives an
indication that the developed instrument had both difficult and easier items and thus confidence can
be placed in the inferences (Bond and Fox, 1991; Linacre, 2012). On looking at the item
performance in the instrument, an item separation of 3.47 was obtained confirming the item
hierarchy. According to Linacre (2012) a low item separation of less than 3 coupled with low item
reliability (<0.9) suggests low item difficulties. For this study, 0.6 is used as a mean, 0.7 upward are
acceptable values on a scale of 0-1. Generally, a low person reliability (<0.8) indicates that the
instrument might not be quite sensitive to discriminate between high achievers and low achievers
(Linacre, 2012). In this situation low separation of items, could be clustered around a high difficulty
value. From the results, the item reliability (>0.9) is also quite pleasing further confirming the
construct validity or item difficulty hierarchy. Usually low item reliability indices (>0.9) signifies
that person sample could not verify item difficulty (Linacre, 2012). The high person reliability
index (>0.8) (Linacre, 2012) shows that the developed instrument is reliable, meaning that a
different group of similar teachers would get similar scores. A high person reliability index
indicates a good spread of person abilities across the scale (high to low).

The item hierarchy difficulty rank of the TSPCK components was also established through the
Rasch model. On the analysis of item difficulty hierarchy, the following results were found as
displayed in Table 3. Qualitative analysis teachers’ responses in each of the five categories
indicated that the teachers performed differently in the five categories with the majority performing
very well in the Learner prior knowledge component test items and poorly in the conceptual
teaching strategy and representation components respectively.

Table 3: Item hierarchy difficulty rank of TSPCK categories

Learner prior What is easy Curricular Representations/ Conceptual

knowledge or difficulty saliency models teaching
strategies
-5.42 -0.81 0.76 1.34 4.13

Item measure mean set to zero & Units per Logit (log-odds unit) =1 for the entire test (UIMEAN=0 and
USCALE =1)

103
  

The study revealed that the conceptual teaching strategies component was the most difficult and the
Learner prior knowledge was the easiest. This confirms the theoretical postulation that most
practising teachers usually struggle in the conceptual teaching strategies component of TSPCK than
in learner prior knowledge category. This means that the conceptual teaching strategy is of higher
order only persons with higher ability could answer such test items. This attest to the validity of the
instrument and TSPCK construct when the empirical evidence agrees with theoretical prediction
(interpretive argument). The minority of physical science teachers could effectively answer
questions on conceptual teaching strategies thus indicating a poor quality of PCK. This implies that
the physical science teachers in this test sample could not be teaching this topic of electrochemistry
for conceptual understanding. Furthermore instrument reliability is shown on figure 3. When the
items and persons responses to the items are plotted a person item map displayed on figure 3 was
obtained.

Figure 3: Item-Person measure map (N=21) (Rasch output)

From the person- item map, it is evident that the instrument is valid as it could distinguish between
persons with high ability and those with lower ability as well as item difficulty hierarchy. As for
item difficulty measures, the more positive the test item measure is, the more difficult the test item
is and the higher the chances that persons with higher probability measure could answer that test
item. For example, person MN20 was able to answer all items whereas the MN15 found all items
difficult. This is a sign of the validity of the developed instrument. Linacre (2012) contends that the
higher the person measures the higher the probability that the person would answer both difficult
and easy test items and vice versa.

104
Conclusion
Recently, there has been a wide spread interest in measuring the quality of topic specific PCK of
both the pre-service and practicing teachers (e.g. Aydeniz & Kirbulut, 2012) .This emphasis on
PCK is premised on the belief that a high level of PCK can make a considerable impact on the
quality of teaching delivered by the teachers to learners and consequently on the quality of learning
experience in most classroom environments (Grossman, 1990). The study sought to develop a valid
diagnostic TSPCK instrument that could be used to diagnose the quality topic specific PCK of
Physical Science teachers in Johannesburg schools, Gauteng province in South Africa. The study
revealed that it is possible to design such an instrument. This is a valuable contribution to the body
of science education knowledge base. Also the findings suggests that the aforementioned
instrument, has a potential to provide dependable information about the quality of topic specific
PCK of practicing teachers on electrochemistry as it has been statistically found to be valid and
reliable. The high reliability indices places confidence and trustworthiness in the data collected
using the developed TSPCK instrument. Therefore, it can be employed on a larger scale to other
practicing teachers in other provinces in South Africa as well as to other teachers to establish
teachers’ baseline knowledge on teaching this topic. In addition, the findings suggest that the
developed TSPCK instrument might be used for teaching purposes so as to boost the practicing
teachers’ TSPCK on electrochemistry.

References
Aydeniz, M. & Kirbulut, Z. D. (2012). Assessing pre-service science teachers’ topic Specific
pedagogical content knowledge (PCK):Pre-service science teachers’ PCK of Electrochemistry
Bond, T. G., & Fox, C. M. (2001). "Applying the Rasch Model: Fundamental measurement in the
human sciences", Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc. 0-8058-3476-1.
Foss, C., & Ellefsen, B. (2002). ‘The Value of Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches
in Nursing Research by Means of Method Triangulation’. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 40(2),
242-248
Garnett, P. J., & Treagust, D. F. (1992). Conceptual difficulties experienced by senior high school
students of electrochemistry: Electrochemical (galvanic) and electrolytic cells. Journal of
Research in Science Teaching, 29, 1079-1099.
Grossman, P.L. (1990). The making of a teacher: Teacher knowledge and teacher education, New
York, Teachers College Press.
Kane, M. T. (2006). Validation. In R. L. Brennan (Ed.), Educational Measurement (4th Ed.) (pp.
17–64). Washington, DC: American Council on Education/Praeger.
Kelle, U. (2001). ‘Sociological Explanations between Micro and Macro and the Integration of
Qualitative and Quantitative Methods’. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 2(1).
Mavhunga, E. & Rollnick, M. (2011). Development and piloting a tool for measuring topic specific
a PCK in chemical equilibrium. ESERA Conference Paper, France.
Linacre, J.M. (2012). Winsteps® (Version 3.75.0) [Computer Software]. Beaverton, Oregon:
Winsteps.com. Retrieved January 1, 2012. Available from http://www.winsteps.com/
Park, S., Jang, J-Y., Chen, Y-C, & Jung, J. (2011). Is pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)
necessary for reformed science teaching? Evidence from an empirical study. Research in
Science Education, 41(2), 245-260.
Shulman, L.S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard
Educational Review, 57(1), 1-22.

105
 Understanding factors supporting student participation in the Expo for Young
Scientists

Mdutshekelwa Ndlovu
Stellenbosch University Centre for Pedagogy (SUNCEP), University of Stellenbosch, South Africa

Learners’ participation in science fairs has been encouraged for affording them experiences in
carrying out hands-on activities such as scientific investigations oriented towards inquiry science.
However, there has been some debate as to the viability of the Expo’s usefulness to ill-equipped
learners in disadvantaged schools as their cultural capital deficits appear to deny them opportunities
to compete on an even keel with learners from historically advantaged schools (where learners have
higher accumulations of all forms of capital) in South Africa. The purpose of this study was to
conduct an exploratory analysis of factors influencing student participation and success rate at 2010
Stellenbosch Regional Expo in South Africa’s annual science fair for learners – the Expo for Young
Scientists. Participation in the Expo is acknowledged to be one opportunity for learners to
experience the highest levels of scientific inquiry. The study was a quantitative analysis of a
convenient sample of 36 schools that participated in the Regional Expo in respect of variables such
as distance from the venue, school type (primary, intermediate, combined or high school) gender
equity, and poverty quintile categories. Findings were that only 5.1% of eligible schools in the
region participated and distance from the venue was a deterrent for many schools. Historically
advantaged schools in quintiles 4-5 (higher socio-economic status) did not only have a superior
participation rate as a measure of equity, but also had a higher success rate as a measure of the
quality of participation. However, not all schools in the so-called quintiles 4-5 category performed
well, suggesting that the neglect of scientific investigations or scientific inquiry could be more
pervasive than initially assumed. The study recommends democratisation of participation through
decentralisation, increased funding for infrastructure and logistics and increased technical support
for teachers in disadvantaged schools.

Keywords: Expo for Young Scientists, science fair, principles of scientific inquiry, scientific
investigations, the nature of science, cultural capital, school poverty quintile

Introduction
South Africa’s learner achievement in mathematics and science has been unsatisfactory in both
local and international assessments (e.g. National Senior Certificate, Annual National Assessments,
Southern and East African Consortium for Measurement of Educational Quality (SACMEQ) and,
most of all, the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). The 2003 TIMSS
report shows that less than a third of the learners watched a demonstration or conducted an
experiment or investigation (Reddy, 2006). Much of the low performance can be attributed to the
fact that SA mathematics and science teachers are among the least qualified and lack properly
functioning schools (e.g. (Reddy, 2006; Long 2007). South Africa has one of the highest indices of
educational inequality in the world (World Bank, 2007). The degree of educational inequality
correlates with the Gini index of income inequality. The inequalities may map to the education
system and disadvantaged schools may continue to carry the brunt of neglect. Participation in
science fairs may potentially provide learners with high level experiences of inquiry science.

Teaching science has traditionally meant that learners frequently sit listening passively or
transcribing notes to commit to memory while teachers talk about the content, structure and results
of scientific knowledge. This implies that the practical experience of the nature of science might be
inadequate for many learners. The Expo for Young Scientists, a science fair sponsored annually by
the power utility ESKOM in South Africa, offers learners an opportunity to engage competitively in
scientific investigations that are in keeping with the principles of scientific inquiry and curriculum

106
requirements. Many studies indicate that hands-on activities such as science fair projects are central
to the epistemology and appeal of science (e.g. Abrahams, 2009; Abrahams & Sharpe, 2010). In
light of the potential the Expo offers, this study sought to explore factors influencing learner
participation in the Expo and to make recommendations for future redress. Such an exploration is
pertinent in initiating and debate about levelling the playing field. In order to fulfil this purpose, the
remainder of this paper first frames hands-on activities in science within scientific inquiry
principles and then discusses Bourdieu’s (1986 cultural reproduction theory as a possible
explanatory framework for learners’ ability to participate and to succeed in the Expo. Secondly the
research questions are formulated and the methodology adopted for the study is elaborated upon.
Thirdly, the results are presented, discussed and conclusions drawn, and recommendations made.

Levels of scientific inquiry

While (Bell, Smetana & Binns, 2005) state that at its heart inquiry is an active learning process in
which students answer research questions through data analysis they point out that the most
authentic inquiry activities are those in which students answer their own questions through
analyzing data they collect independently. The superlative ‘most’ suggests the existence of levels of
authenticity. Bell et al. (2005) affirm that an activity can still be inquiry based when the questions
and data are provided, as long as students are conducting the analysis and drawing their own
conclusions. Building on (Rezba, Auldridge and Rhea’s (1999) work, Bell et al. (2005) propose a
hierarchy of four levels of inquiry activities, viz:

Level 1 - Confirmation activities

Students are provided the question and the procedure and the expected results are known in
advance. For example laboratory experiments to verify results that are already known.

Level 2 – Structured inquiry activities

Students investigate a teacher-presented question through a prescribed procedure but results. Both
level 1 and 2 are commonly referred to as ‘cookbook labs’ since they contain step by step
instructions. The difference is that level 2 activities answer a research question or it can also be a
matter of timing in that a Level 1 activity can become a Level 3 activity by presenting the
experiment before teaching the target concept.

Level 3 – Guided inquiry activities

Students design or select the procedure to carry out the investigation. A teacher presented question
features but the methods and solutions are left open to the students. Guided inquiry activities have
the potential to take student engagement and ownership to a new level. However, the teacher still
has to approve the procedures and ensure that proper safety precautions are taken before the
investigation is carried out.

Level 4 – Open inquiry activities

Problems, solutions, and methods are left to the student and science fair projects are the most
common form of level 4 inquiries.

Level 4 activities assume that students have had prior experience with Levels 1-3 activities. That is,
students cannot be expected to conduct high level inquiry investigations after having participated
exclusively in low-level activities (Bell et al. 2005). Accordingly students cannot be expected to
participate successfully in Expo type projects unless they have a strong foundation of scientific
inquiry activities at all levels in their science classrooms. However, the quality of student
participation may, not just be a proxy for the quality of instruction received but also the quality of
out-of-school support provided which implies links to Bourdieu’s theory of cultural reproduction.

107
Bourdieu’s cultural capital theory

To avoid reducing the social world to a series of instantaneous mechanical equilibria between
agents Bourdieu (1986), proclaims the imperative to reintroduce the notion of capital, in all its
forms, together with its accumulation and all its effect. He argues that the structure of the
distribution of the different types and subtypes of capital at a given moment in time represents the
inherent structure of the social world, i.e. the set of constraints, inscribed in the very reality of that
world, determining the chances of success for practices. Sullivan (2003) defines cultural capital
loosely as “those cultural traits that help people to gain educational success’. Bourdieu (1986; 1987)
claims that cultural capital or better, informational capital can exist in three forms: in the embodied
state (or long-lasting dispositions of the mind and body); in the objectified state or cultural goods
(such as pictures, books, dictionaries, instruments, machines, etc); and in the institutionalised state
(such as educational qualifications). He claims that the notion helped him to explain the unequal
scholastic achievement of children from different social classes, i.e. the profits obtained by the
children in the academic market. In other words, success in modern societies is facilitated by the
possession of cultural capital and of higher-class habitus2 (Sullivan 2003).

This theory suggests that students’ are distributed in the overall social space according to the
volume of cultural capital they possess and according to the composition of their capital, i.e. the
relative weight of the various forms of capital (economic, cultural, social and symbolic) (Sullivan
2003). Therefore students with higher accumulations of cultural capital in the form of educated
parents, higher socio-economic status, attendance of elite schools, would appear to stand a better
chance of success in educational endeavours which may include participation with success in
science fairs. Bourdieu’s concept of cultural reproduction is epitomised when cultural success
breeds educational success which in turn breeds cultural success. That is, according to Bourdieu’s
theory of cultural reproduction, cultural resources associated with the middle-class home facilitate
the acquisition of educational credentials (Bourdieu, 1977) which underwrite success in life. The
school poverty quintile on the other hand is an indicator of the socio-economic status of the school
in South Africa on a scale ranging from 1-5 from poorest to the least poor schools (Kanjee &
Chudgar, 2009) and to that extent can serve as an indicator of accumulated cultural capital.

Research questions

The aim of this study was to explore the factors influencing Expo participation and success rate of
learners from different school quintiles in order to make recommendations for future improvements.
To achieve this aim the following research questions guided the study: What factors impacted the
participation rate of schools? What factors impacted the success rate of schools?

Methodology

The methodology adopted for the study was a quantitative design. To address the research questions
participation records were analysed in terms of school types (representative of the economic,
cultural and social capital accumulations of learners) and the medals and special prizes won. The
sample of participating schools was a total of 37 primary and secondary schools, The total number
of learners who participated was 329 of whom 153 were juniors (grades 7-9) exhibiting 97 projects
and 176 were seniors (grades 10-12) exhibiting 113 projects. Since all schools that participated
were included in the analysis, this was a purposive sample. Of the 329 learners 112 were male and
217 were female. The total number of eligible schools was determined through a navigation of the

2
Habitus is a set of attitudes and values held by the members of a social class[17].

108
Western Cape Education Department’s website according to district. The results of the participation
and success rates were analysed statistically using the appropriate graphs, tables and indices.

Results

Analysis of the Expo participation rate of schools by type

Overall, 36 schools participated in a region consisting of four districts with a total of 712 schools of
all types. The overall participation rate was therefore about 5.1% of all eligible schools. Of the 36
schools that participated more than fifty percent of them were high schools and only 13.5% were
primary schools and the rest were either intermediate or combined schools. The intermediate and
combined school entrants were largely grades 7-9 and 10-12 suggesting a bias towards secondary
school learners in these schools in keeping with the region’s emphasis. Figure 1 is a pie chart
showing the proportion of schools that participated by type.

Figure 1: Participation of schools by type

Table 1 shows the distribution of school participation by distance from the venue. Some schools
had to traverse long distances by virtue of the rural nature of the districts that make up the
Stellenbosch region

Table 1: Participation rate by school distance from the venue.

Distance
0<d<20 20<d<50 50<d<200 200<d<300 300<d<400 400<d Total
from venue
No. of
participating 6 10 9 2 9 1 37
schools

For state funding purposes, South African schools are classified according to poverty quintiles as
described above. More money is allocated to poorest schools and less is allocated to the least poor
schools. The quintile score of a school is calculated based on the national census data for the school
catchment area with respect to income, unemployment rate and level of education (Kanjee &
Chudgar, 2009) which correlates with the cultural capital accumulated by the school. Figure 2
shows participation of schools by poverty quintile levels 1-3 and 4-5. At 70.3% the least poor
schools clearly dominated the participation rate.

109
 Fig. 2: Proportion of school participation by poverty quintile category

Figure 3 is a graphic illustration of the participation rates of learners by grade category

(junior/senior) and school poverty quintile category and confirms the numerical dominance of
learners from the quintiles 4-5 category. Although the least poor school participation rate stood at
70.3% the participation by number of learners and projects averaged 84% in both junior and senior
categories. This meant that the majority of learners who participated in the Stellenbosch region
Expo in 2010 came from well-to-do schools

Figure 3: Participation of learners by grade level category and school poverty quintile

Analysis of the Expo success rate of schools

The Expo awards were of two kinds: medals and special prizes. Judges awarded marks in three
parts, Part A (maximum of 30 marks for written communication of the project as contained in the
poster and the project file), Part B (maximum of 20 marks for oral communication in the interview
of the learner(s)) and Part C (maximum of 50 marks for the overall scientific and originality levels
of the research investigation project). An exhibit was awarded a gold medal if it scored 80% or
above, a silver medal for a score of 70-79% or a bronze medal for a score of 65-69%. Special prizes
were awarded to best projects in categories sponsored by various organizations.

Overall the schools in the quintiles 1-3 category won 4 medals and two special prizes out of a total
of 137 medals and special prizes awarded in the event. That is, schools in quintiles 1-3 although

110
constituting 29.7% of the schools that participated (and 15.3% of the learners that took part)
actually won only 4.4 % of the medals and special prizes. Fig. 4 graphically illustrates the success
rate by medal or prize type and school poverty quintile category. Ninety-six percent of the gold
medals, 97% of silver medals, 96% of bronze medals and 93% of special prizes were won by
schools in quintiles 4-5. Only one gold medal was awarded to a school in the quintile 1-3 category
out of eleven schools in this category. Ten out of 26 schools in the quintiles 4-5 category managed
to win gold medals but 12 (7 plus 5) or nearly half of the gold medals were scooped by the two best
schools in this quintile category. Sixteen of the schools in the quintiles 4-5 category did not win any
gold medal.

Fig. 4: School success rate by medal type and school quintile category

Furthermore, Table 2 shows the Spearman-rank correlations between the success rate of the school
at the Expo and school fees levels, as well as between the number of computer laboratories and
science laboratories. The results suggested a strong positive correlation between the school income
level and success at the Expo and a fairly strong correlation between the number of laboratories and
the success rate at the Expo.

Table 2: Spearman-rank correlations for participating schools

Variables of correlation Value
Correlation between success rate at the Expo and school income level 0.7
Correlation between success rate at the Expo and number of laboratories 0.6

Discussion of results

Factors influencing the participation rate at the Expo

That only 5.1% of total eligible schools (or 17.3 % of high schools) participated in the Expo,
suggested that it was a fairly exclusive club. That only one percent of primary schools eligible
attended, reflected the absence of emphasis in encouraging them to participate although it could be
a logistical challenge if all of them attended. That of those schools which participated 70.3% were
in the quintiles 4-5 category suggested that participation in the Expo was largely for elite schools.

111
However, the varied income levels of schools in quintiles 4-5 (R220-R445003 per annum per
learner) suggested that the allocation of some schools to this category could have created an illusion
that they were well-resourced. Distance was a major deterrent, even though ten schools located
more than 300 kilometres away from the venue managed to participate courtesy of corporate
funding for the furthest district. Limitations imposed by distance could, however, be overcome by
decentralisation of the preliminary rounds of the Expo to district level but more funding would have
to be mobilised from the corporate sector. The participation of girls exceeded expectations as two in
every three participating learners were female. A factor partly accounting for this unexpected
distribution could have been the location of two quintile 5 girls high schools close to the venue and
together accounting for close to 25% of the girl participants. By contrast, a quintile 5 high school
for boys also located in the proximity of the venue opted to participate in another region.

Factors influencing the quality of success at the Expo

The success rate as measured by the number (and type) of medals and special prizes won evidenced
gaps in the quality of projects between school poverty quintile categories. That 26 schools in the
quintiles 4-5 category between them won 96% of the prizes was evidenced the gaps in the quality of
guidance learners received. However, not all so-called quintiles 4-5 schools produced high quality
projects. More surprising though, was that about half the gold medals were won by two schools
making it a non-contest for the eleven that did not win any medal at all. On the surface of it this
suggested that some schools participated without adequate preparation to enhance their learners’
chances of success and teachers of such schools needed more support from the university
organisers.

That school success rate correlated strongly with school income as measured by school fees levels
(coefficient of 0.7) and the availability of infrastructure as measured by the student to laboratory
ratio (coefficient of 0.6) suggested that schools which were under-resourced (with poorer socio-
economic capital) stood a worse off chance of participating effectively in the Expo and a worse off
chance for dispensing effective mathematics and science education on a routine basis.

Conclusion

The results of this study suggest that factors that worked in favour of participation were school type,
school distance from the venue and school poverty quintile. Factors that favoured success were
largely school socio-economic status (school poverty quintile) as a proxy not only of the
accumulated cultural capital of the learners but also accumulated economic and social capital. The
poorer quality of projects produced by schools in the lower poverty quintile category suggested
weaker school and out-of-school cultural capital support systems. This study thus concurs with
Taylor’s (2011) observation that township school learners find it difficult to compete at science fairs
fairly with learners who have laptops when they don’t have any themselves. This study also appears
to support the claim by Spaull (2011) that South Africa’s education system is still predominantly a
tale of two schools: one which is wealthy, functional and able to educate students, while the other is
poor, dysfunctional, and struggling to equip students with the necessary skills they should be
acquiring in school.

Acknowledgements

This study was made possible courtesy of the author’s research portfolio at SUNCEP. I am also
grateful to Erika Hoffman, a facilitator at SUNCEP acting in her capacity as the Stellenbosch
Region Coordinator of the Expo, for assisting me with data collection.

3
1US$ = R10.00

112
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Quigley, C., Pongsanon, K. & Akerson, V. L. (2010). If we teach them, they can learn: young
students’ view of nature of science during an informal science education program. Journal of
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capacity building. New York, NY: World Bank

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Analysis of Pre-Service Teachers’ Problem-Solving Characteristics in
Solving Chemistry Problems.

Olufunlayo Ikedolapo OLOYEDE & Poncian Obert TAGUTANAZVO

Department of Currriculum and Teaching ; University of Swaziland
[email protected] ;    [email protected]    

Abstract
This article deals with the analysis of the problem-solving characteristics of 204 pre – service
chemistry teachers in the Manzini and Hho – Hho Regions of Swaziland, using the framework of
the explicit problem solving strategy (EPSS) adapted from Huffman (1997). Two research questions
were raised. Three instruments were used to collect data for the study. These were: Chemistry
Problem – Solving Test (CPST), Mathematics Skill Test (MST) and Chemistry Achievement Test
(CAT). The CAT and MST were used for the selection of the sample for the study. Data analysis of
the written responses of 204 pre-service teachers to the selected four problems in the CPST and
retrospective interviews revealed that, the problems were partially translated into appropriate
chemistry; chemistry representations were incomplete; mathematical equations did not match
representations; when an obstacle is encountered incorrect mathematics was used; there was also
incomplete organised progression in solutions; and the answers were appropriately stated but not
reasonable. However, chemistry representation and checking solution were two out of the six
characteristics that were more pronounced. These observed characteristics were similar to those of
novice problem solvers reported in the science education literature. It was concluded that the pre-
service teachers involved in this study possessed the characteristics of novice problem solvers.
Therefore, it is recommended that efforts should be made by Teacher Trainers to improve the
problem-solving behaviours of pre – service chemistry teachers.

Key words: problem-solving characteristics, pre-service teachers, explicit problem solving

strategy.

Introduction

The acquisition of a body of organised knowledge in a particular domain of science and the ability
to solve problems in that domain are the major goals of most science instructions (Oloyede, 2011).
Most of the works have been done in physics (e.g. Simon & Simon, 1978; Larkin & Reif, 1979;
Reif, 1981; Larkin, 1983; Huffman, 1997; Gok, 2010). There appeared to be few articles in
chemistry (Adigwe, 1993a&b: Danjuma, 2012) and the present article reports one of the studies that
is on knowledge acquisition and problem solving in this domain. Problem solving as a goal-directed
behaviour requires mental representations of the problem and the subsequent application of certain
methods or strategies in order to move from an initial, current state to a desired goal state
(Metallidou, 2009).

Researches in the domain of physics were aimed at identifying the similarities and differences
between novice and expert problem solvers. Larkin & Reif (1979) reports that novice problem-
solvers tend to spend little time in representing the problem and quickly jumped into quantitative
expressions. In solving mechanics problems, Larkin (1983) explains that the representation is an
internal one that contains entities corresponding to the real-world objects referred to in the problem
such as blocks, pulleys, and spring. This representation enables the novice (inexperienced) problem
solver to simulate how objects would behave in real situation but provides little guidance in
selecting principles for application. While expert (experienced) problem solvers, in addition to
having internal (naive) representation, construct physical representation involving qualitative

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analysis of the problem before writing down the equations. The qualitative analysis according to
Larkin & Reif (1979) includes a verbal description or a picture which serves as a decision guide for
planning and evaluating the solution. This extra step facilitates the efficient completion of further
solution step and the expert problem solver is able to successfully complete the solution in less time
(Gok, 2010).

Eylon and Linn’s (1988) review of science education researches reveals that, response time between
occurrences of different physics principles in experts protocol suggest that they are not stored
individually, but rather coordinated in meaningful “chunks” (e.g. energy principles, force principles,
etc. ) and providing students with such chuncks seems to improve their problem-solving
performance. Experts also have lower cognitive load on their short-term memory and can devote
more memory to the process of solving the problem (Sweller, 1988). Chi, Feltovitch and Glaser
(1981) assessed how problem-solving information was stored by asking experts and novice
physicists to categorise physics problems. They found that novices tended to rely on the superficial
information in the problem. In contrast, experts tended to categorise problems using the information
required to generate solution. Experts easily access the subject matter knowledge (krammers-Pals,
Lambretch, and Wolff, 1982) and the procedural skills needed to solve the problem (Elylon and
Linn, 1988). Procedural skills such as planning, testing and reformulating are general to many
problems. Experts mainly employed problem recognition plus working forward strategy, accessing
a general procedure already available in the long-term memory. While novices attempted a means-
ends analysis to create a solution procedure; if unsuccessful, they switched to blind working
forward. Experts have three successive representations of problems: an initial representation
involving a keyword or images of apparatus, abstract representation capable of qualitatively
simulating a solution, and a mathematical representation. Novices sometimes had incomplete
abstract representations.

Explicit Problem-Solving Strategy

The information generated from researches on the differences between experts and novice problem-
solving has helped in the development of problem-solving models that promote acquisition of
advanced skills in solving problems in science. One of such models found in science education
literature is the explicit problem-solving strategy (EPSS). The strategy as documented in (Huffman,
1997) is composed of five stages as follows: focus on the problem; describe the physics; plan the
solution; execute the plan; and evaluate the answer. Though, many stepwise problem-solving
strategies were found in the literature ( Polya, 1945; Selvaratnam, 1983;Selvaratnam, 1990;
Johnstone & Otis, 2006 ) that have been used in describing problem-solving processes and also
modelling instruction aimed at improving problem-solving performance. However, from an
analysis of the stages of some of these strategies made by the authors, it was observed that they
were not described in operational terms and therefore, difficult to apply in the classroom or used in
describing problem-solving processes. But the explicit problem-solving strategy is one of the
models that do not have this limitation. Because, there is a systematic organization of the thinking
processes required for problem-solving into generalized step-by-step operational procedures with
each step linking the other. Research evidence (Huffman, 1997; Mohammed, 2009) have shown that
students who acquired the explicit problem-solving strategy exhibits more advanced problem-
solving performance, including better description of problems, more extensive planning, and more
complete solution.

Hence, the explicit strategy was used in this study on problem-solving behaviours of Diploma pre-
service teachers to analyse and describe problem-solving characteristics in solving selected
chemistry problems. The major purpose of the present study is to describe problem-solving
characteristics of pre-service teachers in solving selected problems in chemistry using the explicit
problem-solving model. The study sought to answer the following research questions,

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 1. What is the nature of the problem-solving characteristics of pre – service teachers in solving
chemistry problems?
2. What is the pattern of the problem-solving characteristics of pre – service teachers in solving
chemistry problems?

Methodology

Design of the Study

The research was a descriptive study that employed the explicit problem-solving model adapted
from Huffman (1997) in analysing and describing the problem-solving characteristics of pre service
teachers. The design involved both quantitative and qualitative methodology for data analysis.

Participants

The participants in this study were two hundred and four pre service teachers drawn from the
population of five hundred and seventy nine, 2nd and 3rd year pre service Diploma in Education pre
– service teachers majoring in chemistry and those that have taken chemistry as a non-major
teaching subject from three colleges of education located in Swaziland.

Instrument for Data Collection

The instruments developed and used by the researcher to collect data were, chemistry achievement
test (CAT), mathematics skill test (MST), chemistry problem-solving test (CPST) and retrospective
interview. The CAT and MST were used for the selection of the sample for the study. The CPST
was a four-item free response test and was the major instrument. Each item in the test represents
one of the four topics in chemistry (i.e. composition of chemical substances, stoichiometry, gas
laws, and electrolysis. See Table 1). The CPST was designed based on the measurement criteria for
problem-solving tests reported in the literature (Malone, Douglas, Kisane and Mortlock, 1980). In
addition, CPST model answers and a scoring guide (see Table 2) were developed and used for
scoring the written responses of the pre service teachers. As a problem-solving free-response test,
the CPST has no time limit because respondents were required to record all the details of their
thinking as they solved the problems. At the end of the testing session, an interview with each
participant was conducted by the researchers and research assistants, during which the respondents
were asked to describe in detail their solution processes and thinking as they solved each of the
problems, give reasons for their action, and their feelings about the CPST items. Notes of their
responses were taken down during the interview.

Table 1: Chemistry Problem Solving Test (CPST)

Chemistry Problem Solving Test (CPST)

Instruction
Attempt all questions. You are expected to show clearly all the steps you have taken to arrive at
your answer, including all rough works. You should also show how you have confirmed that your
answer to each of the question is the correct answer. Direct all enquiries to your invigilator. Do not
take away this question paper.

Q1. A gas at a pressure of 5.00 atm was heated from 0oC to 546oC and simultaneously
compressed to one third of its original volume. What will be the final pressure in atm?

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Q2. When aqueous copper (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI) was electrolysed between copper
electrodes, masses in grams of the electrodes before experiment were the anode 9.20g and
the cathode 7.75g. After the experiment, it was found that the mass in grams of copper
anode was 6.00g. Calculate the mass in grams of copper cathode at the end of the
experiment.

Q3. Given the equation below, what mass of ammonia would be produced from 1.0 mole of H2
and excess nitrogen?

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Q4. A strip of pure copper having a mass of 3.178g was strongly heated in a stream of oxygen
until it was converted to the black oxide. The resultant black oxide has a mass of 3.978g.
Calculate the percentage composition of the black oxide?

Table 2: CPST Scoring Guide

Chemistry Problem-Solving Test Scoring Guide

Focusing the Problem
Is the problem translated into appropriate chemistry?
Score
0 = Nothing written
1 = Problem not translated into appropriate chemistry
2 = Problem partially translated into appropriate chemistry
3 = Problem completely translated into appropriate chemistry
Describing the Chemistry
Is the chemistry representation complete?
Score
0 = Nothing written
1 = Representation is barely there (i.e. most variables missing)
2 = Representation is incomplete (i.e. picture, sketch and some variables not define).
3 = Representation is complete
Planning the Solution
Are the mathematical equations consistent with representation?
Score
0 = Nothing written
1 = Equations do not match representation
2 = Equations partially match representation
3 = Equations completely match representation
Executing the Plan
Aside from minor mistakes, is the mathematics correct?
Score
0 = Nothing written
1 = When an obstacle is encountered, execution is terminated.
2 = When an obstacle is encountered, inappropriate mathematics is used.
3 = Execute correctly and completely (or with only minor corrections).
Organizing Solution
Does the solution appear to be organized?

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Score
0 = Nothing written
1 = Unorganized progression (i.e. haphazard manipulation of equations)
2 = Incomplete organized progression
3 = Complete means-end organized progression
Evaluating the Solution
Does the solution appear to be proper and reasonable?
Score
0 = Nothing written
1 = Solution is not properly stated (signs or units have been omitted)
2 = Solution is properly stated but not reasonable
3 = Solution is properly stated and reasonable

Method of Data Analysis

Data analysis involved judgement of the participants’ written responses to the CPST items based on
the 5-step explicit problem-solving model adapted from Huffman (1997). The model provides a
detailed framework for evaluating problem-solving characteristics from the pre - service teachers’
written responses.

Results

Research Question 1: What is the nature of the problem-solving characteristics of pre –

service teachers in solving chemistry problems?

Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviation of the Problem-Solving Characteristics of the Pre-
service Teachers in Solving Each of the Four Items in the CPST

Problem-solving CPST Max. CPST item CPST item CPST item CPST item
Characteristics Score per
characteristics 1 2 3 4
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Problem Translation 3 2.10 0.67 1.13 1.14 0.88 0.91 1.21 1.02

Chemistry Representation 3 2.05 0.65 1.50 1.24 1.36 0.89 1.61 0.91

Match of Equations 3 1.84 0.93 0.87 0.90 0.87 0.85 1.42 0.90

Mathematical Execution 3 1.53 0.83 0.84 0.89 0.71 0.68 1.24 0.84

Organized Progression 3 1.58 0.81 0.88 0.90 0.78 0.69 1.19 0.80

Checking the Solution 3 1.74 0.77 1.23 1.03 1.12 0.96 1.52 0.88

Results from Table 3, showed that chemistry representation and checking solution were the
characteristics that stand out of the six problem-solving characteristics for each of the CPST items.
This situation becomes much clearer when the mean of each characteristic was plotted on a
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histogram (Figure1).

Figure 1: A plot of the mean scores of each characteristic for the four CPST items.

Research Question 2: What is the pattern of the problem-solving characteristics of pre- service
teachers in solving chemistry problems?

To check whether a general pattern could be seen in solving each of the CPST items, the mean
scores for each characteristic presented in Table 4 were again plotted on histogram (Figure 2). A
comparison was made based on their college specialization, academic level and gender. This is
shown in figure 3 through 5.

Table 4: Mean and Standard Deviations showing the General Pattern of the Problem-Solving
Characteristics for each category of the Pre-service Teachers in Solving the CPST Items

Problem-solving Max 200Level 300 Level 200 Level 300 Level

Characteristics Score Chem. Chem. Non-Major Non-Major
Major (M2) Major (M3) (N2) (N3)

n = 57 n = 66 n = 40 n = 41
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Problem Translation 12 5.22 2.10 5.58 2.29 4.50 2.49 5.76 2.39

Chemistry Representation 12 0.65 2.01 7.09 2.05 5.33 2.31 6.34 2.40

Match of Equation 12 4.89 2.12 5.39 2.10 4.00 2.14 5.15 2.17

Mathematical Execution 12 4.44 1.93 4.50 2.06 3.73 2.15 4.49 2.17

Organized Progression 12 4.46 2.00 4.64 2.08 3.75 2.00 4.71 2.06

Checking the Solution 12 5.82 2.10 5.97 2.28 4.73 2.50 5.46 2.32

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Figure 2: A plot of the mean scores for each characteristic for the four categories of the pre
service teachers.

Figure 3: A plot of the mean scores for each characteristic for the college specialization of the
pre service teachers.

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Figure 4: A plot of the mean scores for each characteristic for the academic levels of the pre
service teachers.

Figure 5: A plot of the mean scores for each characteristic for the male and female pre service
teachers.

From figures 2 through 5, a general pattern in the performance of problem solving characteristics of
the pre service teachers could be deduced thus, chemistry representation>checking
solution>problem translation>match of equations>organised solutions>mathematical execution.
This pattern was the same across college specialization, academic level and gender.

Discussion.

Translating the Problem into Appropriate Chemistry

From the results obtained, the pre - service teacher were partially able to translate items into
appropriate chemistry. This observation was found to be common irrespective of their academic
121
level, subject specialization and gender. Further analysis of their written response and retrospective
interviews revealed that some of them were unable to explain qualitatively their understanding of
what the questions were asking for.

Completeness of Chemistry Representation

The results showed that the pre – service teachers’ chemistry representations in the solutions of the
CPST items were incomplete. Even though they were able to identify and define some of the
variables, yet they could not define other variables. The observed behaviour was common among
the pre service teachers. For instance, most of the pre service teachers could not define V1 and V2
in CPST item 1, and this led them to obtain wrong answers. Huffman (1997) explains that novice
problem solvers do not usually represent the essential features of the situation described in the
problem before solving the problem in great detail. However, from the results obtained, there was
an appreciable amount of chemistry representation in the pre service teachers’ responses when
compared with the other five characteristics.

Matching Mathematical Equations with the Chemistry Representation

The mathematical equations used by the pre service teachers to solve the CPST items could
be considered as partially consistent with their chemistry representations. The situation was more
pronounced with CPST items 2 and 3. These two items had the lowest means of 0.87 each and
standard deviations of 0.90 and 0.85 respectively. The means were far less than the maximum
obtainable score on the scale in the CPST scoring guide. Eylon and Linn (1988) had argued that
experts appear to develop the ability to plan their problem-solving approach through experience and
that planning becomes more unimportant as individuals gain expertise because the knowledge
increases.

Mathematical Execution

The results showed that, when an obstacle was encountered, inappropriate mathematics were used
by the pre service teachers to solve the CPST items. The situation was more pronounced in the
solutions of CPST items 2 and 3.

Organizing the Solution

Based on the results obtained from the CPST scoring guide it can be concluded that there were
incomplete organized progression in the responses of the pre service teachers’ to CPST items. The
situation was more pronounced among 2nd level pre service teachers. However, the observed
behaviour may be attributed to experience in solving problems which increases with academic level.
In general, all the four categories of the pre service teachers have not shown an appreciable level of
performance of this characteristic. They do not behave like the experts.

Checking the Solution

Judging from the results obtained, the pre service teachers’ solutions to the CPST items were
properly stated (i.e. answers stated in correct units) but not reasonable.

Conclusion.
From the findings, it was concluded that the pre-service teachers involved in this study possessed
the characteristics of novice problem solvers. The implication of this to pre-service chemistry
teacher education programme in Swaziland, is the need to improve their problem-solving
behaviours. This can be achieved through the teaching of the skill using strategies that help in

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developing advanced problem-solving skills such as the explicit problem-solving Strategy.

Recommendation.
The Diploma curriculum planners should look into the possibility of including the teaching of
problem-solving in the chemistry curriculum. This can be achieved by developing courses on
problem-solving in chemistry where various strategies, methods, tactics and expert-like
characteristics for solving problems would be taught.

References

Adigwe, J. C. (1993a), Pre-service chemistry teachers’ misconceptions in chemical equilibrium.

Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 28(1&2), 70-76.

Adigwe, J. C. (1993b). Pre-service chemistry teachers’ misconceptions in chemical kinetics.

Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 28(1&2), 77-85.

Cohen, J., Kennedy – Justice, M., Pai, S.,Tones, C.,Toomet, R.,De Pierro, E.& Garafalo, F.(2000)
Encouraging meaningful quantitative problem solving. Journalof Chemical Education.77, 1166
– 1173..

Danjuma, I. M., (2012). Relationship of some variables in predicting pre service teachers’ problem
solving performance in chemistry. African Journal of Chemical Education, 2(2), 2-15.

Eylon, B., Linn, M. C. (1988). learning and instruction: An examination of four research
perspectives in science education. Review of Educational Research, 58(3), 251-301.

Gok, T. (2010). The general assessment of problem solving processes and metacognition in
physics education. Eurasian Journal of Physics and Chemistry Education, 2(2), 110-122.

Heyworth, R. W. (1988). Expert-novice differences in solving a basic problem in chemistry.

CUHK, Education Journal, 17(1), 59-72.

Huffman, D. (1997). Effect of explicit problem-solving instruction on high school students’

problem-solving performance and conceptual understanding of Physics. Journal Research
in Science Teaching, 36(6), 337 – 379.

Johnstone, H., Otis, H. (2006). Concept mapping in problem based learning: a cautionary tale.
Chemistry Education: Research and Practice, 7, 84-95.

Krammers-Pals, H., Lambrechts, J., Wolff, P. J. (1982). Recurrent difficulties in solving numerical
problems. Journal of chemical education, 59(6), 509-513.

Larkin, J. H., Reif, F. (1979). Understanding and teaching problem solving in physics. European
Journal of Science Education, 1(4), 191-203.

Larkin, J. H. (1983). Spatial Reasoning in Physics problem: In: B. Eylon and M .Linn, (Eds.).
Review of Educational Research, 58(3), 251 – 301.

Malone, J. A., Douglas, G. A., Kissane, B. V., Motlock, R. S. (1980). Measuring problem solving
ability. In: S. Krulik and R. E. Reys (Eds.). problem solving in school mathematics. NCTM
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Metallidou, P. (2009). Pre-service and in-service teachers’ metacognitive knowledge about
problem-solving strategies. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25, 76-82.

Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Effects explicit problem-solving strategy on achievement and retention

of senior secondary school physics. Unpublished MTech. Thesis, ATBU, Bauchi.

Oloyede,O.I. (2011) A meta – analysis of Effects of the Advance Organizers on Acknowledgement

and Retention of Senior Secondary School (SSS) Chemistry. International Journal of
Educational Sciences, 3(2), 129 – 135.

Polya, G. (1945). How to Solve it. New York: Double-day and Co. Inc.

Reif, F. (1981). Teaching problem solving: A scientific approach. The Physics Teacher, 19, 310-
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Selvaratnam, M.(1983). Mistakes in students’ problem solving. Education in Chemistry, 20, 125-
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Selvaratnam, M.(1990). Problem solving- a model approach. Education in Chemistry, 27 163-165.

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 A case of using Content Representation to design a physics learner-centred lesson.

Makomosela Qhobela1 & Eunice Kolitsoe Moru2

1
Department of Science Education, National University of Lesotho, 2Department of Mathematics and
Computer Science, National University of Lesotho, Lesotho
1
[email protected], [email protected]

This qualitative study reports a case of a physics teacher who was trained on to use the construct of
Content Representation (CoRe) to think about and breakdown the topic of sound into big ideas. The
purpose of this study was to establish the feasibility of CoRe being used to think about and break a
topic such that the teacher can plan for a learner – centred lesson. This study drew its theoretical
framework from Pedagogical Content Knowledge and learner – centred teaching. This qualified
physics teacher had been teaching physics at senior secondary level for approximately three years.
The results show that use of CoRe was helpful in making the teacher to breakdown the topic of
sound and prepare for a learner – centred lesson.
Introduction
The quality of teaching of science and mathematics in Lesotho secondary level classrooms remains
a concern to government and educators equally. The concerns include the observation that many
science classrooms are dominated by traditional teaching strategies and that many schools do not
have laboratories and if they have them there is serious lack of equipment and consumables. Many
schools are beginning to introduce computer studies but still do not have other facilities such as
internet. The survey of needs of teachers of Science, Mathematics, English and Sesotho secondary
level in Lesotho shows that the teaching of science is one of the areas that urgently requires
attention from government and institutions of higher learning (Ministry of Education and Training,
2006). Presently, there is evidence that physics teachers beliefs reflect a disjuncture between the
pedagogical knowledge and classroom practice and that most science teachers in Lesotho use chalk
and talk approaches in almost every lesson (e.g. Qhobela & Moru, 2011). There is a growing
understanding among science education researchers that one way of addressing this problem is
through the promotion of the construct of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) as a way of
thinking about how to present content knowledge to students. In particular, there is an
understanding that teachers need to be able to transform content knowledge so that it can be
accessible to students.
This paper reports on a study which sought to introduce Content Representation (CoRe) as a tool
for promoting learner – centred approaches in physics lessons. The purpose of this paper is to
analyse how using the idea of CoRe assisted a physics teacher to think about and breakdown a
physics topic of sound in preparation for a learner-centred lesson. The paper responds to the
following research question: Does the use of CoRe assist the physics teacher to design a learner –
centred lesson? The study is believed to have a potential of highlighting a possible relationship
between CoRe and planning of teaching of a physics topic.
Literature Review
This study is informed by two theoretical concepts; learner – centred education (LCE) and
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK). The debate about the learner – centredness of a classroom,
in particular, in mathematics and science, has a long history and important implications to the
teaching and learning process. O’Neill and McMahan (2005, p.3) show that the literature on learner
– centred approaches highlights the following themes about its definition: “…some view student –
centred learning as: the concept of the student’s choice in their education; others see it as the being
about the student doing more than the lecturer …; while others have a broader definition which
includes both of these concepts but, in addition, describes the shift in the power relationship
between the student and the teacher.” The current study adopted the 2nd theme “…the student

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 Prompts Big Idea 1 Big Idea 2 Big Idea 3 Big Idea 4
doing more than the lecturer …”. In order to conceptualise this definition Brodie et al. (2002)
principles of principles LCE were found to be important. According to them learning entails
construction and restructuring of knowledge, there is integrity to a learner’s activity at any point in
time, conditions necessary for learning, and the construction of knowledge and social practices are
mediated by the social relations.
Thinking of LCE within a chalk and talk environment can be challenging. Weimer (2002) has
suggested five areas that must change in order for a lesson to be learner – centred. She argues that
the function of content must change such that it is not only used for building a knowledge base but
also be used to develop learning skills and self – awareness. The second area that must change is the
view about the roles of the teacher such that instructional actions should focus on students learning
rather than on the teacher. The third area that must change is the responsibility for learning where
teachers must do everything possible to encourage students to accept this responsibility. The fourth
area that must change is the processes and purpose of assessment where the central issue should be
use evaluation to promote learning. Lastly, she argues that the view about the balance of power
must also change such that teachers reasonably share decision making with students. These five
areas, viewed together with the students doing more theme put to the fore the responsibility of
learning as that of the learner while the teacher acts as a facilitator.
The notion of LCE is directly related to the concept of PCK suggested by Shulman in the 1980’s.
PCK refers to the teacher’s ability to represent and transform content knowledge in a manner that a
student can understand it better (Loughran et al., 2004). The concept of PCK makes it evident that
there are interrelated forms of knowledge areas about the teaching practice that teachers must have
(Magnusson et al., 1999) which includes content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and
contextual knowledge. It can be argued also that PCK incorporates the teachers’ ability to design
and implement a learner – centred lesson. It is implied therefore that when teachers rely on chalk
and talk strategies, interventions that enhances PCK are crucial. A variety of interventions, aimed at
enhancing teachers’ PCK, have been implemented by different researchers. For instance,
Mavhunga and Rollnick (2013) designed an intervention meant to enhance pre-service teachers’
topic specific PCK. They show that training pre-service teachers on how to transform a specific
topic enhances their PCK.
Loughran et al. (2004) introduced a notion of Content Representation (CoRe) as a systematic way
of transforming content knowledge. They have suggested that when teachers design a lesson they
need to think about and break a topic into Big Ideas and to consider the following questions:
1. What do you intend the students to learn about this idea?
2. Why it is important for students to know this?
3. What else do you know about this idea (that you do not intend students to know yet)?
4. What difficulties/limitations are connected with teaching this idea?
5. What is your knowledge about students’ thinking which influences your teaching of this
idea?
6. What other factors influence your teaching of this idea?
7. What teaching procedures will you use and what are the particular reasons for using these to
engage with this idea?
8. What specific ways do you have of ascertaining students’ understanding or confusion
around this idea?
This study used these questions as a way of thinking about a topic and designing a learner – centred
lesson.

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 Prompts Big Idea 1 Big Idea 2 Big Idea 3 Big Idea 4
What do you intent Students should Students should Students should Students should know
your students to know types of know how sound is know how one can audible frequencies for
learn about this waves produced produce loudness normal human being
topic?
Why is it important They should They should They should They should observe
for students to know understand the understand how understand the that sense of hearing of
this idea? difference between sound is generated amplitude of a wave in human being has
transverse and as a wave relation to loudness limitations
longitudinal waves
Which knowledge Background Same Same Same
about your students knowledge from JC
influences how you level
teach this idea?
Which strategies do Learner – centred Same Same Same
you use to teach this approach; asking
idea and why? questions for
learner to respond
since learners from
J.C. have dealt with
sound as a
wave/energy.

Methodology
This qualitative study introduced secondary level physics teachers to using CoRe as a way of
thinking about and breaking down a physics topic in preparation for teaching. This was done
through an intervention in which at least three phases were assumed as important. During the first
phase the teachers were required to give their understanding of LCA. In the second phase teachers
were introduced to an ideal LCA. In the last stage teachers were trained on how to use CoRe to
breakdown a topic. This paper analyses data coming from one of the three physics teachers who
participated until the end of the study. The secondary level school in which the teacher works is in
Maseru. This teacher has a B.Sc.Ed. degree with physics and mathematics as his teaching subjects
and had a teaching experience of about three years at the time of study. He was chosen by virtue of
convenience to researchers to visit his school and was the only one teaching year 4 of the five years
of secondary level education. Data analysed in this paper were collected through a questionnaire,
written responses to CoRe prompts, and video recording. These data was analysed by first
considering the meaning in the CoRe and comparing it with the stages followed during the lesson.
In order to respond to the research question stated above two issues appeared to be helpful. These
are the teacher’s CoRe and the lesson that the teacher conducted. In particular analysis of the
teacher’s CoRe indentified what the teacher expressed as important and what activities were found
to be important.
Results
Analysis of the data above lead to two themes about the use of CoRe. Namely, the teacher’s CoRe
and the structure of the lesson.
Teacher’s CoRe:
Although the entire tool should reflect a holistic picture about how the teacher thought about the
topic four prompts were identified to be important in this paper because of the nature of the problem
that the paper is addressing. Table 1 below shows part of the CoRe the teacher developed prior to
finalising a weekly plan and teaching. The four prompts are: What do you intent your students to
learn about this topic?, Why is it important for students to know this idea?, Which knowledge
about your students influences how you teach this idea?, and Which strategies do you use to
teach this idea and why?

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What do you intent Students should Students should Students should Students should know
your students to know types of know how sound is know how one can audible frequencies for
learn about this waves produced produce loudness normal human being
topic?
Why is it important They should They should They should They should observe
for students to know understand the understand how understand the that sense of hearing of
this idea? difference between sound is generated amplitude of a wave in human being has
transverse and as a wave relation to loudness limitations
longitudinal waves
Which knowledge Background Same Same Same
about your students knowledge from JC
influences how you level
teach this idea?
Which strategies do Learner – centred Same Same Same
you use to teach this approach; asking
idea and why? questions for
learner to respond
since learners from
J.C. have dealt with
sound as a
wave/energy.

Table 1: Teacher T’s CoRe of the topic of Sound

Table 1 shows that T identified four “Big Ideas” about what must be taught under the topic of sound
at senior secondary level; namely Students should know types of waves, Students should know
how sound is produced, Students should know how one can produce loudness and Students
should know audible frequencies for normal human being. The first impression about these ideas
is that they can be identified in the list of content areas that the examining body, Cambridge
University, expects to be covered. This suggests that T was influenced by his knowledge of the
syllabus to break the topic into big ideas. However, big idea 1 (Students should know types of
waves) is more of a subtopic under the topic of waves rather than of sound. Ideally big ideas show
how a teacher thinks about and break the content without necessarily following a more typical
curriculum approach (Nilsson & Loughran, 2011). The responses to the next three prompts are
important in so far as adding clarity on the intentions of the teacher. The first prompt Why is it
important for students to know this idea compels the teacher to think about the importance of
knowing the concept and, importantly, how the concepts relates with different topics in the syllabus.
T’s response to the three big ideas (2, 3, & 4) is concerned only with the comprehension of the
concept and makes no reference to other issues such as relevance to other physics topics. For
instance, in relation to big idea 2 T wrote “They should understand how sound is generated as a
wave”. T is concerned about making students understand the process of generating a sound wave
which is the requirement of the syllabus and does not mention the importance beyond the syllabus.
The next prompt, Which knowledge about your students influences how you teach this idea?,
helps the teacher to think about the effective strategies given his/her knowledge of students ideas
about the topic and other variables such as age, language competency etc. In response to this T
wrote “Background knowledge from JC level”. This response is referring to the prior knowledge T
assumes students learned in the lower secondary level. In other words T was thinking about what
should have been taught at a lower level. T does not make any reference to the alternative
conceptions, attitudes and/or beliefs, or difficulty of learning the topic. The last prompt, Which
strategies do you use to teach this idea and why?, assist the teacher to critically reflect on
strategies that will promote the kind of learning he/she is anticipating. T responded to the prompt by
arguing that “Learner – centred approach; asking questions for learner to respond since learners
from J.C. have dealt with sound as a wave/energy.” T justifies the use of learner – centred

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approaches with an argument that learners have an idea of sound from JC. In general terms the
teacher was able to identify big ideas for the topic but responses for other prompts shows need for
improvement.
The observation therefore is that as T responded to these questions he was heavily influenced by his
knowledge of the sullabus.
Although there are short comings in his CoRe T responded to the question “What was your
impression about the process of preparing for a lesson that demonstrates a learner – centred
teaching? Please explain” in the following manner
T: It makes teaching – learning process simpler in that a learner who is to benefit
get understanding more than if he was lectured. If a learner is much involved, he can
hardly forget what he/she did in teaching – learning process.
In this quote T was asked to reflect on developing the above CoRe. T argues that the process made
him to opt for teaching strategies that promotes learner – centred teaching which in turn helped his
students to understand the concepts better.
The Structure of the Lesson
Table 2 below presents the main characteristics of the lesson in which T introduces different
concepts of the topic of sound. T was expected to implement teaching according to how the process
of developing a CoRe had influenced him.
Time Activity
00:00 – 00:39 The teacher (T) has explained first activity and students (Sts) are asked to
work in groups. They form 4 groups of uneven number of members.
NEXT VEDIO CLIP
00:00 – 12:57 Sts are working in groups, T is assisting and explaining activity from one
group to another. The he gives a worksheet to each group and explains what
Sts are expected o do. Each group started with one sound producing device
and played it. They answer questions and change the device.
12:57 – 15:26 T is leading a whole class discussion. He asks questions and Sts answers and
then T summarises the concept, how sound is produced, and then
introduces the next activity.
15:26 – 27:45 Sts started discussing, T is moving from one group to another, he is
answering Sts questions
NEXT VEDIO CLIP
00:00 – 01:54 Sts are still discussing

01:54 – 04:19 T is leading a whole class discussion on what type of a wave is sound. He
is asking questions and Sts are responding. He is reading the questions from
the worksheet.
04:19 – 08:57 T introduces next lesson which will be on medium of sound and audible
frequencies for normal human beings. He asks Sts to read the textbook
and passage given. Then he asks Sts to ask questions and started moving
from one group to another.
Table 2: T’s first lesson on Sound
Two considerations were made about this lesson. The first one is how learner – centred is the
lesson. One characteristic of the LCA comes to the fore from the table above. That is, activities
show that most of the work was done by students and the teacher was moving from one group to
another offering assistance to students where necessary. At the end of each activity students were
asked to report their conclusions to the whole class and the teacher lead the discussion by asking
questions and summarising the responses students gave. The second consideration relates to the
implementation of the CoRe prompts during the teaching process. Firstly, which T’s “Big Ideas” are
reflected in the lesson? In this lesson T was teaching two concepts; production of sound and a

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sound as a longitudinal wave. Under the topic of production of sound he emphasised the idea
that sound is produced when there is a vibration resulting in compression and rarefaction.
This is big idea 2 in table 1 above. The second idea that T is teaching is that sound needs some
form of a media to travel from the point of production to the eye. This idea is not in the table.
At the closure of the lesson T introduces the next lesson. He announced that they will be dealing
with medium of sound and audible frequencies for a normal human being. The later appears as
the big idea 4 in table 1 above. Secondly, is there any indication of knowledge of students thinking?
There is hardly anything in the lesson that shows that T was aware of students thinking that might
impact on their learning.
Conclusion
The results above highlight the relationship between the process of thinking about and breaking
down the topic and the notion of learner – centred teaching. The process of thinking about and
breaking down a physics topic, sound, was done using the construct of CoRe. The results show that
the teacher (T) could breakdown the topic into big ideas but felt short of identifying the importance
of these ideas and identifying students’ prior knowledge. The other important result is that the
lesson engaged students in different activities and that most of the work was done by the students
while the teacher played a supportive and facilitative role. These are basic element of a learner –
centred lesson. It is also important to note that T related the process of developing a CoRe and
designing a learner – centred lesson.
The implication of this study is that CoRe can be a useful tool in professional development where
teachers are helped to better plan their teaching. Inevitably, it should also be a good tool for helping
teachers to reflect on their teaching.
References
Brodie, K., Lelliott, A, & Davis, H. (2002). Forms and substance in learner-centred teaching: teachers’ take-
up from an in-service programme in South Africa. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 541 – 559.
Loughran, J., Mulhall, P., & Berry, A. (2004). In search of pedagogical content knowledge in science:
developing ways of articulating and documenting professional practice. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 41(4), 370 – 391.
Mavhunga, E. & Rollnick, M. (2013). Improving PCK of chemical equilibrium in pre-service teachers.
African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 17(1-2), 113 – 125.
Magnusson, S., Krajcik, J., and Borko, H. (1999). Nature, sources, and development of pedagogical content
knowledge for science teaching. In Gess-Newsome, J. and Lederman, N. G. (Eds.) Examining
pedagogical content knowledge (35 – 133). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Ministry of Education and Training (2006). Training needs analysis for improvement of the teaching of
English, Mathematics, Science and Sesotho in Lesotho’s secondary schools. Maseru: Government
Printers.
Nilsson, P., & Loughran, J. (2011). Exploring the development of pre-service science elementary teachers’
pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Science Teacher Education. doi:10.1007/s10972-011-9239-
y.
O’Neill, G. & McMahan, T. (2005). Student – Centred Learning: What does it mean for students and
lecturers? In. O’Niell, G., Moore, S., & McMullin B. (Ed.). Emerging issues in the practice of
university learning and teaching. Dublin:AISHE.
Qhobela, M., & Moru, K.E. (2011). Teaching argumentation in learning physics at secondary school level in
Lesotho: A feasible teaching strategy. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and
Technology Education. 15(2), 97 – 111.
Weimer, M. (2002), Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice, Jossey-Bass.

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 The relationship of PCK knowledge to Practice: a case study of two Pre service teachers
teaching Chemical Equilibrium.

Marissa Rollnick1 Elizabeth Mavhunga2

Marang Centre for Mathematics and Science Education, Wits University
1
[email protected]; 2 [email protected]
Abstract
This study investigates the translation of knowledge to practice of two pre-service teachers,
Mangaliso and Sipho after they had been exposed to an intervention aimed at improving their PCK
on teaching chemical equilibrium. Their PCK knowledge was assessed through an analysis of
Content Representations they constructed in a major assignment during the intervention. After the
intervention both teachers taught chemical equilibrium to grade 12 classes and the lessons were
video recorded and analysed. Data presented in this paper suggests a successful transfer of
knowledge to practice by the two pre-service teachers for the big idea related to the nature of
chemical equilibrium.
Introduction
Pre-service teacher education has undergone many changes in the past 30 years. Controversies exist
about many aspects of the programme but one of the most contentious issues is the mode of
delivery of the content and its methodology. Between the science content and methodology lies the
students’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) which refers to their ability to transform content
knowledge for teaching. The name PCK was first introduced by Shulman in 1986, though the
concept has been in existence far longer. PCK is regarded as tacit knowledge gained in practice
(Kind, 2009) and thus difficult to pass on to others. Most importantly, it is topic specific (Mavhunga
& Rollnick, 2013) and thus needs to be learnt for every topic taught. There is also debate about the
relationship between knowledge and enactment of PCK and the extent to which the construct is
personal or canonical. This study investigated the extent to which PCK knowledge learnt in course
work can be translated into practice by pre-service teachers during school experience.
This study compares two pre-service teachers’ construction of CoRes (Loughran, Berry, & Mulhall,
2006) on chemical equilibrium with their video recorded implementation in practice and seeks to
answer the following questions:
1. What is the quality of PCK that is captured and portrayed by the two pre-service teachers as
demonstrated by their CoRes constructed after an intervention aimed at teaching them topic specific
PCK in chemical equilibrium?
2. What is the quality of PCK that is captured and portrayed by the student teachers as
demonstrated in their lessons as taught during their school experience shortly after the intervention?
3. What is the relationship between the quality of their PCK knowledge and practice?
Background
Much has been done in the 27 years since Shulman first introduced the idea of pedagogical content
knowledge as the knowledge used by teachers to transform content into a form that can be used in
the classroom. A look at the literature suggests that despite an enthusiastic uptake of Shulman’s
ideas, there have been as many models of PCK as there are researchers. In two reviews by Abell
(2007) and Kind (2009), both researchers attest to the multiplicity of representations and
terminology in the area and agree that thinking about PCK has yet to unify into a single paradigm.
Since these reviews, a summit convened in October 2012 in Colorado has produced consensus
definitions and a model for both personal and canonical PCK and the relationship between
knowledge and practice (http://pcksummit.bscs.org /). Much research has also been devoted to
capturing and portraying PCK using CoRes and PaP-eRs (Loughran, Mulhall, & Berry, 2004), but

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fewer attempts have been made in science education to assess its quality. Part of the problem in this
regard is the lack of agreement that still exists over what exactly is being assessed. In our view, the
value of PCK for improving the quality of teaching lies in its topic specific nature.
Different models of PCK are employed in the studies cited above but our interest is predominantly
in topic specific PCK. To this end we have developed the construct of topic specific PCK
(Mavhunga & Rollnick, 2013) which is related to Ball et al.’s specialised content knowledge for
teaching (Ball, Thames, & Phelps, 2008). Hence we regard topic specific PCK as the understanding
that provides the needed knowledge for Content Knowledge (CK) transformation in a particular
topic. When a specific topic is thought through, certain topic specific components of PCK are
considered. We identify these as
A. Learners’ Prior Knowledge
B. Curriculum Saliency (deciding what is important for teaching and sequencing)
C. What makes topic easy or difficult to understand
D. Representations including powerful examples and analogies
E. Conceptual Teaching Strategies.
These categories are closely related to the eight prompts used in Loughran et al.’s (2004) CoRes to
capture the teaching of big ideas on a topic, viz. “What do you intend students to learn about this
idea?”; “Why is it important for students to know this?”; “What else you might know about this
idea (that you don’t intend students to know yet)?”;“Difficulties/limitations connected with teaching
this idea”; “Knowledge about students thinking that influences your teaching of this idea”; “Other
factors that influence your teaching of this idea”; “Teaching procedures” and “Ways of ascertaining
students’ understanding of this idea”.
The PCK summit in Colorado referred to above made important distinctions between knowledge
and practice as their consensus model in fig 1 shows:

Figure 1: Consensus model for PCK (http://pcksummit.bscs.org /).

The model shows teachers drawing on professional knowledge bases to produce topic specific
professional knowledge which aligns closely with our construct of topic specific PCK and its five
components as articulated above. As knowledge is translated into practice, various effects operate in
the form of amplifiers and filters. These are related to beliefs and orientations and learning context.

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This paper investigates the interface between knowledge and practice in the case of two pre-service
teachers who have been exposed to an intervention on the teaching of chemical equilibrium.
Research Design and Methodology
To answer the above research questions, a qualitative case study was conducted involving two pre-
service physical science teachers, pseudonyms Mangaliso and Sipho in their final year of study.
They were part of a group exposed to a 6 week intervention aimed at improving their PCK on
chemical equilibrium (Mavhunga & Rollnick, 2013). The results of the intervention showed a
significant improvement of the group in both their topic specific PCK (TSPCK) and their content
knowledge. During the intervention they completed a major assignment where they completed an
adapted CoRe based on the components of topic specific PCK mentioned above. A month later two
of the teachers, had an opportunity to teach the topic chemical equilibrium during their school
experience where they were video recorded and interviewed on their reflections on the lessons. The
CoRes produced for their major assignment and video recordings of their lessons on chemical
equilibrium constituted the data for this study. Figure 2 shows the adapted CoRe skeleton used in
the study. The highlighted sections indicate the changes from Loughran et al.’s (2006) original
CoRe.

Figure 2: Adapted CoRe used in the study

In the earlier study (Mavhunga and Rollnick, 2013), the TSPCK of the pre-service teachers was
measured using a specially designed tool based on the five components of TSPCK enumerated
above before and after the intervention. The tool was scored using a rubric which classified the
teachers as having limited (scored 1), basic (scored 2), developing (scored 3) or exemplary (scored
4) TSPCK. To analyse the CoRes the rubric was adapted from the one used for the original tool. An
extract of the adapted rubric for component A, learners’ prior knowledge is shown in figure 3 below
again the variations from the original rubric are highlighted. The deleted portions show where
portions form the original rubric were removed as the format of the CoRe did not enable such
judgments to be made. The scoring was peer validated and agreement of 80% was obtained.

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 Figure 3: Adapted rubric on Learner Prior knowledge
Sipho and Mangaliso were placed at the same school, a former white government school located in
an inner city area, now populated only with black learners. Chemical equilibrium is taught in grade
12, a class not normally allocated to student teachers but the school was faced with the sudden
departure of the regular grade 12 teacher and the two pre-service teachers agreed to fill the gap as
part of their school experience. The classes were not large, both containing less than 30 learners
each, evidence of the selective nature of the subject.
In all, each teacher taught 4 lessons on chemical equilibrium during school experience but for this
paper only the data pertaining to one big idea is analysed, that of the nature and conditions of
chemical equilibrium (open and closed systems the dynamic nature of chemical equilibrium). For
this big idea, Sipho taught 2 lessons of about 40 minutes and Mangaliso taught one and a half
lessons. The lessons were recorded with permission from both learners and the pre-service teachers
and both teachers responded to pre and post lesson interviews for which audio recordings are
available.
The videos were analysed thematically and not transcribed except for sections needed for
illustrative purposes. The themes sought in the videos were the components A to E of TSPCK
outlined in the theoretical framework above. Important representations used on the blackboard
were captured as still images and key teacher explanations under components were transcribed.
Findings and Analysis
The first question posed above interrogates teacher knowledge and was answered through analysis
of the CoRes constructed by the pre-service teachers. Additional data relevant to their knowledge
from the intervention was also used, such as the scores from the TSPCK tool and their performance
on a content post test addressing grade 12 chemical equilibrium and well known misconceptions.
This last score was used as an indication of their content knowledge (CK)
The scores for the two pre-service teachers on the 5 knowledge components in both the TSPCK
tool, the CoRe and their CK is shown in table 1 below:

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Table 1: Scores for the two pre-service teachers on CK, Post TSPCK and CoRe TSPCK

Attribute Sipho Mangaliso

CK Score (%) 56 72
A: Learner Prior knowledge (Tool) 4 3
A: Learner Prior Knowledge (CoRe) 4 4
B: Curricular Saliency (Tool) 4 3
B: Curricular Saliency (CoRe) 4 4
C: What is difficult to teach (Tool) 3 3
C: What is difficult to teach (CoRe) 3 3
D: Representations (Tool) 4 4
D: Representations (CoRe) 4 3
E: Conceptual Teaching Strategies (Tool) 3 3
E: Conceptual Teaching Strategies (CoRe) 4 4

Table 1 highlights several noteworthy points. Firstly, in all cases except for Mangaliso’s score on
representations, the tool was a more stringent test of TSPCK than the CoRe. This is thought to be
because the CoRe allows more scope for the respondents to express themselves than the tool where
the questions are quite specific. The second point is that both pre-service teachers have relatively
high TSPCK scores - between developing (3) and exemplary (4), despite Sipho’s rather mediocre
CK score. Since CK is thought to be a necessary precursor to TSPCK this is noteworthy. However
it needs to be said that Sipho’s CK score was about average for the larger intervention group while
Mangaliso’s was high.
The TSPCK scores suggest that both pre-service teachers are accomplished given their level of
experience. A qualitative look at the CoRe suggests that both of them have learnt a considerable
amount from the intervention they participated in prior to the school experience. Table 2 shows the
big ideas suggested by the two (underlined), together with their response to the prompt, “What do
you intend learners to know about this big idea”.
Table 2: Big Ideas for teaching Chemical Equilibrium

Sipho Mangaliso

Systems - A closed chemical system is What is Chemical Equilibrium? - Define

reversible if the products can change back to equilibrium, open and closed systems, A
reactants, dynamic and closed system reverse reaction, Dynamic equilibrium
Disturbing equilibrium position: that Factors that affect Equilibrium - How
equilibrium has been established under certain temperature, pressure and concentration affect
conditions of temperature and pressure dynamic equilibrium
Equilibrium constant: When a chemical Equilibrium Constant - How to get equilibrium
reaction is at equilibrium, a ratio of the constant, understand the effect of temperature,
concentration of the reagents can be calculated, pressure, concentration on its value.
this ratio is called the equilibrium constant Importance of high and low values of Kc and
value of Qc
Application of equilibrium principles: If a Application of Equilibrium Principles - State
system that is in equilibrium has been LeChateliers Principle, solve problems using le

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 Sipho Mangaliso

disturbed, there are different principles that can Chatelier’s principle, work with graphs
be used to establish how the equilibrium showing equilibrium phenomena, applying rate
position will change in order to oppose the and equilibrium principles for processes like
disturbing influence Haber process, common ion effect, use of
catalysts

Since the class worked together on the big ideas during the intervention, it is not surprising that
their big ideas are very similar. What is interesting is that both pre-service teachers place “factors
affecting equilibrium/disturbing chemical equilibrium before the more fundamental construct of Kc,
the equilibrium constant. However the most fundamental aspect of learning chemical equilibrium is
establishing its nature and so for the rest of the paper we will focus on the first big idea which
establishes two fundamental ideas - that of the necessity for a closed system in equilibrium
reactions and the dynamic nature of chemical equilibrium.
Both Sipho and Mangaliso showed awareness of well known misconceptions that learners have
regarding this big idea, again through their exposure to these ideas during the intervention and
Sipho mentioned explicitly that typical misconceptions are - that concentrations of reactants and
products are equal at equilibrium, every closed system is at equilibrium, equilibrium means reaction
completion. Mangaliso on the other hand, mentioned that learners confuse dynamic and static
equilibrium and that when a reaction reaches equilibrium there is no further change, and that it is
difficult to understand that chemical reactions do not carry on to completion. All these suggestions
are valid examples of learner prior knowledge and again show learning from the intervention.
With regard to representations, Sipho suggested only the use of the double arrow but in his
description of conceptual teaching strategies he suggests the use of concentration time graphs and
the containment of reagents in a closed system before symbolically representing them. For
conceptual teaching strategies, Mangaliso talks of a demonstration using a closed pot where water is
boiled, a “hands on” practical using the NO2/N2O4 equilibrium, a series of examples to identify as
closed or open systems and the use of sub-microscopic representations. His descriptions of
representations are rather generic, referring to macroscopic and symbolic representations without
being specific. As can be seen, some of the representations are integrated into the conceptual
teaching strategies, so these two categories have been dealt with together. Again the two pre-service
teachers show signs of benefiting from the exposure they received during the intervention, though
the nature of their choices suggest different teaching styles with Mangaliso favouring more learner
participation.
To answer the second question posed above, we turn to the lessons taught during school experience.
These were taught immediately after the intervention. Analysis will again focus on the first big idea.
As mentioned above, both teachers spent well over a single lesson to establish the concepts
open/closed system and dynamic/static equilibrium. Of great interest is the manner in which each
teacher explicitly addressed the misconception that the concentrations of reactants and products are
equal at equilibrium and the correct idea that the chemical reaction continues at equilibrium.
Mangaliso used a number of representations showing dynamic and static equilibrium which he had
prepared on the chalk board prior to the lesson as shown in figure 4.

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Figure 4: Representations of static and dynamic equilibrium
He also successfully elicited further examples from the learners, showing that in the case of
dynamic equilibrium the reaction continues at equal rates in both directions.
Both lessons address the idea that the concentrations of reactants and products are constant but not
necessarily equal at equilibrium. Sipho drew the representation on the board shown in figure 5.

Figure 5: Sipho’s concentration time graph

He spent considerable time and effort showing the class that the concentration of the products
increases from zero to a constant value while that of the reactants consequently decrease to a
constant, but different value. Addressing a similar diagram, Mangaliso told the class:
“ ..... dynamic equilibrium, where the concentration of the products and the reactants cease to change. OK? So
they are not changing here. So within this vessel, within this vessel (Draws on board) where we are reacting
nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia, I have the 3 substances in it. I have the 3 substances in the same
vessel. Simply because this, (points to board) the concentrations of the reactants are not finished and you also
have the formation of the product that you should expect that in the very same vessel, or system, we still have, we
still have hydrogen and we still have (inaudible), but in different, but in different concentrations. (Draws on
board) The concentrations, this is where we reference the concentrations. These ones have decreased, and have

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 stopped at a certain point at 0,5 mol per litre, and these ones have increased but have stopped at a certain point.
And that is a point of dynamic equilibrium, where the concentration of reactants and products cease to change in
a reaction.” - Mangaliso - equilibrium lesson
Sipho made the same point with greater emphasis on the misconception
S: What can you say about concentration?
Learner: It is constant
S: (Marks graph) - So for every reaction that is at equilibrium, for every reaction you should
be able to draw this graph for every reaction where you have that .. double arrow you should be able to draw
this graph. From this graph, now you can see that the concentrations are not equal ... at this stage are the
concentrations equal? NO! (Marks the graph) - if this is 5, this will be 4 or 3 so the reactants are not... but the
rates which is concentration over time IS equal. Sipho equilibrium lesson
In the post lesson interview, Sipho expressed satisfaction with his lesson:
Very much effective and even more than I had planned I actually taught a lot more than that - I managed to
move them from rote learning to understanding. - Sipho post lesson interview
Conclusion
The findings above show that both teachers gained a great deal from the intervention on chemical
equilibrium. They were able to show developing to exemplary TSPCK both in the post test tool and
in the CoRe they developed as part of the major assignment during the intervention indicating
sophisticated topic specific knowledge professional knowledge (Figure 1). More significantly they
were able to develop this knowledge effectively into classroom practice through skilful mediation
of appropriate representations and questioning of the class with respect to the first big idea they had
planned in their teaching. The teaching of this first big idea is essential to the understanding of
chemical equilibrium but it is frequently not given sufficient time and care in teaching. Teachers
often hasten over the understanding of the concept of equilibrium in favour of the more algorithmic
calculations which are often tested in public examinations.
The evidence presented in the paper show that in at least one important conceptual idea, these
teachers were able to effectively translate their knowledge into practice in a less than ideal context.
This evidence also suggests that it is possible to advance the TSPCK of novice teachers in a
particular topic despite evidence that PCK generally can only be gained in practice.
References
Abell, S. A. (2007). Research on Science Teacher Knowledge. In S. A. Abell & N. G. Lederman (Eds.),
Handbook of Research in Science Education (pp. 1105-1150). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
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14.

Acknowledgement
We gratefully acknowledge the support of the NRF and Sasol who funded this study

138
Teleological and anthropomorphic thinking, and misconceptions about
biological adaptations in Natural Sciences textbooks

Martie Sanders
Animal, Plant, and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
[email protected]

The use of teleological and anthropomorphic statements in the teaching of science has been a
contested matter in the literature. While some scientists, biological philosophers, and educators can
see the problems they cause, it is also recognised that they have pedagogical value, often helping
students to understand certain science concepts more easily. This paper reports on an analysis of
teleological and anthropomorphic statements appearing in 11South African Natural
Sciencestextbooks from sixpublishers, insections dealing with biological adaptationsand natural
selection (the mechanism by which adaptations occur). It is arguedthat the use of such statements
promotes several common misconceptions associated with the unscientific ‘evolution on demand’
alternative framework about adaptations and natural selection. Problems of sequencing of chapters,
not linking explanations of adaptation with the process of natural selection, and missing
explanations, are discussed.

Conceptual framework for the study

The supporting framework for the study is built on a longstanding debate involving philosophers
(e.g. Ruse, 1971; Ayala, 1970), evolutionary biologists (e.g.Mayr, 2004 and1982; Thorpe, 1978),
and science educators (e.g. Zohar, &Ginossar, 1998;Tamir, 1985; Jungwirth, 1977 and
1975)aboutthe problematic useof anthropomorphic and teleological statements in biology. The
literature seems more concerned with teleology, but in fact it is anthropomorphism which is the
greater cause for concern when teaching biological adaptations. Anthropomorphism refers to “the
attribution of human characteristics or behaviour to a god, animal or object” (Soanes& Stevenson,
2006, 56), while teleology involves “the doctrine of design and purpose in the material world”,
explaining “phenomena by the purpose they serve ratherthan by their … causes” (Soanes&
Stevenson, 2006, 1481).
Many authors argue that teleological thinking in the natural world is “illegitimate” (Zohar
&Ginnossar, 1998, 679),or an “invalid principle” (Mayr, 2004, 23). Mayr (2004) explains that
teleology was a prevalent way of thinking amongst biologists until Darwin provided natural
selection as a way of answering “why” questions in biology—i.e. providing a causal explanation for
the structural and behavioural adaptations of living things.Mayr explains a teleological worldview
as characterised by a world tending towards improvement or leading to a definite endpoint or goal,
a Lamarkian notion implying purpose, intention, and goal-directed behaviour, long since rejected by
scientists.Some realise that it may depend on the type of teleological statement being used
(Lombrozo, & Carey, 2006).Mayr (2004) identifiesfour different ‘types’of teleology recognised by
biologists.
1) telematic processes (in which an endpoint seems predetermined by pre-existing properties
caused automatically by necessity). Scientists acknowledge endpoints, but not their purpose.
Telematic processes are common in the physical world, for example, lightning striking a tree, but
can’t answer ‘what for/ why’ questions common in biology (Mayr, 2004).
2) teleonomic processes (where seemingly goal-directed behaviours exist, e.g. a cleaving zygote).
Biologists understand that such processes are a consequence of genetic programming, rather than
an intentionally goal-directed endpoint determined by living organisms.
3) purposive behaviours purportedly by thinking organisms: Such behaviours seem common in
the animal kingdom, and suggest human-like psychological consciousness, and intention with

139
 some purpose in mind, e.g. storing of seeds and nuts by some birds or animals, and the hunting
strategy used by lionesses. Such thinking is anthropomorphic and teleological. Scientists explain
adaptive behaviours as having evolved by natural selection of existing favourable traits in
populations, rather than being a result of conscious thinking and planning by
individualorganisms.
4) adapted features (structures or behaviours produced by evolutionary processes, which before
Darwin were usually attributed to a feature given by God). However, Darwin realised these were
simply a function of (caused by) natural selection acting on favourable variations in a
population.If a statement implies any cause other than natural selection it becomes teleological.
Teleological statements are sometimes difficult to recognise (depending on the type). The
seemingly innocuous statement the function of the heart is to pump bloodis teleological as it implies
that the heart has that structure in order to serve that purpose (i.e. it evolved like that to serve that
purpose).Jungwirth (1977) says the problem is that people take teleological statements literally and
not metaphorically, onlythe latter being acceptable in biology(Jungwirth, 1975).
Although teleological statements are considered invalid, a number of authors give various reasons
why teleology should be accepted in science education. Some argue that because humans tend to
think anthropomorphically and teleologically we should simply accept this type of reasoning
(Zohar, &Ginossar, 1998),especially because anthropomorphic and teleological thinking are
particularly common in young children—what Kelemen (1999, 464) refers to as “promiscuous
teleology”. Several authors argue that teleological statements are pedagogically effective in helping
students understand some science conceptions (Talanquer, 2007; Tamir, 1985).Kelemen (1999,
461) describes it as a “highly functional” way of thinking which is “a primary component of human
cognition” (Kelemen, 1999, 463). She points out it is particularly characteristic in children, who
view all structures (living and non-living) as ‘for’ something, whilst adults tend to limit teleological
thinking to living things.Teleological thinking is used to explain why things exist.Teleological
wording could simply be an issue of semantics of how researchers word questions (what is it for?–
unacceptable teleology), instead of what purpose does it serve? (scientificallyacceptable). A further
reason for condoning teleology is that the link between structure and function is strongly
emphasised in the teaching of biology. Zohar and Ginossar(1998, 679) argue that the taboo on
teleology should be removed for several additional reasons: teleology is not “universally
rejected”;such statements are common in the popular media; and students don’t increase their use of
teleology when such statements occur in their textbooks. Tamir (1985) and Mayr (2004) point out
an additional heuristic benefit of teleological thinking, which can stimulate scientists’ investigations
into why certain structures exist, leading to valuable new discoveries. However, Tamir (1985) and
Beggrow and Nehm (2012) argue that when students see such statements as causal this results in
misconceptions. This is the major concern I address in this paper. Tamir and Zohar (1991) found
two types of teleological reasoning – one independent or anthropomorphism, and the other closely
linked to it.
It is the latter that is an obstacle to understanding natural selection (Galli, &Meinadi, 2011), causing
problems when students learn about biological adaptations (which scientists accept is a consequence
of natural selection). These authors point out that the risk is that people start to interpret evolution
as being directed towards certain goals, such as the need to survive(teleological thinking which
interprets change as being caused by an organism’s need to survive, usually in situations of
environmental change or different food sources). In fact natural selection is not forward-looking,
and occurs when existing phenotypic features (genetically controlled) confer survival and
reproductive advantages on individuals, resulting in their greater (relative) reproductive success,
which cases the ‘favourable’ alleles to become more prolific in the population over many
generations—evolution by natural selection (Futuyma, 2009; van Dijk and Reydon, 2010; Gregory,
2009).Mayr (2004, 61) concludes “None of the four recognised teleological processes works
backward from an unknown future goal; there is no backward causation”.
Anthropomorphic reasoning, seeing adaptation as humans would see it, with desires and intentions
140
directing behaviour of adapting organisms (Tamir, 1985), or causing structural changes, leads to an
alternative framework (an unscientific way of thinking which leads to numerous separate
misconceptions) which Jensen and Finley (1995, 156) describe as “evolution on demand”. This
misleading notion of adaptation is used to support six associated misconceptions that: 1) individual
organisms adapt; 2) usually in response to changing environmental conditions or food sources; 3)
by intentionally initiating changes; 4) because they “need” to do so in order to survive [the ‘adapt or
die’ mentality]; 5) that they do this within their lifetimes; and that 6) these acquired ‘adaptations’
will be passed on to their offspring. The combination of anthropomorphic and teleological thinking
is very evident in this alternative framework, with individual organisms being endowed with a
human-like ability to reason, predict, and control their phenotypic traits (implying they can also
control their genotype). An overarching teleological mindset prevails, with the cause of adaptations
erroneously being attributed to the changing environmental conditions, and the response of
individual organisms not ‘wanting’ to be wiped out.

Context of the study

In the South African Revised Natural Curriculum Statement(RNCS) for Natural Sciences(and hence
the textbooks) adaptations of plants and animals are often dealt with in earlier chapters, or even
earlier grades, than natural selection, which is the process by which adaptations occur. This is
probably done because adaptations seem such simple and obvious processes which show the
relationship between form and function. For example, adaptations of plants for various pollination
mechanisms, or to different environments in which they live, or animal adaptations for feeding or to
their surrounding environment, are dealt with. At that stage students have not yet learned about
natural selection, which is the mechanism for adaptation (and thus its cause)so misconceptions can
arise.Furthermore, research has shown that many South African textbooks contain misconceptions
(Makotsa, 2012; Tshuma, 2012).
Revisions to the South African curriculum policy are currently being phased in using a policy
statement document known as CAPS (the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement). Whilst
natural selection has now been removed from the curriculum, sections on adaptations still remain,
now without an explanation for their cause, this carries an enormous threat for the scientific
understanding of adaptations. If the mechanisms for such change are not explained, the chances are
much greater that the numerous common misconceptions about adaptations, well documented in the
literature, will occur.

Biological adaptations
Adaptations have developed as a consequence of natural selection occurring over many generations
within a population of organisms, and to be fully understood adaptations should not be taught
before natural selection is explained. In order to avoid the six common misconceptions listed
earlier, students MUST know the following: that individuals in a population [all individuals of a
species living in a particular area] show variation in their observable features, and that this variation
is a consequence of genetic variation; that some variations are more advantageous than others, in
certain situations, and individuals thus endowed will be reproductively more successful than those
without the feature, resulting in the favourable alleles becoming more frequent in the gene pool of
the population; and that this change in alleles (and hence phenotypes) over many generations causes
the population to adapt (evolve). Individuals cannot evolve, only populations.
Thompson (2008) points out the problem with the use of the word “adaptation”, is that it is used as
a euphemism for “evolution”. Whether this is done inadvertently, or purposely used as an avoidance
tactic for not raising concerns about people having to learn about evolution, is irrelevant. Many
people do not realise that when they learn about adaptations they are actually learning about
evolution. Adaptations should more accurately be called “evolutionary adaptations” so that the
cause of adaptations being natural selection is better understood. An additional problem is that
‘adapt’ has an everyday meaning different to the scientific one, which causes students difficulties.

141
Methods
Content analysis was used to investigate the nature and extent of teleological and anthropomorphic
statements in Grade 7 to 9 textbook sections dealing with biological adaptations, and the occurrence
of the six ‘evolution on demand’ misconceptions. Eleven textbooks from six different publishers
were analysed.
Both manifest and latent misconceptions were identified. Fraenkel, Wallen, and Hyun (2012)
explain manifest errors as statements which are patently incorrect, whilst latent errors describe
statements which imply errors, depending on how they are interpreted. Teleological statements were
identified by the use of causal ‘risk-terms’ (Tshuma, 2012) or ‘marks of teleological statements’
(Jungwirth, 1975, 244). These include, for example, ‘the function of’, ‘in order to’, ‘to’, ‘for’, ‘so
that’. Jungwirth points out that it is not just the vocabulary which indicates teleology, but the
logical structure of the sentence. Thus all means-end statements implying cause were also counted.
Anthropomorphic statements were recognised by wording implying thought, conscious intention,
design, or goal-directed behaviour, typical of human thinking. Tamir (1985) points out that whilst
this may be appropriate for humans it is not legitimate thinking regarding other animals, or for
plants. Risk-terms for identifying anthropomorphic thinking included terms such as ‘designed to’,
‘need’, and ‘want’ and any specific verbs implying thought or intention, such as ‘the plant seeks
light’, ‘plants prefer wet soil’ or ‘the plant attempts to reach the water’ (Tamir, 1985, 21).Jungwirth
(1975) discusses the debate in the literature about whether or not all teleological statements are also
anthropomorphic, but I have acknowledged that anthropomorphism and teleology can occur
independently or together, as was indicated by Jungwirth (1977),Tamir (1985) and Tamir and Zohar
(1991).

Results
The results of the analysis are summarised in Table 1. Variation in the grade levels is a consequence
of the Revised National Curriculum Statement (Natural Sciences) not specifying at which grade
topics should be taught, and different publishers dealing with adaptation in different grades. It
should be noted that many misconceptions associated with a ‘survival of the fittest’ alternative
framework were found in the textbooks, but are not reported on in this paper.

Teleological and anthropomorphic statements were found in all textbooks, except Book 7, which
avoided all potential problems by dealing with adaptations as an activity with no feedback, and no
links to natural selection. It is very important to note that whilst many misconceptions and
teleological statements were manifest (clearly worded misconceptions or clearly recognisable
teleological statements) the majority were latent errors. Latent errors involve subtle but
inappropriate wording which can be misconstrued and interpreted as misconceptions or teleology.
Two factors which contribute to latent errors were noted. Firstly, sometimes there were ‘gaps’ in
explanations—where problems could arise because something is hinted at but not fully explained.
e.g. “living things adapt by chance or accident” with no further explanation of how this happens
(Book 6, p. 80). In many instances these gaps occur in assessment tasks, where seemingly
innocuous and thought-provoking questions about how organisms are adapted to certain conditions
are asked without discussing answers. Table 1 shows that this problem was quite frequent. Unless
accurate scientific answers linking to natural selection of chance variations are provided the risk is
that answers given by students and teachers could well contain the misconceptions which research
shows are often held by students and teachers. The problem is thus not manifest (actual) but
potential, and hence latent. Secondly, sometimes using the organism as the subject of the sentence
makes a statement anthropomorphic and teleological, e.g. “most animals cool their body by
sweating” or “desert animals have to use other ways” or ”animals protect themselves” (Book 6),
“animals camouflage themselves”, “a male wants to impress the female” (Book 11). Such
statements make it sound as if the animals are purposely doing this (anthropomorphism) in order to
survive (teleology). These problems could be avoided by making the consequence and not the

142
organism the subject of the sentence; making generalisations rather than referring to specific
organisms; or avoiding risk-terms such as ‘in order to’ or ‘to’ which make actions sound intentional
when in fact they are caused by chance genetic variations which have become selected for in
populations living in particular conditions. Examples of more appropriate wording are: “bodies are
cooled …as sweat evaporates”; “A special blood system in the nasal passages cools blood before it
goes to the brain”; “water is stored in the thick fleshy stem”; “thorny plants are damaged less than
plants without thorns” (Book 6).

Table 1: Summary of problems identified in the textbooks (n = 11)

Publisher A B C D E F
Textbook series i i i ii iii i i i
Textbook number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Grade 7 8 8 9 7 8 8 2 9 7 8
Anthropomorphism 1 12 2 6 14 3 10 12
Teleology 8 15 20 8 16 17 3 10 6 12
Individual organisms adapt 2 3
In response to changing conditions 1 3 1 1 2 1
By purposefully initiating changes
Because they need to adapt, or will 1 2 1 1
die
They do this in their lifetimes
Changes pass to the offspring 1 1
Assessment tasks with no answers 3 5 3 10 1 4 All Most 2
Adaptations linked to natural Yes Yes Yes Yes No Partial No No Yes No No
selection
A high number of problems may be a reflection of more pages on the topic, rather than extensive problems

A further threat was identified. Nehm, et al. (2009) point out the risk of segregating ideas which
should be integrally linked so that appropriate mental models can be constructed. Table 1 shows
that five of the eleven books did not link the sections on adaptation to explanations on natural
selection, although several books did an excellent job of explaining adaptations in terms of natural
selection (Books 3,4, 6, and particularly 9), although one (Book 6) used the correct scientific
explanations without using the terms ‘natural selection’ or ‘evolution’. A good strategy to avoid
problems is to combine all adaptations (e.g. for feeding, protection, pollination) into the same
chapter, as is done in Book 6.
Assessment tasks without answers are also latent problems potentially resulting in misconceptions
going undetected and unaddressed. Book 7 dealt with adaptations in a short chapter done
completely by activities, and provided no follow-up explanations. We had been told by an author at
a workshop we ran for publishers and textbook authors (Sanders, Tshuma, & Makotsa, 2012) that
one publisher had instructed authors that if they did not understand natural selection they should
simply insert an activity, thus avoiding having to ‘teach’ the topic.
It is important to note that while student misconceptions can be introduced to students by teachers
or textbooks, textbooks and teachers can also play a big role in identifying and addressing
misconceptions as, done in Books 3 and 9. Book 9 has excellent outcomes worded to address
common misconceptions, in a chapter on biodiversity, change and continuity (unfortunately coming
AFTER the section on adaptations). Furthermore, it links natural selection with adaptations so it is
clear that adaptations are caused by natural selection. e.g. it shows nest-building behaviour in birds
is an inherited adaptation passed on genetically, and points out that learned behaviours are not
inherited or adapted. It points out that adaptations cannot change in the lifetime of an organism
(addressing misconceptions 1 and 5 in Table 1), giving an example that if a seed from a forest plant
blows into the desert it still becomes a forest plant, and does not adapt itself to become a desert

143
plant, and that “a mouse that lives on a river bank and swims every day does not develop
flippers”(Book 9, p. 75). Clear efforts are made to address misconceptions, e.g. “if you read that a
plant or animal ‘adapted itself to a new environment’ you will know this statement is wrong” (Book
9. p. 72) which deals with changing environments as a situation which MIGHT arise. The latter
example addresses misconception 2 in Table 1, which was the most frequent misconception found
in the textbooks, although often a latent rather than a manifest error. But the erroneous assumption
was clear in at least half the books that environmental change is required for adaptation to occur.
Book 9, however, clarifies that adaptations occur all the time, and then focuses on what happens IF
conditions change.

Conclusion
Zohar and Ginossar (1998) advocate lifting the taboo on teleology in biology, supporting the
arguments by various educationists that the use of teleology in teaching biology helps students to
understand some concepts better. In the case of teaching adaptations, which are no more than
evolution by natural selection, I contend that we cannot lift the taboo—that we should in fact
enforce it—because teleological and anthropomorphic thinking are likely to lead to misconceptions
about the cause and process involved in biological adaptations. These misconceptions are reported
in the research literature to be very common, and widespread. Mayr (2004, 43) argues that “final
causes … are far more plausible and pleasing to the layperson than the seemingly haphazard and
opportunistic process of natural selection”.
This study reveals that South African junior-level textbooks dealing with the topic of adaptations
contain many examples of anthropomorphic and teleological wording, and that these seem to be
associated with both manifest and latent errors, i.e. actual misconceptions, as well as inadequate or
misleading statements which could induce misconceptions. A bigger potential threat is that so many
books do not link adaptations to the mechanism by which they happen (natural selection). Authors,
publishers, teachers, curriculum developers, and researchers need to collaborate to address the
problem.

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The potential influence of Life Sciences examinations on misconceptions about
evolution

Lashantha Reddy and Martie Sanders

Animal, Plant, and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
[email protected] and [email protected]

The problem identified internationally of students typically entering evolution courses with
numerous prior unscientific beliefs about evolution is also prevalent in South African schools.
South African research attempting to identify sources of such ideas as a starting point for addressing
the problem has identified teachers and textbooks as two probable factors, supporting similar
findings from international studies. This paper investigates a third possible source—matriculation
examination papers and memos. Because teachers and students use past papers as teaching and
learning resources, any errors in such papers are likely to have a backwash effect which both
perpetuates and promulgates misconceptions in the classroom. This paper reports on the content
analysis of evolution-related questions in five years of Life Sciences matriculation examination
papers and memoranda (n=12) from two examination boards. Problems identified (including actual
misconceptions in questions and memoranda, as well as a number of latent errors) suggest that
South African matriculation Life Sciences examination papers and memoranda are a probable
source of misconceptions about evolution, and that problems in the papers are also likely to affect
the performance of students writing the examinations.

The problems motivating the study

International studies show that many school pupils have unscientific ideas about evolution (e.g.
BouJaoude, Wiles, Asghar, & Alters, 2011; Prinou, Halkia, &Skordoulis, 2008), a finding
replicated in South Africa (Kagan & Sanders, 2013; Schroder, 2012; Yalvac, 2011; Lawrence,
2011). Erroneous ideas are problematic because they are often difficult to change, may hinder the
ability to learn new concepts (Freyberg & Osborne, 1985), and may even lead to the development of
additional or more complex misconceptions (McComas, 2006).
In order to address the problem of misconceptions it is necessary to first identify what causes them.
In the case of evolution, both international (e.g. Yates &Marek, 2013; Rutledge & Mitchell, 2002)
and South African research (e.g. Schroder, 2012;Pillay, 2011) shows that many teachers, the very
people expected to address misconceptions in the classroom, themselves possess misconceptions
and may cause rather than address misconceptions. In addition, many South African teachers lack
the pedagogical content knowledge that is needed to help them address their pupils’ misconceptions
(Molefe, 2013). Furthermore, South African support materials that would normally help teachers to
address erroneous ideas about evolution, such as curriculum documents and textbooks, also contain
misconceptions (Makotsa, 2012; Tshuma, 2012). Because examination papers and memoranda are
used by many teachers to prepare their pupils for examinations, these are afurther possible source of
misconceptions (Levy Nahum, Hofstein, Mamlok-Naaman, & Bar-Dov, 2004), including in biology
(Boo, 2005).

The aim of the study

The aim of this study was to analyse South African Grade 12Life Sciences matriculation
examinations and memoranda to investigate to what extent, and in what ways, the matriculation
examinations and memoranda might influence misconceptions about evolution, and how
problematic wording of examination questions and memoranda might affect the performance of
students writing the examinations.

146
 scientific understanding of evolution

The conceptual framework for theabout

misconceptions paper
evolution
learners textbooks
Conceptual frameworks are literature-based scaffolding structures which help researchers design
and interpret their research. They contain broad concepts relevant to the research, and the presumed
relationships
unscientific possible
between them
ideas taught (Milessources of
& Huberman, 1994). Good quality research requires a thorough
misconceptions about evolution
review of such concepts and relationships, to provide a guiding framework for researchers, helping
them to word suitable research questions, design appropriate exams investigations, and interpret the
teachers
results, all based on a thorough knowledge of the existing literature and relevant theories in the field
unscientific ideas
being investigated. Three main concepts (to be discussed in further detail later in the
backwash effect
paper)underpinned the research design and interpretation of the results for this study, as shown in
Figure 1.
Figure 1: Conceptual framework for the study
The
scie
ntifi
c
und
erst
and
ing
of
evol
utio
n:
Boo
ks
and
articles by evolution authorities (e.g. Futuyma, 2009) as well as science education researchers (e.g.
van Dijk&Reydon, 2011; Gregory. 2009) were reviewed, as one cannot recognise misconceptions
about evolution without comparing statements to the scientific explanations to identify
discrepancies.
Common misconceptions about evolution: An extensive literature review was conducted on the
common misconceptions about evolution so that these misconceptions could be identified if
encountered in the examination papers and memoranda.
Sources of misconceptions about evolution: In order to address misconceptions it is important to
identify their sources. A search in the literature revealed both in-school and out-of-school factors
(the latter not pertinent to this study). The in-school factors include students themselves, if they
construct unscientific ideas as they learn about evolution. However, textbooks and teachers
(Jiménez Aleixandre, 1994) and examinations and memoranda (Boo, 2005) are possible sources of
misconceptions.
Spolsky (1994) suggests that errors in examinations are perpetuated in the school system by a
‘backwash effect’, when teachers use past examination papers in their teaching, or students access
them when they prepare for examinations. Originally used in the field of English linguistics, the
terms ‘washback’ (Alderson& Wall 1993) and ‘backwash’ (Hughes 1989; Spolsky, 1994) have
been used to refer to the way examinations affect teaching and learning. We use the latter as it is a
familiar term, more likely to be understood. Alderson and Wall (1993) and Cheng (1997) point out
that if an examination is of good quality it can have a positive effect on teaching and learning (an
aspect investigated by most researchers looking into the backwash effect). Ahmad and Rao (2012)
and Spratt (2005) see exams as a tool to be used to promote curriculum change in classrooms.
Numerous studies have found teachers use past examination papers to maximise their students’

147
chances of success.
Spolsky (1994) focuses his definition of ‘backwash’ on unintended outcomes of past exams, rather
than their positive impact, and we did the same in this study. Examinations and memoranda can also
have a damaging effect if they are flawed (for example, by containing actual misconceptions, or
implying misconceptions by erroneous or incomplete examination memoranda), and are used as
classroom teaching and learning materials. They are thus likely to perpetuate the misconceptions to
students by the backwash effect (Boo, 2005; Spolsky 1994).
Few researchers have looked at the link between examinations and misconceptions they may
contain. Whilst Boo (2005) did so he used his research to make claims about misconceptions held
by the teachers who set the papers. Levy Nahum et al. (2004), whose article mentions
misconceptions, looked at the way teachers used past exam papers, and how this impacted on
teaching and learning, rather than reviewing misconceptions in the papers.

Research methods and design

All available final external matriculation Life Sciences examination papers and memoranda (n=12)
from the main two examining boards were analysed from the time that evolution was first included
in the South African matriculation examination in 2008 until the last paper written at the time of the
study(2012).
Content analysis was used to identify manifest and latent errors in the papers and memoranda.
Fraenkel, Wallen, and Hyun (2012) differentiate between manifest errors (actual misconceptions)
and latent errors (which are not errors per se but have problematic wording that could potentially
lead to misconceptions). The research followed procedures recommended by Elo&Kyngas (2007)
and Krippendorf (2013), starting by identifying the documents to be analysed, then selecting the
text to analyse, followed by the construction of a coding frame (categorisation scheme), before
conducting the content analysis.
Because the quality of research depends on the rigour of the research process, several steps to
improve the rigour of the study were taken as the study unfolded. Evolution questions were
identified independently by the two authors, who then met to compare notes. When queries about
the inclusion of questions arose, an independent ‘expert’ teacher was consulted to verify inclusion
or exclusion as ‘evolution’ questions. An existing coding system classifying misconceptions about
evolution was refined for use in coding unscientific ideas in the papers and memoranda. Analysis of
one examination was used as a pilot study to see whether the whole procedure was viable and that
the coding system was adequate to code all emerging problems. Several additional codes were
added as problems other than actual misconceptions emerged during the analysis: for example,
codes were introduced for ‘gaps’ and ‘inappropriate mark allocation’, as explained in the ‘results’
section. Inter-coder reliability was used to check all the coding (done independently by the two
authors), and queries were validated by a further two senior university academics knowledgeable
about evolution. Problems were first indicated on the actual exam papers and memos, and the first
round of inter-coder reliability checks done, before data was captured on an electronic data-capture
sheet (verbatim copies of the relevant evolution questions and memos in column 1; annotated
comments and codes on all problems identified, in column 2; comments by the second author, in
column 3; comments from independent validators, where needed, in column 4).

Results and discussion

Misconceptions found in the examination papers and memoranda
The Table 1summarises the frequencies of the misconceptions. All misconceptions dealt with the
mechanism of evolution, i.e. natural selection. Surprisingly, only one (that changing environmental
conditions cause evolution) was associated with the ‘evolution on demand’ alternative framework in
which individual organisms are erroneously thought to initiate change when the need arises to adapt
to changing conditions so they do not die (see Sanders, 2014, in these proceedings). This was

148
surprising because research has shown six of the commonest misconceptions to be associated with
this alternative framework. It did, however, occur four times in the 12 papers. Scientists (e.g.
Futuyma, 2009) explain that evolution is not caused by environmental change, but by pre-existing
genetically controlled traits in some individuals, which happen by chance to occur in an area in
which these traits confer a favourable chance of survival, and hence greater reproductive success to
those individuals. This results in an increased frequency of these alleles in the population over many
generations, so that the population evolves because those individuals are ‘naturally selected’ and
reproductively more successful.

Table 1: Frequency of manifest and latent misconceptions in the examinations and memos
Examining Board A Examining Board B
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Total
Misconception
V1 V2 V1 V2
Environmental changes cause
1 1 1 1 4
adaptation / evolution
Individuals with favourable
2 2 1 1 1 7
traits WILL survive
Only the fittest individuals
1 1 2
survive or reproduce
Individuals with favourable
1 1 1 1 4
traits WILL reproduce
[Un]favourable traits WILL be
1 1 1 1 1 1 6
inherited by the offspring
Individuals with unfavourable
1 1 1 1 4
traits die
If (populations / species) don’t
1 1
adapt they become extinct
Whole population eventually
1 1
has favourable characteristics
TOTAL 5 4 3 0 2 6 3 1 0 2 1 2
V1=Version 1, V2=Version 2

The notion that environmental changes cause evolution is teleological and makes it seem as though
a structure or behaviour is directed toward certain ends or serves certain purposes (e.g. wings serve
for flying). Teleological explanations are causal explanations (see examples below) and are
scientifically incorrect. These examples also show the difference between a manifest error where
the misconception is clearly stated (first example) and a latent error, where the misconception is
implied (second example).
Increased noise causes frogs to grow larger and have louder mating calls
(Board B:2012memo:Q4.3.1)
Their mouths changed shapeas they ate different food sources /to suit the typeof food
they were now eating. (Board B:2011memo:Q 1.3.1)

The remaining seven misconceptions identified are all associated with the ‘survival of the fittest’
and ‘adapt or die’ alternative framework about evolution by natural selection, which is clearly seen
in the memoranda of several of the examinations. Favourably endowed individuals WILL survive
(n = 7) [sometimes only the BEST adapted, or fittest of these survive (n=2)] and WILL reproduce
(n=4), and those without the trait WILL die (n=4), until eventually the whole population has the
beneficial phenotype (n=1). Scientists explain natural selection in terms of probabilities of survival
and the relative reproductive success of individuals with various phenotypes (genetically
determined), realising that not all favourably endowed individuals survive and reproduce, and not
all those without the trait die. Furthermore, because of zygosity, as well as the dominant or
recessive nature of the alleles in question, not ALL the offspring of favourably endowed individuals
will exhibit the beneficial traits.
149
A typical memorandum illustrates how several of the misconceptions can occur in a particular
memo
Organisms with favourable characteristics survive (1) and reproduce (1) to pass
favourable characteristics to their offspring (1) while organisms with unfavourable
characteristics will die out (1). Over time the whole population will have this favourable
trait(1) (Board A:2012V1memo:Q4.3)

The problem with the first four statements is that they contain an element of the correct facts, but
poor wording makes them factually incorrect because not all such organisms will follow the
“generalisation” stated. It might be appropriate to allocate marks to students writing such statements
in the examination, in spite of the incorrect over-generalisation. The real problem comes when
students using past examination papers learn from these memos, and start to believe that these are
hard and fast rules applying to ALL such individuals. This leads to many of the misconceptions
commonly reported in the literature.

Other problems identified in the examination papers and memoranda

A number of other problems, summarised in Table 2, were found in the papers, and are likely to
impact in two ways: whilst all are likely to affect the performance and results of students writing
the exams, some may result in misconceptions by the backwash effect (problems 1, 2, 4, 5).
Incorrect answers: These were very frequent (n=47 across the 12 papers) and are likely to affect
examinees scores (advantaging those with incorrect answers, and sometimes disadvantaging those
with correct answers if these are not allocated a mark) and will perpetuate errors by a backwash of
students use past papers to learn from. For example, the memo for BoardB:2009memoQ1.3
erroneously accepted ‘adaptation’ and ‘mutation’ as correct terms for ‘small genetic changes that
occur within a single species’, in addition to the correct ‘micro evolution’. In 3.2.2 of the same
examination a memo had the answer “Gongwana” instead of Gondwanaland.
Poor wording or poor diagrams: Poorly worded questions are likely to disadvantage students
writing the exam if their meaning is ambiguous or unclear, as students may waste time trying to
puzzle out the meanings. For example, BoardA:2009 Q2.3 had a question based on a diagram in
which 14 rock strata with 13 different types were shown in three samples, but the question stated
that “three different strata (different layers of soil/rock) from three places in a particular area are
illustrated below”. This would have been very confusing for students trying to interpret the figure to
answer the question that followed, wasting time for them in the examination, and possibly affecting
their ability to provide a correct answer. It is very disturbing that 78 instances of poor wording were
found, and average of more than six per paper.

Table 2: Frequency of other problems identified in the examinations and memos

Examining Board A Examining Board B
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 Total
Problem identified
V1 V2 V1 V2
1. Incorrect answer (but not
5 3 4 1 2 2 6 11 8 4 1 47
a misconception)
2. Poor wording (could be in
1 7 5 1 6 5 7 10 7 7 11 11 78
questions or memos)
3. Poor diagram (e.g. errors,
1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 3 12
missing info, unclear)
4. Gap in the memo (missing
6 5 8 1 1 3 7 9 3 5 4 52
critical information)
5. Red herring (information
2 1 1 1 2 3 10
not relevant to answer)
6. Mark allocation
7 2 6 2 7 7 10 7 6 7 2 63
problematic

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 7. Personal viewpoint asked 1 1 1 3
for, not a scientific view (5) (4) (2)
8. Content not in the
1 1 1 1 4
examinable curriculum
9. Requires ONLY diagram 2 1 3 2 1 1 1 11
interpretation skills (6+5) (8) (5+2+7) (4+7) (6) (8) (3)
V1=Version 1, V2=Version 2 Values in brackets refer to marks allocated for the items

Gaps and red herrings in the memos: If memos do not contain information vital to a correct
answer (gaps), not only will students giving these correct facts not earn marks for them, but students
and teachers using past exam papers for teaching and learning will not realise that vital information
is missing, so the problem of incomplete answers will be perpetuated. Examination board B memos
dealing with natural selection often missed the critical information that variation in a population is
essential for natural selection to occur, and both examining boards seldom completed explanations
of the consequences of natural selection (evolution of populations) or how this happened (spreading
of favourable alleles because favourably endowed individuals are more reproductively successful).
The backwash effect is thus likely to perpetuate incomplete explanations of evolution by natural
selection.
‘Red herrings’ is a term we used to describe information not relevant to an answer, but included in a
memo. A common red herring was the inclusion of overpopulation and competition as part of
explanations about natural selection. Whilst these ideas did get Darwin thinking about evolution,
they are not essential to explain evolution and how it happens. A list of points making up such an
explanation—the ‘evolutionary synthesis’, which summarises current explanations about
evolution—does not include these two concepts, and furthermore Futuyma (2009) points out that
competition is not essential for evolution to occur.
Problematic with mark allocations: There were 63 instances in the 12 papers where we
questioned the allocation of marks, which will affect students writing the exams. One of the
common problems was memos which provided a number of facts in excess of the marks allocated
for a question (e.g. BoardA:2012V1memoQ4.3, which had 12 facts which could earn a maximum
of 7 marks) and the practice of accepting any (in this case 7) points for a correct answer. In this
example students could omit almost half the essential facts, but earn full marks. Furthermore, they
could provide ill-sequenced, illogical, or incoherent (as well as incomplete) answers, and still earn
full marks. This suggests marks obtained for the exams are probably inflated. A common problem
with the memos of Board B was that there was seldom a clear indication given for what facts earn
points in an answer. This is left to the discretion of individual examiners and is likely to affect the
reliability (and hence validity) of marks allocated.
Diagram interpretation skills requiring no knowledge of evolution content: Seven of the 12
exam papers had marks allocated for evolution-related questions which required only diagram
interpretation skills, so students could earn marks without any evolution-related content knowledge.
Allocating marks for diagram interpretation skills is not a problem, but the consequence of this is
that the percentage of marks which need to be allocated for evolution content in this 150-mark
exam is not met. Table 2 shows that sometimes the number of marks involved is fairly high.
The impact on marks of asking only for personal view points: Sometimes students are asked for
their personal viewpoints, which earn marks for information which could be unscientific. We feel
this is inappropriate in a biological science exam. Furthermore, it is inevitable that students will
earn full marks, again inflating scores.
There are many explanations for the origin of humans on Earth. State your personal
viewpoint and explain why you hold this belief .(4) (Board B:2010:Q3.1.3)
Possible backwash effect on examiners: Several examples were noted where questions or memos
are used again in different exam papers, suggesting that some examiners recycle questions. Should

151
 students learning

Examinations and memoranda containing

misconceptions
questions or memos be flawed this might have a backwash effect on examiners. For example, a
diagram of the evolution of the limbs of horses, and the associated memo which incorrectly claims
teachers
the “toes became fused” is used teaching
in 2008(Q2.2) and 2012 (V2:Q2.3).
misconceptions
misconceptions

Discussion and recommendations

This research shows that there are indeed potential problems associated with the 12 matriculation
examiners setting of new questions and
examination papers (and
and the memos) analysedmoderation
for this study. These include misconceptions (the
of examinations
misconceptions
nature and extent moderators
of which are summarised in Table 1) as well as other problems (indicated in Table
and memoranda
2). Although this was not researched, the chances are high that the problems both affect students
writing the exams and are likely to have a backwash effect in classrooms if past papers are used as
teaching and learning resources. Hughes (1989) points out that teachers and learners are particularly
publishers effect of high-stakes
influenced by the backwash examinations
development of new(as is the matric exam in South
and text book misconceptions material
Africa). But, as shown in Figure 2, numerous other educational stakeholders can be affected by the
writers
backwash impact of such papers, for example, if they are used as reference materials by examiners,
moderators and textbook writers, as misconceptions may be included as part of new examinations
and other teaching materials. Consequently the results of this study are likely to be useful to a
number of educational stakeholders by raising awareness of the problem: teachers dealing with the
topic of evolution, textbook writers and curriculum developers who produce curriculum support
materials, and even parents and tertiary educators (as pointed out by Boo, 2005; and Cheng1997).
Fig
ure
2:
Bac
kw
ash
mo
del
ada
pte
d
fro
m
the
fra
me
wor
k of
Hu
ghe
s
(19
89)
Because the problem of misconceptions is multi-faceted, addressing it will require a multi-pronged
approach from a number of different educational stakeholders who are part of the 'misconceptions
problem’. Many South African teachers themselves hold misconceptions about evolution (Molefe,
2013). South African curriculum documents and textbooks have both been shown to contain
misconceptions about evolution (Makotsa, 2012; Tshuma, 2012). It is logical to assume that the
solution to the problem will only be found if all stakeholders work together to address the problem.
Teachers will not change if the textbooks on which they rely convince them that unscientific ideas
are in fact correct. And neither publishers and authors, nor teachers, will change whilst examination
papers are propagating the same errors.

152
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TEACHERS’ USE AND INTEGRATION OF ICT IN THE TEACHING OF
LIFE SCIENCE IN THE KHOMAS REGION, NAMIBIA

Wilhelmina Etuna Simon1 & Elizabeth Ndeukumwa Ngololo 2

1
Department of Mathematics, Science & Sport Education, University of Namibia, Namibia.
2
Continuing Professional Development Unit, University of Namibia, Namibia.
1
[email protected], [email protected]

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been widely used to access information,
communicate and stay connected in the global community. Many developed countries recognised
the importance of ICT in education for teaching and learning. In Namibia, ICT use and integration
in the classrooms remains limited. This study has sought to investigate how Life Science teachers
with access to technologies use and integrate ICT into their classroom to promote collaborative
and creative teaching.The study was designed as a qualitative research study using a case study
approach. Three Life Science teachers were observed and semi-structured interview were
conducted. The preliminary findings of the study revealed that teachers have the necessary
resources to use and integrate ICT in their classroom. Teachers belong to a community of practice
and they collaborate with each other, promoting collaborative teaching and learning. The study can
serve as an example to schools of similar settings but do not use ICT to teach.

Key words: Life Science teachers, ICT use and integration, professional development, creative
teaching

Introduction
Namibia recognises the importance of ICT as a tool for the development of the country. Early in
2004 the Ministry of Education (MoE) formed the ICT in Education Steering Committee to
coordinate the many ICT in education projects and activities to support the Vision 2030 goal of
Integrating ICT education and training into the education and training sector (MoE, 2005). The
Vision 2030 initiative was established as a policy framework for overall development in Namibia.
Among its primary goals is the creation of knowledge-based society in promoting science and
technology (MoE, 2005).
The MoE has made enormous investments in developing ICT practices through the Education and
Training Sector Improvement Programme (ETSIP) to increase the efficiency of ICT (MoE, 2005).
ETSIP was introduced in 2005 to aid progress toward the goals outlined in Vision 2030. The
programme aims at improving the current education system and increasing the supply of skilled
teachers in Namibia. ICT is an integral part of the ETSIP manifesto (MoE, 2006).In order to
achieve this goal, the ICTs in Education Steering Committee worked with partners namely public,
private and civil society from across the education sector to develop the ICT Policy for education in
2005 and the corresponding Implementation Plan in 2006.

Recent studies pertinent to ICT were conducted in Namibia (Boer & Black, 2008; Iipinge, 2010;
Katulo, 2010; Matengu, 2011; Ngololo, 2010; Nuuyoma, 2012) and have documented information
on ICT integration and adoption not specifically related to ICT use by Namibian teachers. In
addition, ICT use and integration in most schools in Namibia is rudimentary (Ngololo, 2010;
Matengu, 2011), however, a few teachers were found to use ICT for pedagogical purposes,
especially in the rural schools (Ngololo, 2010). This study seeks to investigate how Life Science
teachers based in the Khomas region use and integrate ICT in their lessons and also to find out the
types of challenges that they encounter. This study therefore asks the following question: 1) How do

155
Life Science teachers use and integrate ICT in their classrooms to promote collaborative and
creative teaching?
This study aimed to explain some of the reasons those teachers use and integrate ICT in their
classrooms on a regular basis and the challenges they face as they use and integrate ICT when
teaching Life Science. The paper presents the literature review, followed by the theoretical
framework, research methodology, and results of the study. Further the results are discussed before
the conclusion. Finally, the implications of the outcomes of this study and recommendations are
summarised.

Literature review
The literature review focuses on the use of ICT in Science classroom, ICT integration in science
and the Activity Theory (AT) to explain the context and the aim ….

Use of ICT in Science classroom

Science amongst other subjects is deemed necessary for enhancing teaching and learning in schools
(MoE, 2007). Science teachers need to be trained in ICT skills that will enable them to effectively
perform their duties in the advancement of teaching and learning.
In a study conducted in South Africa, on understanding science teachers’ use and integration of ICT
in a developing country context (Draper, 2010), the results indicated that South African science
teachers were able to use ICT effectively to add value to teaching and learning. South African
teachers were reported to using ICT in their classrooms in many different ways namely, 1) for
simulations, 2) data loggers during practical work, 3) for conceptual understanding of science and
4) for student motivation in science. In her findings, Draper (2010) suggested for ICT to be
gradually introduced into schools and into teaching and learning activities. This finding is in line
with Ngololo (2010) study, which found that a few teachers in the rural area use ICT. Life science
teachers’ would make use of ICT tools to improve their teaching methodologies to promote
collaborative and creative teaching in the Life Science class and amongst fellow colleagues.

ICT integration in science

Despite the fact that ICT integration has not been clearly defined in the literature, a number of
researchers attempt to define ICT integration in contexts with ICT usage (Donnelly, McGarr&
O’Reilly, 2011; Ertmer, Otternbreit-Leftwich, Sadik, Sendurur & Sendurur, 2012; Lloyd, 2005).
According to Lloyd (2005), integration is achieved by positioning ICT at the centre of the unit
making it the context rather than the content for learning. She added that to integrate is to “combine
components, parts or elements into a complex but harmonious whole (Lloyd, 2005, p. 6). In a
nutshell, literature clearly reveals that ICT integration is not easily defined which makes it difficult
to measure. This study has adopted the Activity Theory to interpret the relevant components of the
whole.
Activity Theory
This study adopted the Activity Theory (AT) to investigate human activity in their natural
environment, in this case teachers’ teaching practices (Murphy & Rodriquez, 2008) to allow for a
focus on the day to day classroom activity of teachers (Law & Sun, 2012). Activity in the AT
system is commonly defined as a unit of subject-object interaction with the object having the status
of a motive that meets certain need of the subject (Kaptelinin & Nardi, 2006). In this study, the
seven components of the AT model are useful for understanding how Life Science teachers use and
integrate ICT in their lessons in terms of how teachers share resources and set rules in their

156
classroom to enhance pedagogical use of ICT. The rules should be flexible and not fixed (Lim &
Hang, 2003).

In this regard the summarized components of activity theory below were relevant to the study.

Figure 1. Shows the structure of a human activity system adopted from Engeström (1987)

The diagram illustrates that in the classroom, teachers (subject) have a motive (object) to use ICT
mediating tools (instruments) with a common objective to achieve a desired learning outcome.
Teachers interact with one another in a community of practice in order to enhance teaching and
learning. Wenger, McDermott & Snyder (2002) offer an insight on communities of practice and
their value to organizations. Within the COP, Wenger et al., (2002:4) pointed to a need for teachers
to collaborate on an on-going basis to typically share information, insights and advice. Individuals
in the classroom have different responsibilities (Division of labour) and are guided by classroom
rules to promote collaborative and creative teaching.

Methodology
The researcher employed a qualitative research design. In this study a collective case study
approach was used in order to explore how Life Science teachers use and integrate ICT in their
classrooms. According to Yin (2009) a case study method can be used to understand a real-life
phenomenon in depth in the Life Science classrooms.

Data gathering
Sample and sampling procedure
The sample consisted of three Life Science teachers at Grade 8-10. One of the teachers participated
in the collective case study and one in the pilot case study. Purposive sampling method was used to
select three secondary schools in the Khomas Region, Namibia. The schools had ICT infrastructures
and teachers that use technology in their classrooms on a regular basis. The teachers were trained in
ICT use either through intervention programmes by the Ministry of Education, Namibia or through
Professional Development initiatives by schools.

157
The instruments
This study employed the following research instruments: non participatory observation schedule
and semi-structured interview guide. The instruments were guided by the constructs in the AT and
are therefore consistent.

Data collection
Data collection occurred during the second term of the 2013 school year (May to July). For this
study, ten (10) Life Science ICT-mediated lessons were observed per teacher totalling thirty (20)
lessons. Observations were documented in descriptive and reflective field notes. In addition, semi-
structured interviews with Life Science teachers were conducted.

Data analysis
Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data. The ideas or concepts from the field notes and
interviews were grouped into themes. In addition, referencing units of text were then sorted through
coding and labelled indicate meanings and patterns.

Results
The results from the case studies as obtained through non-participatory observation of Life Science
ICT mediated lessons and interviews are presented based on the seven constructs in the AT below:

Subject and objects

Subjects are referred to the two Life Science teachers who participated in the case study. The
objects are the lesson objectives teachers had as a motive to use ICT in their lesson.
Teacher A was a male teacher from School A, who taught Life Science/Biology for 24 years. The
researcher has observed that the teacher was motivated to use ICT in the classroom daily.
Teacher B was a female, Biology/Life Science teacher from School B, with 29 years of teaching
experience. From observation, the teacher appeared to be motivated and used ICT teaching
strategies in the classroom on a regular basis.
The objectives for using ICT in the lesson were not stated in the lesson plans and therefore the
lesson objectives were not observable. Teachers were then asked to state the lesson objectives with
respect to ICT use and integration:
“You want the learners to understand the syllabus; you want them to
understand the work that they need to write the exams on. The objectives of
using ICT in the classroom, is to make the work clear to the learners” (Teacher
A, 24 July 2013).

Tools and Rules

Tools refer to instruments such as ICT that Life Science teachers use in class and for lesson
preparation. Rules refer to rules of engagement with ICT as set by teachers to manage the use of
ICT in the classroom.
Asked to identify tools used in the Life science classroom, the teachers indicated that they use
hardware such as iPad, projector, scanner, smart board amongst others and Cyber roam captive
portal, e-Books, e-learning (EDU 2.0) amongst others as software.

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Teacher B emphasised that:
“The ICT tools …have become the mediating tools in the classroom” (Teacher
B, 29 July 2013).
In addition, this study revealed the management of the tools as used in those schools: the researcher
observed that there are clear classroom rules with regard to ICT use. Teacher A indicated that:
“The uses of earphones are strictly prohibited in the school” (Teacher A, 24
July 2013).
Teacher B added that:
“All submissions by the learners should be done online and closes at 00h00
midnights” (Teacher B, 29 July 2013).
The researcher observed that the E-learning system supports an online interaction between teachers and
learners through educational forums.

Community and Division of labour

Community refers to Life Science classrooms and Schools A and B where Life Science teachers
share skills and experiences. Division of Labour refers to how tasks are divided among Life Science
teachers and learners in the classrooms. Life Science teachers indicated belonging to a community
of practice (COP) and they collaborate with each other. Although there seems not to be clear
evidence that ICT related matters were discussed at COP, Teacher B stated that:
“They share electronic question papers, assessment activities and lesson plans”
(Teacher B, 29 July 2013).
The researcher observed that teachers appeared to be motivated to use ICT teaching strategies as
they give clear instructions, monitor learners’ progress and evaluate learning outcome. Learners
have responsibilities to monitor their own learning, set their own goals and follow classroom rules
on the use of ICT to ensure technology web-based learning environment.

Outcome
Outcome refers to the reflection of the use of ICT in the teaching of Life Science, for instance, the outcome
of using ICT in the classroom can be reflected on Life Science teachers’ Professional Development (PD).
This section will presents preliminary results in terms of how PD has enhanced ICT integration as an
outcome in the designated classrooms. Life Science teachers indicated that they have undergone PD and
were trained on how to use and integrate ICT in their classrooms. The PD was initiated by the schools as part
of Continuing Professional Development (CPD). As an outcome of CPD, these teachers were able to
effectively use and integrate ICT in their classrooms to promote collaborative and creative teaching.
Teachers were given training on the operational use of ICT as well as on how to incorporate the software
application of hardware such as smart board and laptop in the teaching of Life Science.
The teachers were able to use ICT to:
“…give effective presentation and explanation to make their lesson creative’’
(Teacher A, 24 July 2013).
Finally, the researcher observed that, in the classroom teachers use ICT to illustrate interactive
diagrams such as the structure of the heart, blood circulation and digestion just to mention but a

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few. The Smart board has a software Application that enabled teachers to focus on details on
specific diagrams. The use of ICT in an interactive lesson makes the work more understandable to
the learners. In addition, teachers incorporated ICT in the Life science classroom for simulation and
modelling. For instance, with regard to the structure of the heart as projected on the Smart board,
learners could hear the heartbeats through the speakers connected to the Smart board.

Discussion and conclusion

The teachers in this study were found to be using and integrating ICT in the Life Science lessons.
This is in line with a study by Ngololo, (2010), suggesting “the need of teacher development in ICT
in education so that teachers acquire the right attitude and competences for integrating ICT in their
teaching” (p. 13).In this study, the Life science teachers could not state the objectives for using ICT
in the lessons. This could be due to the fact that they are not aware of the importance of linking ICT
to the syllabus.In Singapore, science teachers’ had objectives to use ICT with Four main reasons namely:
for curriculum and assessment, as learning resources, for teacher development and as a physical and
technological infrastructure (Lim & Hang, 2003). The activity of the subject is directed towards the object or
goal (Kaptelinin & Nardi, 2006).Further, professional development in ICT requires that teachers are
sensitised of the importance to develop ICT related objectives that will speak to what they plan to teach
using ICT in their lesson plans. This will enhance teachers’ confidence and skills using ICTs.

The e-learning system supports an online interaction between teachers and learners through
educational forums, indicating that ICT integration is done, although difficult to measure. Also, the
teachers have set rules in the classrooms. In the activity system, there are ongoing and
reformulation of rules by the subject (Murphy & Rodriquez, 2008), rather than subject abiding by
the fixed rules (Lim & Hang, 2003).Information about classroom rules with regard to ICT use is
necessary to determine the tools and the rules developed by the Life Science teachers to achieve
lesson objectives.

Life Science teachers belong to a community of practice (COP) and they collaborate with each
other in the same school as well as abroad. However, there seems not to be clear evidence that ICT
related matters were discussed. The teachers’ practices’ within COP is in line with what Wenger et
al. (2002) prescribe, to offer an insight on communities of practice and their value to organizations.
Within the COP, Wenger et al., (2002:4) pointed to a need for teachers to collaborate on an on-
going basis to typically share information, insights and advice. COP is useful in providing guidance
towards teachers’ collaboration to participate in formal and informal networks of teachers.

As an outcome of CPD, these teachers were able to effectively use and integrate ICT in their
classrooms to promote collaborative and creative teaching. The outcome of an activity can help
participants to understand and react to changes in the system (Hong et al., 2012).According to
Lloyd (2005), integration is achieved by positioning ICT at the centre of the unit making it the
context rather than the content for learning. In conclusion, the Life Science teachers have
demonstrated effective use of ICT in their classrooms because they have positioned ICT in the
centre of the system of up to date ICT, skills and the right attitude to deliver innovative lessons.

Recommendations
1. There is a need to train teachers on how to develop lesson plans that reflect the motive of
ICT use and integration.

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 2. The teachers must be encouraged to upkeep the rules and make the necessary changes with
the new technological development.
3. Activities in the COP should be clearly defined to enhance pedagogical use of ICT.
4. Policy-makers should prioritise support for teaching and learning with ICT in Namibian
schools.

References
Boer, P., & Black, E. (2008, March). Strengthening ICTs in Developing Countries:
Practical Approaches to ICT Integration in Namibian Classrooms.In Society for Information
Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (Vol. 2008, No. 1, pp. 1930-
1943).
Donnelly, D., McGarr, O., & O’Reilly, J. (2011). A framework for teachers’ integration of
ICT into their classroom practice.Computers & Education. 57(2), 1469-1483.
Draper, K. (2010). Understanding science teachers’ use and integration of ICT in a
developing country context. (unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of
Pretoria, Pretoria.
Enrique Hinostroza, J., Labbé, C., Brun, M., & Matamala, C. (2011). Teaching and
learning activities in Chilean classrooms: Is ICT making a difference?. Computers &
Education, 57(1), 1358-1367.
Ertmer, P. A., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T., Sadik, O., Sendurur, E., & Sendurur, P. (2012).
Teacher beliefs and technology integration practices: A critical relationship. Computers &
Education, 59(2), 423-435.
Iipinge, S.M. (2010). The Integration of Information and Communication (ICTs) in the
preparation of teachers at colleges of education in Namibia. (unpublished doctoral
dissertation). University of Namibia. Windhoek.
Kaptelinin, V. & Nardi, B., (2006). Acting with Technology: Activity theory and
Interaction design: Cambridge: MIT press.
Katulo, M.M. (2009). An investigation of the role of principals in promoting computer
usagein selected schools in Namibia. (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Rhodes
University, Grahamstown.
Law, E. L. C., & Sun, X. (2012). Evaluating user experience of adaptive digital
educational games with Activity Theory. International Journal of Human-Computer
Studies, 70(7), 478-497.
Lim, C. P., & Hang, D. (2003). An activity theory approach to research of ICT integration
in Singapore schools. Computers & Education, 41(1), 49-63.
Lloyd, M. M. (2005). Towards a definition of the integration of ICT in the classroom. In
AARE 2005, AARE, Eds. Proceedings AARE ’05 Education Research- Creative Dissent:
Constructive Solutions, Paramatta, New South Wales.
Matengu, K.K. (2011). Information and Communication Technology, Innovation
Education, Development: can Adoption of ICT in schools assist in the war against poverty
and Under development in Namibia. NERA Journal. 11(1), 141-160. Creative Concepts cc.
Windhoek, Namibia.
Ministry of Education (2005). ICT Policy for Education (ISBN 0-86976-666X).
Windhoek,Republic of Namibia: Polytechnic Press.
Ministry of Education. (2005). Education and Training sector Improvement programme
(ETSIP). Windhoek: MoE.
Ministry of Education (2006). TECH/NA!: Namibia’s ICT Steering in Education.
Windhoek: MoE
Ministry of Education (2007). Education and Training Sector Improved

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 Programme (ETSIP). Planning for a learning Nation. Program document: Phase 1 (2006-
2011). Windhoek, Namibia.

Murphy, E., & Rodriguez-Manzanares, M. A. (2008). Using activity theory and its
principle of contradictions to guide research in educational technology. Australasian Journal
of Educational Technology, 24(4), 442-457.
Ngololo, E. N. (2010). An evaluation of the implementation of National ICT policy for
Education in Namibian rural science classrooms. (unpublished doctoral dissertation).
University of Pretoria, Pretoria.
Nuuyoma, E. (2012). Challenges faced by English teachers in integrating information and
communication technology (ICT) in the teaching of reading and writing in two rural
Primary schools in the Omusati region and four urban primary schools in theKhomas
region of Namibia. (unpublished master’s thesis). University of Namibia, Windhoek.
Wenger, E., McDermott, R., & Snyder, W. M. (2002). Cultivating Communities of
Practice. 2002. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Yin, R. K. (2009).CaseStudy Research: Design and methods. (4thed). United
States of America, USA: SAGE Inc.

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 The “emergent” and “processual” nature of curriculum policy reform: Moving beyond
situated practices through associations

Asheena Singh-Pillay 1 and Busisiwe Alant 2

University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN)
[email protected]; [email protected]

In responding to the conference theme: Relevance of changing curriculum policies for improvement
in MSTE, it is argued that policy reform is not linear, but complex and dynamic as a result it can
never be understood in isolation and reform may not necessarily lead to improvement in MSTE.
This argument is based on the findings of a recent doctoral study on policy reform conducted on the
North coast of Kwa –Zulu Natal (Singh- Pillay, 2011). The study provides accounts of the reality of
the South African curriculum policy reform in the specific historical situation of transition from
apartheid to democracy. Singh- Pillay (2011) argues for curriculum reform to be envisaged as
nodes of practice performed by multiple actors in multiple locations and in multiple ways. Using a
multi-nodal approach the construction and translation of the National Curriculum Statement-
Further Education and Training Life Sciences policy is explored as the NCS-FET Life Sciences
policy traverses across the DoE and school nodes. The multi-nodal approach is also used to trace
whether there is an interface in terms of policy construction across the nodes and if so what is the
nature of this interface.

In the main study, the situated reality in the terrain of practice is explored by tracing the trajectory
of the NCS-FET Life Sciences policy as it traverses across the Department of Education (DoE),
School and industry nodes in the network of practice. Actor-Network-Theory, as associated with
Bruno Latour (2005), is employed to model the tensions that exist in the terrains of practice and to
highlight how policy and learning gets translated as we move from one node to the next. ANT is a
sociology of associations that is used at a theoretical and methodological level. ANT is a useful tool
for showing the negotiations that characterize patterns of curriculum reform in terms of how policy
gets constructed and translated as well as how practice gets performed.

Employing the analytical tools offered by ANT (Latour, 1993, 2005; Callon, Law & Rip, 1986), the
network tracing activity reveals that policy construction involve more than the action of a single
human actor. This means that humans are not entirely in control of practice (Sorenson, 2007). The
situated reality is brought to bear through the introduction of Mulchay’s notion of materiality
(2007). At issue is the idea of how materiality shapes the reform of curriculum policy in our
democracy. This view is in sharp contrast to what has been presented in other studies, which
highlight the importance of human actors only during curriculum reform. Furthermore, the notion
of materiality enables us to interrogate curriculum reform as (a) node(s) of practice, in which
learning is translated in a different number of ways. The pivotal concept that emerges is that of
interface, in particular the interface between DoE and school, which foregrounds curriculum policy
as “emergent” and “processual”. The findings emphasize the importance of materiality in studying
policy reform.

Introduction
Curriculum policy reform in the new South Africa (post 1994) is underpinned by a transformatory

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agenda, which promotes the use of education as leverage for human resources development. This
agenda is aimed to overcome the skills shortage, promote our human resources development,
alleviate poverty, overcome the injustices of the past and compete in a global economy. This agenda
grants agency to structures like DoE, schools and industry to promote the goals of human resources
development. These structures are crucial during the policy reform and are considered as nodes in
the network of policy reform. In view of this there was a need to interrogate how the NCS-FET Life
Sciences policy is constructed and translated in practice as it moves across the DoE and schools
nodes in order to bring to the fore that policy reform is a “bricolage”.

Theoretical framework
In an ANT study the social is placed under erasure (Latour, 2005). This means, the overarching
existing context is suspended and it cannot be used to explain a scenario as if it is applicable to all
actors. Rather, the context is allowed to emerge via the actors’ actions, associations and the trails
they create. Tracing associations shows how socio-material elements participate in practice and
what gets performed through their participation (Mol, 2007). The tracing and assemblage of
networks illuminates how and why actors form the associations they do during practice. In
observing movement via shifting associations, we see relations that were previously oblivious. Not
only is the actor coming into being, but the practice is also made apparent, is reinforced, changed or
reproduced. The actor and the practice is inter linked. Therefore from an ANT perspective curricula
policy reform can be viewed as a field of socio-material practices (Harris & Marsh, 2005), and
curriculum policy reform becomes an accomplishment of a network rather than of an individual
actor (Latour, 2005). Since socio-material networks are traced, ANT extends the analysis to both
human and non-human actors. Such analysis illuminates convergences, alignments, strengthening of
ties among elements in the network, divergence and non-alignments and weakening in the ties
among elements in the network. An ANT analysis illuminates emergences within a network. To
unveil emergence within a network the concept of Interface was used, which is drawn from the
discipline of physics.

Methodology
To follow actors, we trace what they say and do in order to establish which other actors are enrolled
into their practice (Latour, 2005). Following actors entails tracing of associations formed by the
actor and an assemblage of these associations. Following the actors allowed us to see how
associations are enabled or constrained from the perspective of the actor.

At the DoE node the NCS-FET Life Sciences policy was followed by observation of mediation of
policy (professional development offered to practicing teachers) by subject advisors. The mediation
of policy was observed for its duration of 5 days. The NCS-FET Life Sciences policy was traced at
the school node during its implementation. The tracing entailed observation of lessons (theory and
practical’s) for 7 days at 5 schools, observations of teachers CASS portfolio, journal entries and a
post observation focus group interview.
Following an actor entails tracing of associations formed by the actor and an assemblage of these
associations. The data gathered at each node was read several times to identify the alliance formed
by the conspicuous actors (Subject advisor (DoE node) and teachers (School node), with actors
networked, deployed and recruited during their practice. Analysis entailed juxta- positioning of
associations formed within a node and across a node. The cross nodal level of analysis entails re-
assemblage of nodal networks. The nature of the alliance formed was noted as either
complementary or contradictory to policy goals. The alliances formed expose the contradictory
cartographies and tension with the network. In the alliance formed, one actor becomes the agent of
change. It is these alliances that indicate where the gaps are in this network, which associations are
failing the propagation of the network, which need to be strengthened and which cause translations
in the network. The evolving alliances formed demonstrate that actors are defined in unstable
relations. The analysis reveals that the tensions, contradictions and uncertainties result in subversion

164
of policy. Each construction of policy illuminates the alliance formed by the conspicuous actor with
actors networked, deployed and recruited during the specific practice.

The alliances formed alter the composition of the node and impinge on how practice gets
performed. It is only when the alliance network stabilises momentarily that we are able to see how
practice gets performed. Thus the alliances formed make visible the socio-material context, reality
or ontology of the nodal networks. In other words, the social (socio-material reality) emerges via
the ties or association formed. At a theoretical level the analysis emphasises the interconnectedness
among the actors in the network. The analysis endorses that action is the result of network(s)
constructed by actors. It demonstrates that networks are complex sets of relations among
heterogeneous entities. Furthermore, the analysis indicates that the process of assembling and
stabilising a network involves constant detours caused by the other entities, e.g. the NSC exams.
Every time a new entity is approached, one has to make a detour to determine if it can play a role in
the assemblage, and whether it needs to be associated or disassociated.

This means that the policy goals is affirmed or subverted in different ways depending on the actors
enrolled during practice. The alliances formed are fluid, they have the ability to shift and
(re)associate in response to the conspicuous actor facilitating practice.

Findings and discussion

Our findings show that policy gets constructed in different ways as it traverses across the nodes of
the study

The findings at the DoE node indicate that policy gets constructed as superior, as premature and
powerful, as endangered and as a hindrance. When policy is constructed as superior the NCS FET
Life Sciences Policy is affirmed in terms of its curricular content, teaching approach and
Assessment Standards. In the process of affirming the NCS-FET Life Sciences Policy, the
restrictive opportunities of the past (Nated 550 policy) are contrasted with the expanded
opportunities of the present (NCS-FET Life Sciences Policy), as reflected in the excerpt below:
“It’s far superior to the Nated policy, it embraces IKS and evolution, it’s not content driven, but
learner centred.”

The construction of policy as premature and powerful reveals the dual nature of policy, and shows
how policy is simultaneously negated and reinforced. This paradoxical construction of policy brings
to the fore the uncertainties and tensions that the subject advisor encounters during mediation of
policy. Policy is annulled in terms of its shortened timeframe between the formulation and
implementation process and its goal of involving all stakeholders in its formulation. Policy is
affirmed in terms of its Assessment Standards and associated good NSC results. When policy is
construed as premature and powerful, the subject advisor forms alliances with Life Sciences
teachers, good NSC exam results and the DoE. This is depicted in the excerpts below:

“Good exam results will dispel fears and concerns of the public about implementation; it
will stop criticism and good results will show that the curriculum is successfully
implemented.” Subject advisor during mediation of policy

Good NSC exam results are transformed into a negotiation tool that serves as a yardstick to validate
implementation of policy as successful and the success of teachers’ pedagogical practice, and to
allay the fears of stakeholders. When policy is constructed as endangered, the NCS FET Life
Sciences Policy is annulled in terms of its goal of broadening access to science, its curricular
content and AS. This particular construction of policy alerts us to the dwindling number of learners
pursuing Life Sciences in the FET band, as illustrated in the excerpt below:

165
 “I’m aware that numbers of learners pursuing Life Sciences is decreasing, but our good
results will attract more learners to Life Sciences.”

NSC exam results are enrolled to serve firstly as a motivation to prevent the extinction of Life
Sciences from the school curriculum (in South Africa Life Sciences is not a compulsory subject in
the FET band), and secondly as an agent that can reduce the conflict caused by the decrease in the
number of learners pursuing Life Sciences. These NSC results are construed as a magnet that can
create a strong ‘force-field’ to attract learners into Life Sciences, thereby providing continued
employment for Life Sciences teachers and subject advisors. The dwindling number of learners
consequently results in the construction of policy as a hindrance.

The construction of policy as a hindrance negates the NCS-FET Life Sciences Policy in terms of its
curricula content and strategy for testing. An astonishing comparison is made between other
learning areas and Life Sciences in terms of curricular content. This particular construction of
policy illuminates that the difficult, lengthy syllabus and different exam weighting serve as a barrier
and social control mechanism for access to Life Sciences

At the DoE node good NSC exam results are fore grounded in each construction of policy. The
centre stage of the mediation performance is conducted by these exam results. This finding dispels
the myth that the subject advisor is in control of the mediation process. The role of materiality in the
mediation process comes to the fore. Good NSC exam results, difficult syllabus and fewer Life
sciences learners drive the mediation of policy. Competencies testable in the exams become the
focus of mediation of policy. Good NSC exam results become a mediator that alters the
composition of the DoE node. The subject advisors’ preoccupation with good NSC exam results
sets a ceiling on teachers’ enrolment of policy. Mediation of policy is supposed to craft pedagogical
change in teachers for implementation in line with the intentions of the NCS-FET Life Sciences
Policy. The findings highlight that in comparison with DoE gazetted policy, different patterns of
curriculum practice - that were not what they were “supposed to be” - surface. Practice gets
performed in ways that can be described as sitting differently or divergent from the gazetted
expectations of implementation and mediation. At the DoE node mediation of policy gets performed
as negotiable moments with teachers whereby the good NSC exams results are deployed to enrolled
teachers to enact the policy.

At the school node the construction of policy as experimental, mutating and estranged; an alien
invader, a game and a hindrance negates the NCS-FET Life Sciences Policy in terms of its goals
and image for teachers. It portrays policy as being a repeated clinical trial process, as foreign or
lacking familiarity with teachers, and as an abusive experiment conducted on teachers as shown in
the excerpt below:
“I’m just so sick of all this inadequate training, re-training, deskilling, reskilling, trying to
implement this curriculum only to have it changed before I get the hang of it”
Teacher, focus group interview
It signals the disempowerment, destabilisation, foreignness, anxieties, tension and uncertainty
teachers stumble upon during policy reform and implementation. The analysis depicts the
uncertainties teachers encounter during curriculum policy reform, and illustrates that the policy-
reform process ignores the teachers’ experiences in dealing with frequent mandatory policy
changes. Teachers are overwhelmed by the frequent changes, become disempowered, and feel
uncertain about their pedagogical practice. The frequent de-skilling and re-skilling leads to teacher
frustration and leaves them in a state of “limbo”. They never seem to be able to meet their own
expectations and are uncertain about meeting the many expectations of other actors. As a result,
practice gets performed with uncertainty, as a dress rehearsal for the NSC exams (“teach for
exams”) and as a juggling act. The notion of policy as a game dismisses policy as an arbitrary
exercise, for which teachers have developed manageable mechanics of play, as can be seen in the

166
excerpts below:

“It’s a win- win situation for all of us and everybody is happy. So I do what I can with the
poor training I receive, I teach for the exams”
The construction of policy as a game highlights that policy implementation is reduced to a high-
stakes game (“win-win situation”), with good NSC exam results being the valued prize for learners
and teachers. Thus, practice gets performed as an investment game, whereby deposits are made by
teachers into learners. The NCS-FET Life Sciences Policy is annulled in terms of its curricula
content, strategy for testing and vision for teachers when policy is constructed as a hindrance
Other learning areas do not have lengthy content, difficult exam papers or two exam papers”
Teacher focus group interview

These constructions of policy elucidates that curriculum implementation does not occur in a
vacuum, and that other agencies vie with policy for space and time. The various activities that
teachers engage in besides teaching reflects the web of socio-material actors that impact on
implementation of policy and exacerbate teacher anxieties, tensions and uncertainties. The
multifaceted associations formed with the heterogeneous elements during policy implementation
disclose the complexity of the schools node and the competing agencies within its actor network.
Policy implementation may thus be seen as an ecosystem with competition, co-operation, frequent
environmental changes and development among organisms. These agencies(sport, fund raising,,
attending to social welfare issues like house parties, drugs and alcohol abuse, observing peers’
lessons for IQMS, completing admin work, stats returns for department or district office, dealing
with discipline issues on a daily basis) bombard teachers and vie for space and time during policy
implementation. Teachers have no choice but to deal with these compromising entities as and when
they arise. In the process, teaching is illuminated as a complex and demanding task where teachers
have to develop strategies that allow them to make decisions, investigate problems and understand
learners’ needs simultaneously. As a result, implementation of policy gets compromised and
practice gets performed as a juggling act for space and time, To cope with the constant daily
juggling they have to endure, teachers form an investment alliance with the NSC exams, which
benefits both learners and teachers. Therefore, the gazetted policy is not a “stable thing” to be
implemented as proposed, it evolves and adapts in the school environment. As it evolves it gets
(re)produced, (re)constructed in certain ways within the practice of implementation. These actors
enrolled at the school node illuminate the web of socio-material actors that impact on
implementation of policy and exacerbate teacher anxieties, tensions and uncertainties at the school.

The re-assemblage of networks at a cross nodal level reveals that there is an interface with regard of
construction of policy. To map interfaces I draw from the discipline of physics. In physics the word
‘interface’ refers to “a meeting point between two media of different optical densities” (Dufresne,
Gerace & Mestre, 2008, p. 2). The interface is construed as a meeting point between media of
different optical densities. Here the interface is a meeting point (or point of convergence or
divergence) among the nodes of the study. When a light beam travels between media of different
optical densities, such as from air to glass or vice versa, two things happen at the interface - it is
reflected and refracted7. In other words, the light beam experiences a translation in its direction of
travel. It is this change that I am interested in exploring, particularly the change that is brought
about by refraction. Knowing that the optical density of the medium determines the extent to which
the light beam gets refracted, it becomes significant to ask what actually happens at the interface to
cause the light beam to be refracted. The optical density of the node is determined by the f(actors)
within the node

7
Refracted: Bending of light beam as it passes between media of different optical densities (Dufresne, Gerace and
Mestre, 2008, p. 2).

167
 DoE School
Educatio
n

The interface A arises out of heterogeneous association which alter the composition of each node.
This means that the nature of the interface is characterised B by the associations among actors, their
actions, translations, and the points of convergences and divergences in the network. The nature of
the interface is shaped by factors
(f)actor depicted
with stronger in Figure1 below:
alliance
actor with stronger alliance ♦ NSC Exams, via mediation of
Good NSC exam results policy;
actors) with weaker F(actors) with weaker alliances
iances ♦ anxieties of transition, reskilling
stakeholders expectations and deskilling
frequent curricula change ♦ Stakeholders expectations
difficult lengthy syllabus ♦ lack of awareness of SKAVs
No. of learners decreasing required by industry
curricula content ♦ elements of sociality and
materiality (context)

Therefore the interface cannot be considered as something arising out of a linear relationship. It
emerges as part of an interactive network that is in a state of translation. Emergence refers to the
dynamic process arising from the shifting ties among heterogeneous elements. Therefore the interface
illuminates policy reform is not linear, but complex and dynamic as a result it can never be
understood in isolation. The emergent effect of policy has revealed that curriculum policy reform
does not occur in isolation or in an insular way; that the context in which reform occurs is not a
discrete or a separate entity. The context is not context per se, but a source of material, social and
other actors that will participate in the co-construction of policy (Latour, 2005).

Conclusion and recommendation

The emergent effects of curriculum policy reform illustrate that it is a bricolage (Barrette, 1998),
made of hidden actors that are not conventionally considered in curriculum theory and practice.
Curriculum policy reform as an emergent effect shows that instead of the heroic performance of one
human actor, multiple actors gyrate in the network, performing multiple routines in relation to
materials. In light of the above, curriculum policy reform is a complex, networked process
involving many actors. An ANT approach to curriculum reform leads us to understand the role that
materiality plays in policy reform.

Reference

Barrette, B. A.(1998). Creativity and improvisation in jazz and organization: implications for
organizational learning. Organization Science. 9(5): 605-622

Dufresne, R. J., Leonard, W. J., Gerace, W. J., & Mestre, J. P. (2008). A Qualitative Model for the
Storage of Domain Specific Knowledge and its Implications for Problem Solving
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Harris, C. & Marsh, C. (2005). Analyzing curriculum change: Some reconceptualised approaches.
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Unpublished thesis

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Factors Affecting the Performance of Secondary School Stud170ents on
Radioactivity

Dlaminin Mancoba (The Late) & Poncian Obert Tagutanazvo

Faculty of Education, Department of Curriculum Studies & Teaching, University of Swaziland.
[email protected]

Abstract.

 Several   studies   have   been   conducted   in   different   countries,   trying   to   evaluate   the   knowledge   of  
secondary   students   about   radioactivity.   The   main   objective   of   this   study   was   to   determine   the  
factors   that   affect   the   performance   of   secondary   school   students   in   radioactivity   in   one   of   the  
regions   of   Swaziland.     The   study   adopted   a   survey   research   design.   A   researcher   developed   30-­‐  
item   questionnaire   was   employed   for   data   collection.   A   total   of   81   form   5   students   constituted   the  
sample   of   the   study.   Simple   descriptive   statistical   analysis   was   used   to   analyse   data   with   use   of  
SPSS  package.  The  results  revealed  that  students’  perception,  language  and  mode  of  learning  are  
factors  that  affect  the  student  performance  and  that  the  performance  of  students  can  be  improved  
through   increased   assessment,   motivation   and   contextualization.   Conclusions   drawn   include   that  
the   use   of   different   strategies   by   teachers   can   improve   students’   performance   in   radioactivity.   It   is  
recommended   that   teachers   should   use   different   strategies   when   teaching   radioactivity   so   as   to  
improve  students’  performance.  

Introduction and Background

Physics is an important science subject that makes immense academic demands on students in its
learning. It is observed that there is a significant relationship between classroom activities and
students achievement in physics. Hence teaching and learning is supposed to relate to learners’
experiences. This means that teachers must be well equipped with knowledge to overcome learner
difficulties, and also be able to sequence the content that is relevant to learners. In the classroom
situation, it is important for the teachers to encourage educational, personal and social interaction
among students through different activities. Hence, lazy, unhappy students, and those who
experience boredom shall be encouraged to get over their problems. The purpose of this study is to
explore and describe the factors that affect the performance of students on radioactivity at high
school level.

Teaching strategies are viewed as the actions that are engaged in by the teacher to help learners
understand concepts .As a way of helping their learners understand physics, teachers must use
multiple strategies to transform their knowledge of the subject matter into a form that the learners
can easily understand... Bennett (1993) claims that teachers do not have sufficient understanding of
nature and acquisition of the process of becoming good teachers, hence this may affect the teaching
strategies they use when teaching physics. Millar et al. (1990) contend that it is important that
students learn about radioactivity in physics because they may meet applications of radioactivity in
everyday life. The questions asked by this researcher are whether the teaching strategies being used
by the physics teachers are being effective in helping the learners understand radioactivity?

170
The research questions are motivated and guided by a constructivist view of the learning process.
According to this perspective, students do not enter into the classroom as "blank slates" (Saunders
1992; Slater, Carpenter, & Safko 1993) quoted by Offerdahl (2002). Rather, new experiences and
observations are actively interpreted and manipulated by students to create personal mental models
of specific topics. The most important aspect of this viewpoint on learning is that students’ pre-
instructional beliefs strongly influence the creation of their mental models and how prior
experiences and observations become incorporated into these models (Redish 1994; von
Glasserfield 1992).

A constructivist view of learning perceives students as active learners who come to science lessons
already holding ideas about the natural phenomena, which they in turn use to make sense of the
everyday experiences. Learning science, therefore, involves students in not only adopting new
ideas, but also in modifying or abandoning their pre-existing ones (William, 2000). Such a process
is one in which learners actively make sense of the world by constructing meanings.

The constructivist theory suggest that teachers must actively elicit students' pre-existing
understanding to provide a foundation on which formal understanding of the subject matter is built
or provide the opportunity to challenge the initial understanding , (Kang, 2006). This entails that the
subject matter must be taught in depth, providing many examples relevant to the concept being
focused on and also providing a firm foundation of factual knowledge such as radioactivity.

Hill, Hurworth & Rowe (1998) have shown the factor of importance of access to appropriately
trained teachers for progress. Research into knowledge and understanding about radioactivity and
ionising radiation has revealed misconceptions amongst secondary school pupils (Boyes &
Stanisstreet, 1994). Prather (2000) argued that limitations with subject knowledge and
understanding could stem from an inability to use micro-models in terms of particles at the atomic
level. The same author stated that majority of the students have heard about the concept of
radiation, but a large number of the students did not know about the natural radiation and they had
basic misconceptions about the beta-rays and gamma-rays.

The teaching strategies and activities selected for teaching radioactivity are for engaging students
actively in developing the context of radioactivity. Given the variety of strategies available, there
are ways to get across every course with opportunities for students to become actively involved in
learning during class time, Redish, (1994). This is supported by Crossier, Cobb & Wilson (2000)
who contend that radioactivity may be taught for understanding by providing more content on
radioactivity through the use of a virtual laboratory. Virtual laboratory is computer laboratory
simulations which can be used with much success and serve the purpose of preparation for hands-on
experiments, although it cannot replace practical exercises in real life laboratory.

Skinner (1945) advised that for proper learning to take place, learning experience should be guided
and appropriately be controlled. This means, the environment or the circumstances under which
learning occurs should be supportive and conducive enough for effective learning and achievement.
In a study carried out in Germany, Haussler (1987) in Aleman (1999) confirmed the general trend
found in many other studies, which is that overall interest in physics decreases as students grow
older and that boys are more interested than girls. He found that this drop in interest was that prior
to any physics instruction students have high expectations with respect to physics, which are not
quite met by the kind of physics lessons they experience later in school.

171
Methodology
Design of the study

This study followed a survey research design. According to Pinsonneault & Kraemer (1993) a
survey is a “means for gathering information about the characteristics, actions, or opinions of a
large group of people.”

Sampling

The sample comprised of form five students drawn from three senior secondary schools in one of
the administrative regions in Swaziland. A total of 81 form five students responded to the
questionnaire. The reason for taking these students is because it is at form 5 level that the topic of
radioactivity is taught. Purposive sampling was used to select participating schools as it enabled the
researcher to target those schools that provided desired data. In purposive sampling, sampling is done with a
purpose in mind (Berg, 2007). The target population was form five students in Swaziland who had taken
physics as one of the subjects in senior secondary schools as it is at form five level that radioactivity is
taught. A purposive sample of both the senior secondary schools and participants was used. The sample was
drawn from three rural senior secondary schools and 81 form five students in the Manzini region in
Swaziland participated in the study. Purposive sampling was used to select participating schools as it enabled
the researcher to target those schools that provided the desired data. According to Berg (2007), in purposive
sampling, sampling is done with a purpose in mind.
As one of the researchers is a school teacher he was aware of which schools were offering physics as a
subject as well as teaching radioactivity in form five. Permission to access the school was obtained from the
Ministry of Education while access to the students was obtained from the school authorities.

Data Collection

Permission   to   access   the   students   was   obtained   from   the   school   authorities.   Return   rate   for  
questionnaires  was  100%.  

Data was collected through self-administered questionnaires comprising of a likert scale (agree,
disagree and not sure). A 30 item questionnaire was developed by the researchers and validated by
experts in the subject area. The instrument was chosen for its ability to cater for mass administration
to a captive population, easy to achieve anonymity which may contribute to an increase in return
rate (Kirakowsiki, 1997; Wilson and McClean,2004). The students were to indicate on the
statements which were presented whether they agreed, disagreed or were not sure. The statements
were addressing the research questions.

The questionnaires were administered by the researchers to all form five students taking physics
who were in attendance during the data collection period.The researchers who waited while the
students were completing the questionnaires. Thereafter the researchers collected the
questionnaires. This resulted in 100% return rate.

Data Analysis

Data collected were analysed using simple descriptive statistical analysis using the SPPS computer
package. The analysis was based on the students’ responses to the statements presented. The
statements relating to the same research question were grouped together. The data was presented
using frequency tables and text. Textual analysis was used to explain the frequency tables.
Responses from the questionnaires were grouped
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Results
Research  question  1:  What  are  factors  that  affect  the  performance  of  students  on  radioactivity?          

The research revealed the following as factors: students said physical science is a challenging
subject, equipment and resources in the schools, language used in radioactivity, relevancy of
radioactivity to students’ daily life and the mode of learning. 56 (69%) of the students perceived
physical science as a challenging subject of which only gifted pupils could do well as indicated by
60 (75%) of the students. 37 (46%) of the students indicated that the schools were not well equipped
for students to perform well. On the question of language, 45 (55%) indicated that the language
used in teaching and learning radioactivity was difficult to understand which was worsened by lack
of relevancy to their daily lives 39 (48%) of which 18 (22%) could not say whether it was relevant
or not. The students 60 (74%) showed that very little time was spend in group work and 43 (53%)
indicated that the teacher spent most of the time talking.
Research  question  2:  What  are  the  teaching  and  learning  strategies  used  by  teachers  when  
teaching  on  radioactivity?  

The following were the methods considered in the questionnaire: Lecture, Question and answer,
Demonstration, Experimental strategy and enhanced context strategy. 41 (51%) of the students
indicated that the teachers read from their text books during the teaching/learning encounter.
However students were allowed to ask questions as indicated by 68 (84%) of the responses. 43
(53%) of the students indicated that the teachers did not demonstrate nor experiment 55 (68%) on
anything on radioactivity. The students revealed that they did not contextualise this topic 41 (51%).
Research  question  3:  What  are  the  factors  that  may  improve  students’  performance  on  
radioactivity?  

The following were factors that were perceived as improving the students’ performance: increased
classwork assessment, motivation and contextualization. 68 (84%) indicated that they did not get
daily classwork in Physics at the same time 67 (83%) showed that no project work was made
available to the students to assist them understand radioactivity.43 (53%) showed that teachers tried
to make the subject interesting but the students themselves did not prepare for their physics lessons
45 (55%). From the respondents 36 (44%) showed that they related new work on radioactivity to
their real life experiences whilst 36 (44%) disagreed.
Discussion
A number of factors have been identified such as the perception of students on the subject, poorly
equipped laboratories in the schools and the language used in teaching/learning radioactivity. The
study suggests that one of the factors for students’ poor performance on the topic was the general
perception that physical science is challenging 56 (69%) and this could have influenced a large
number of students 59 (69%)to say the subject is difficult. These results are similar to findings in a
study done by Angell, Guttersrud, Henriksen &Isnes (2004) comparing high school students’
perceptions of physics, where the findings showed that students who studied physics found it
difficult but also interesting and relevant and those students who did not take physics saw the
subject as more difficult.
Another factor shown by the students 37(46%) was the inadequate equipment in the laboratories.
This would easily impact on learning on the topic radioactivity as it is viewed being abstract hence
the students would need more equipment in order to carry out experiments and demonstrations so as
to aid their understanding. This finding is in line with Ogunniyi (1986) who identifies constraints
such as rapid enrolment expansion, scarce resources like laboratories and laboratory equipment in
science education in Africa. The students 45(55%) also said that the terminology used in

173
radioactivity is difficult. This is in line with the students 42 (52%) who say that the language used
by their teachers in class to teach the topic is not understandable. These findings are in agreement
with Ben-Zvi & Hofstein (1996), where they highlighted language difficulties associated with
chemistry, which should also apply to physics because these two disciplines share some common
characteristics like use of technical terms.

Another objective of the study was to find the teaching and learning strategies used in teaching
radioactivity. . The students 68(84%) suggested that question and answer is the most commonly
used teaching strategy. However the students 53(66%) say that active participation in the physics
lessons is encouraged. Although the students 41(51%) say that teachers refer to the textbook when
teaching, the study show that teachers do not make clear explanations of the topic 39(48%).
Furthermore the students 34(42%) say that the teachers do not tell the concepts of radioactivity
clearly. This shows that the lecture strategy is not well executed. These findings contradict with
Onabamiro (1997) who was of the opinion that some teachers in our secondary schools
communicate effectively concepts to student as they are rigid in the lecturing method.

Lastly the study was also meant to find factors that may help improve students’ performance on the
topic radioactivity. Three factors that would improve the student performance were identified as
increased classwork and assessment, motivation and contextualization. The findings of this study
suggest that there is lack of feedback to both teachers and students whereas, Wagner (2002)
advocates for providing immediate, effective feedback to students for effective learning and
teaching. The students 39(48%) say that their teachers do not use “real life” situations to explain
concepts. Furthermore the students 36(44%) do not connect the new ideas to related ideas that they
already know. This shows that context- based learning is not used, whereas according to Rivet, &
Krajcik (2008) contextualizing science involves utilizing students’ prior knowledge and everyday
experiences as a catalyst for understanding challenging science concepts so they become more
meaningful and less about abstract.
Conclusion
Based on the findings, the following conclusions were drawn from the study;

Students’ performance is affected by students’ mind-set that physics and the topic radioactivity is
difficult. The students have difficulty with the language used in radioactivity; another factor is that
the students think that radioactivity is not related to their daily lives. The mode of learning is a
factor as some student learns best through interaction with classmates.

Secondly, the common teaching strategies used by teachers when teaching radioactivity is the
question and answer strategy. Demonstration and experimentation strategies are not used.

Thirdly, there were three factors found which may improve the performance of students on
radioactivity. The three factors are increased classwork and assessment, motivation and
contextualization.

Recommendations  

Ø To improve performance teachers must assess students frequently, motivate students and
also incorporate context based learning in the strategies

Ø A similar study should be done with larger sample

Ø A study should be done on effectiveness of technology and virtual laboratories in

radioactivity

174
 Ø Research is needed to investigate teachers’ views on the factors that affect performance

Ø Research is also needed to investigate the physical science teachers’ understanding of

radioactivity concepts

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Exploratory talk and problem solving in science

Paul Webb
Faculty of Education, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa
[email protected]

There has been a move towards the use of discussion in science classrooms internationally over the
past two decades. Research in the UK in the late nineties showed gains in problem solving abilities
after engaging in exploratory talk. However, in this case the exploratory talk was around the test
being used (Ravens Standard Progressive Matrices). This secondary analysis of South African
studies on exploratory talk in science and mathematics classrooms reveals similar gains on the
Raven’s test when using exploratory talk on science and mathematics topics unrelated to the test.
The findings of the five South African studies, coupled with findings in the UK and Mexico which
suggests transfer of learning, have implications for further research and curriculum development in
school education.

Introduction
For more than two decades there has been a shift in emphasis in science education from a Piagetian
view of an individual struggling to make sense of the world to the Vygotskian notion of social
construction of knowledge (Hodson, 2009). This shift has resulted in an increasing emphasis on the
use of discussion in science classrooms, including exploratory talk. Mercer, Wegerif and Dawes
(1999) have shown that exploratory talk in general can promote statistically significant gains in
children’s problem solving abilities as measured by the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices
(RSPM) test. In terms of science and mathematics education, a number of South African studies
(Webb & Treagust, 2006; Villanueva, 2010; Webb, 2010; Sepeng, 2012) have suggested that, when
teachers effectively engage their pupils in exploratory talk (Mercer, Wegerif& Dawes, 1999) during
science and mathematics inquiry activities over an extended period (6+ months), statistically
significant gains were made in the participants’ problem solving abilities as measured by the RSPM
test. Such gains suggest transfer of learning characterised by the ability to solve problems
independent of previous learning on the topic. Considering that, until recently, studies which show
transfer of learning from one set of tasks to another domain are exceedingly rare (Healey,
Wohldman, Sutton & Bourne, 2006), this claim is noteworthy.
Background
Three issues require clarification before the methods, findings and discussion sections of this paper
can be presented. These issues are (i) exploratory talk, (ii) the way in which problem solving
abilities are measured by using the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices test, and (iii) the
relationship between fluid intelligence and problem solving.
Exploratory talk
Exploratory talk, an approach which foregrounds student reasoning, has been described as ‘thinking
aloud with others’ (Monaghan, 2004). Exploratory talk uses the open sharing of ideas, receptiveness
to the ideas of others, constructive conflict and well-argued counter proposals in order to reach
consensus in groups(Mercer &Littleton, 2007).
Research has shown that exploratory talk has to be taught explicitly and practised continually in
order for it to take root in classrooms (Mercer & Littleton, 2007). Ground rules have to be set for
talking and listening. These rules, formulated collectively by the teacher and students to promote
ownership and compliance, usually involve issues of mutual respect for persons and ideas, the

176
sharing of all relevant information, acceptance of challenges and rebuttals, and striving towards
agreement on claims made (Mercer, 2004). Exploratory talk can be clearly distinguished from other
types of classroom talk such as ‘disputational talk’ with its trademark defensive stances, bickering
and personal diatribes and ‘cumulative talk’ where there is sharing of ideas but no constructive
challenges or conflict (Mercer, 1996). It is however, not too far removed from teacher–led
‘collaborative reasoning’ (Chinn & Anderson, 1998), ‘critical discussion’(Keefer, Zeitz&Resnick,
2000); or ‘accountable talk’(Michaels & O’Connor, 2002).

Measuring exploratory talk

The occurrence of exploratory talk in the classroom has been assessed in a number of ways. Mercer,
et al. (1999) used the frequency of certain linguistic features such as the use of words such as
‘because’, ‘agree’ and ‘I think’ in the context of the discussions that they observed (and recorded)
to generate qualitative and quantitative data. They also associated the relative incidence of ‘longer
utterances’ in context as an indicator of exploratory talk taking place. Similar forms of assessment
using predetermined levels of word use and utterances made have been employed in other studies in
the U.K. (cf.Rojas-Drummond &Mercer, 2004;Mercer, Dawes, Wegerif&Sams, 2004), and,
importantly, in South Africa (cf.Webb &Treagust,2006; Villanueva, 2010; Webb,2010:Sepeng,
2011;Boschmans,2013). Similar assessments of exploratory talk were used in the studies which are
considered in this secondary analysis which focuses onimproved problem solving abilities of
experimental over control groups in terms RSPM test scores after students successfully engaged in
exploratory talk in contexts totally unrelated to the RSPM tests.
Measuring problem solving

The Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices test is a widely used, well-established, reliable
standardised psychological test of non-verbal reasoning and problem solving (Kunda,
McGreggor&Goel, 2009). The tests are language-free and can be used across a range of ages
(Raven, Raven, & Court, 2003). The test is made up of a series of diagrams or designs with a part
missing. Those taking the tests are expected to select the correct insert to complete the designs from
a number of options printed beneath (the use of abstract representations is a valued cognitive ability
in terms of many of the concepts and processes used in sciences). There are 60 different questions
in five sections (A-E) which are ordered from the easiest to the most difficult (see Figures 1 and 2).

Figure 1: Question 7 from the first (easy) level (A) of five sets of twelve questions each in the
Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices test

177
Figure 2: Question 12 from the last (difficult) level (E) of five sets of twelve questions each in
the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices test

The RSPM tests have been described as the best assessment of abstract or nonverbal reasoning and
are widely regarded as measuring the essence of the educative aspects of Spearman’s g (Jensen,
1998; Kaplan and Sacuzzo, 1997; Lynn, Allik, Pulman and Laidra, 2004).Spearman proposed that
there is a common or general factor in mental ability, commonly known as Spearman’s g. The two
main components of Spearman’s g are educative ability and reproductive ability. Educative ability
refers to the ability to educe relationships or further meaning from that what is known, while
reproductive ability is the ability to reproduce a culture’s store of verbal concepts. Reproductive
ability is what enables one to achieve in examinations which requires memory, while educative
ability enables one to solve abstract non-verbal problems (Raven et al., 1998). However, according
to Raven et al. (1998), educative ability is more than problem solving alone. It requires “problem
identification, re-conceptualisation of the field (not just the problem) and monitoring proposed
solutions for consistency within all available information” (p. G12).

Fluid intelligence and problem solving

Fluid intelligence (Gf) is characterised by the ability to solve problems independently of previous
learning on the topic within which the problem is framed. In other words fluid intelligence is
another descriptor of the educative ability aspect of Spearman’s g. In contrast, crystallised
intelligence (Gc) is dependent on prior learning (Cattel, 1963) and is equivalent to the reproductive
ability aspect of Spearman’s g. While crystallise intelligence is enhanced by learning and increases
with age, fluid intelligence has been seen to be a hereditary factor (Baltes, Standinger&Lindenberg,
1999).
According to Jaeggi et al. (2008) Gfis one of the most important factors in learningas it is critical
for a wide variety of cognitive tasks, andis closely related to success in complex environments.
WhileBaltes et al. (1999) state that fluid intelligence cannot be influenced by socialization or
education, recent studies (see literature review on improving intelligence by Buschkeul&Jaeggi,
2010) suggest that fluid intelligence can be improved via certain of interventions. While
improvements in Gfhave been found when using interventions such as exposure to music
(Schellenberg, 2004) and the provision of creatine (Rae, Digney, McEwan & Bates, 2003), most
studies have shown that demanding working memory tasks enhance fluid intelligence scores as

178
measured by using the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM) test (Buschkeul&Jaeggi,
2010).

Methods and results

Selected papers based on exploratory talk in the classroom and problem solving abilities based on
Raven’s test scores were reviewed for this secondary analysis. Selected papers on linking the
development of working memory capacity to Raven’s test scores were also reviewed in an attempt
to interrogate and provide possible explanations for patterns associated with exploratory talk and
gains in scores achieved in the tests. The three sets of studies are analysed, namely (i) the initial
studies on exploratory talk and problem solving (Mercer, et al, 1999; Rojas Drummond& Mercer,
2004;Mercer, Dawes, Wegerif&Sams, 2004), (ii) the South African studies on exploratory talk and
problem solving and, (iii) the studies on working memory capacity and problem solving (for
exampleJaeggiet al., 2008; Dahlin, 2009, etc.). All of these studies used Raven’s tests to determine
changes in problem solving abilities before and after exploratory talk or working memory activity
interventions.
Initial studies on exploratory talk and problem solving in the UK and Mexico
Mercer et al.’s seminal 1999 study with 60 children aged 9-11 provided the first link between
exploratory talk and achievements on the Raven’s test. This study revealed that statistically
significant gains were made in RSPM scores after using exploratory talk in class.Studies by Rojas-
Drummond and Mercer, (2004), and Mercer, Dawes, Wegerif and Sams (2004) with school aged
children (9-12 years old) all produced similar results and showed the value of explicit explanations to
learners in terms of how to generate classroom discussion. Mercer, Dawes, Wegerif and Sams (2004)
study also revealed a significant improvement in SATS science question scores in classes where
exploratory talk was employed (SATs are sets of assessments provided to schools by the
Qualifications and Curriculum Authority in England and Wales).

However, as the focus of the exploratory talk in Mercer et al’s (1999) study was on the test itself, it
was noted that this approach “could lead to the charge that the type of exploratory talk used was
akin to ‘teaching to the test’” (Webb & Treagust, 2006). It was this uncertainty that led to the
replication of studies on exploratory talk in a number of contexts in South Africa where, in most,
the discussion was focused on science and mathematics classroom interactions totally unrelated to
the Raven’s test.

South African studies on exploratory talk and problem solving

Five studies which included exploratory talk and Raven’s testing were conducted over a decade.
Each study was conducted over a six to twelve month period, with three of the studies being
replicated into first and second studies over two calendar years. A variety of triggers were used to
initiate exploratory talk. Except for a study involving discussions around content covered in class in
Supplemental Instruction sessions for Pharmacology students, all the participants were school
children between the ages of 11-14 years.
Webb and Treagust (2006) reported on a study in South Africa where three triggers were used to
initiate exploratory talk amongst 11-12 year-old isiXhosa first language speakers in schools where
English is the language of teaching and learning. These triggers were conversational readings,
prompt-posters, and practical work. Although the language of teaching and learning was English,
the learners were encouraged to engage in exploratory talk in language in which they were most
comfortable. Small group discussions were monitored and the principles use for the assessment of
whether exploratory talk had taken place or not were based on the criteria used by Mercer et al.
(1999). In a first study with 146 children (36 in comparison group) statistically significant gains in
Raven’s scores were recorded in experimental groups where reading and practical work were used
to initiate exploratory talk. When using prompt posters, exploratory talk was not evident in the
experimental groups and no statistically significant differences were found between the
179
experimental and comparison groups’ pre- and post- intervention Ravens scores. As such, the
approach to using the prompt-posters was redesigned to better facilitate exploratory talk. Thereafter
a second study was undertaken amongst 1192 children (298 in comparison group) over six months.
Statistically significant improvements between the Ravens pre-post-test scores as compared to the
comparison group were recorded in all cases.
Villanueva (2010) also conducted repeat studies. The first revealed no statistically significant
differences between learners (n=168) in experimental (n=122) and comparison (n=46) groups in
terms of Raven’s scores in the first study where teachers of the experimental groups, who had been
trained in exploratory talk, were not able to implement it successfully with their classes. In the
second study (n=675) in different schools, where the teachers were able to successfully implement
exploratory talk, statistically significant differences were found in the pre-post-test change in scores
of the experimental group (n= 479)and the comparison group (n=196). Statistically significant
differences in favour of the experimental group were recorded in two consecutive year studies using
exploratory talk based on concept cartoons in mathematics (Webb, 2010) and in a study based with
176 grade 9 learners (107 experimental and 69 comparison) on solving word problems in
mathematics (Sepeng, 2011). Boschman’s (2013) study, where Pharmacology students discussed
the content of their lectures in Supplemental Instruction sessions (and which did not result in
exploratory talk) revealed no statistically significant differences between Ravens pre-post-test
scores. The findings of the South African studies above are summarised in Table 1.

Table 1: Results of the South African studies focusing on exploratory talk and problem
solving as assessed using the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices test.
Study Focus Age Language Effect on Comment
Ravens
scores
Yes No
Webb, 2003 Exploratory talk in 11-12 IsiXhosa and √ Teachers stimulated talk
science classes English by reading, prompt
posters or practical work
Villanueva, Exploratory talk in 11-12 Home √ Teachers not able to
2010 (first science classes language and facilitate exploratory
study) English talk successfully

Villanueva, Exploratory talk in 11-12 Home √

2010 (second science classes language and Teachers (new set) able
study) English to facilitate exploratory
talk successfully

Webb, 2010 Exploratory talk in 11-12 Home √ Teachers able to

mathematics classes language and facilitate exploratory
English talk around Raven’s test

Sepeng, 2011 Exploratory talk in 13-14 Home √ Teachers able to

mathematics classes language and facilitate exploratory
English talk successfully
aroundword problems

Boschmans, Discussion in Young English only √ Discussion about

2013 supplemental adults content, not exploratory
instruction classes for talk (inquiry based)
Pharmacy students

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Discussion
The studies in the UK, Mexico and South Africa all revealed statistically significant improvements
in children’s problem solving abilities (as expressed by Raven’s scores) aftersuccessful exploratory
talk interventions. In the studies where the teachers were trained in exploratory talk, but did not
successfully implement it in their classrooms, no statistically significant improvements took place.
Similarly, Jaeggi et al. (2008),when using n-back strategies to promote working memory capacity
(WMC), found improvements in Raven’s test scores which were dose dependent (more n-back
activity, more improvement on Raven’s test). A number of studies reviewed Buschkeul and Jaeggi
(2010)also suggest transfer of learning, while studies by Dahlin et al. (2008), and Dahlin (2009) using
3-back tasks showed similar results. Dahlin (2009) usedFunctional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(fMRI) to reveal overlapping activity in letter memory and activity in the fronto-parietal striatal regions
of the brain while participants were engaged in the task.

Flyn (2009) points to the substantial gainsin fluid intelligencescores that have been made duringthe
20th century (Flynn, 2009). While the data reveal that since 1942 British schoolchildren between the
ages of 5-15 have gained 14 IQ points, since 1979 gains have declined and the average IQs of 13 to
15 year old UK children have actually shown a small loss. He attributes this loss to the possibility
that the cognitive demands of teenage subcultures have been stagnant over this time. In terms of the
overall gains in IQ Flynn believes that we use our brains differently to the ways in which our
parents, grandparents and great-grandparents did, and that by doing so we probably alter their
functioning. However, he shies away from trying to identify any single factor for the gains and
states that he believes that “any single factor hypothesis (for example nutrition for better brains,
better schooling, more stimulated toddlers, etc.) will be found wanting” (p. 25).
What this secondary analysis study of selected studies suggests is that exploratory talk may be one
of the factors which promote measurable gains in abstract thinking abilities (fluid intelligence).
However, this claim raises a number of questions such as; what doesit do to result in transfer of
learning, is exploratory talk linked or similar toWMC activities, how sustainable are the gains they
achieve, and how can we use them for curriculum development in schools?
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classroom setting. Unpublished PhD. Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port
Elizabeth.
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Young and Older Adults: Immediate Training Gains, Transfer, and Long-Term Maintenance
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learning after updating training mediated by the striatum. Science, 320(5882), 1510–1512.
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new hypothesis.Trends Cognit. Sci. 11, 236–242.
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Hodson, D. (2009). Teaching and Learning about Science: Language, Theories, Methods, History,
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Jaeggi, S., Buschkuehl, M., Ionides, J., & Perrig, W. (2008). Improving fluid intelligence with
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Lynn, R., Allik, J., Pullman, H., & Laidra, K. (2004). Sex differences on the progressive matrices
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Acknowledgements
This project was kindly funded in part by incentive funding (UID 85590) from the National
Research Foundation of South Africa

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SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY

SNAPSHOTS

184
 What do the Lesotho Junior Secondary Science papers assess?

Sophia Majara
Faculty of Science, Lesotho College of Education, Lesotho
[email protected] / [email protected]

Casual observation of public examination results reveals that performances in science does not
compare favourably with that of social sciences, practical subjects or commercial subjects in the
case of secondary schools. It is with this superficial observation that I decided to undertake an
analysis of assessment tools (examination papers written by learners) used versus the prescribed
syllabus. Assessment as one facet of curriculum operation helps stakeholders to underscore
weaknesses and strong points of the curriculum apart from its other various purposes such as
establishing the starting point, diagnosing learning problems, monitoring and evaluation. This
paper briefly reports on an analysis that was undertaken on the Lesotho junior secondary science
examination papers which were written at the end of the years 2011 and 2012. In this case the
papers were analysed for their potential formative use with the subsequent cohorts of learners.
They were analysed using Krathwohl’s taxonomy. They were further analysed for coverage of the
syllabus, cognitive levels of questions and other aspects that they may assess. What emerged was
that papers reflected a reasonable coverage of the syllabus. There was also a clear assessment of
practical skills, higher order thinking skills and the ability to apply science in everyday life, some of
which are clearly articulated in the objectives of the programme. Their use for formative purposes
can influence science teaching and learning towards constructivism and engagement of more
practical work.

Introduction
Final examination papers constitute the major tools of summative assessment of the programme in
the case of primary and secondary schools. They are ideally expected to match the aims, objectives,
learning content, teaching and learning methodology involved in the programme. When such match
exists in a curriculum, such a curriculum is said to be aligned (Anderson, 2005). The final
examination papers therefore link aspects of curriculum by attending to facets of learning such as
content understanding, its application, processes of science, and scientific reasoning (Bybee,
Carlson-Powell and Trowbridge, 2008). The results that they yield are used for certification and
promotion to the next level. Their other big value to the system lies in the data that they produce,
which when used effectively can benefit future cohorts (Swain, 2000) by helping the teachers to
improve their practices and hence improve learning on the part of learners.
Using Krathwohl’s taxonomy, which is actually a revision and expansion of Bloom’s taxonomy, the
science final examination papers written by the Lesotho junior secondary learners at the end of the
years 2011 and 2012 were analysed for their ability to test different levels of handling knowledge
and cognitive processes that learners would have to engage in responding to them (questions in the
examination papers). They were also analysed for their validity to the educational objectives of the
programme (junior secondary) and the science content specified.

Aims of the study

This study is aimed at:
• Establishing the cognitive processes that learners would have to engage in responding to the
questions in the final examination papers.
• Establishing the levels at which knowledge would have to be handled (by the learners) when
writing the papers.
• Determining the degree to which questions in the final examination papers address the
educational objectives of the programme in the science.

185
Background to the study
Junior secondary for which examination papers have been analysed constitute the first three years of
secondary education in Lesotho. The learners write public examinations after which a certificate is
issued. It is the level at which learners do science consisting of the three disciplines; biology,
chemistry and physics that are assessed as one subject and earning the learner one grade. It is the
level at which learners are prepared for senior secondary science subjects, while providing those
who will be leaving school or taking up other subjects at senior secondary level with enough
scientific literacy and knowledge to survive (in modern world which is scientifically and
technologically dominated).
The programme as it is has a total of 16 aims, three of which are:
Development of understanding of the effects of socio-economic and technological changes
on the survival of various species.
Development of confidence, responsibility and ability to apply scientific method in
developing new ideas, solving problem, designing and producing materials for self directed
learning and for learning in all situations.
Development of scientific skills, knowledge and attitudes which enable them to care for and
improve their environment. (NCDC, 2002)
The programme is structured in such a manner that there are no portfolios reflecting the learners’
progression. The examination that learners write at the end of the programme serves as the only tool
of assessment used for judging learners’ attainment for the entire programme. It consists of two
papers; paper I consisting of 45 multiple choice questions and being written in 1 hour 15 minutes
and paper II of consisting of structured questions and being written in 2 hours.
Research questions
The questions that this study seeks to answer are:
• What knowledge and cognitive processes do junior secondary science final examination
papers actually assess?
• How do contents of junior secondary science examination papers relate to the content and
objectives of the programme?

Theoretical Framework
This study is informed by Krathwohl’s revised taxonomy (2002), which is a revision and an
expansion of Bloom’s taxonomy (1956). The revision is in renaming the cognitive level ‘synthesis’
‘create’ and shifting it to the highest level of the cognitive domain or processes. The expansion is in
extending the lowest level of Bloom’s taxonomy; knowledge and specifying four levels at which it
(knowledge) can be handled (in an instructional objective or assessment task); factual knowledge,
conceptual knowledge, procedural knowledge and metacognitive knowledge. The taxonomy
therefore reflects the two perspectives of learning; level of handling knowledge and the cognitive
processes involved at the same time, while it moves the learner from memorising isolated pieces of
knowledge to executing advanced cognitive processes (Airasian & Miranda, 2002).
Knowledge Cognitive Processes
dimension A B C D E F
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
1 Factual
knowledge
2 Conceptual
knowledge
3 Procedural
knowledge
4 Metacognitive
knowledge

186
Figure 1. Krathwohl’s (2002) taxonomy of educational objectives

An assessment task can therefore be classified according to this taxonomy by identifying the active
verb, specifying what the learner is actually expected to do and placing it along the horizontal
(cognitive process) dimension and identifying the content involved in the task and then placing it
along the vertical (knowledge) dimension, depending on the level at which the learner will be
expected to be handling the scientific knowledge.

Literature Review
Summative assessment has always been used by teachers for providing students’ grades, compiling
their reports and promoting them to the next class. It is applied at the end of the unit, grade level,
term or programme to indicate overall learners’ performance (Bybee et. al., 2008). The results it
yields help the stakeholders to look back at the teaching / learning activity to get a slight idea of
how it went. They may also be used for predictive purposes on the same learners who sat the
examinations.

Wellington and Ireson (2008) find summative assessment tools that are in the form of paper and
pencil somehow relatively fair in that they are applied to all learners at the same time, but limiting
in that they do not accommodate various ways in which learners may express themselves. Some
learners may be good at expressing themselves orally or practically but be poor in writing. Such
learners are likely not to perform well in such examinations even if they are conversant with the
knowledge and skills being assessed. This type of examination may not be used in assessing aspects
such as attitudes or practical skills. In the same manner, Abell and Siegel, (2011) show that learning
is more than associations, recalling, higher order thinking, problem solving and a few practices that
may be embraced in the programme and by having this perspective of learning, teachers can adapt
their teaching and hence improve learning on the part of learners. Assessment skills need to include
opportunities for learners to demonstrate science process skills.
Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning which should be implemented on an ongoing
basis (Shepard, 2000), to diagnose learning difficulties and identify progression in learning on the
part of students’ learning so that adaptations and improvements can be made on the teaching
(Criticos et al, 2012). The papers analysed in this study were initially used for summative
assessment and later to be used for formative assessment in the subsequent cohorts. With careful
use in the subsequent cohorts, the items can be used to uncover the learning as opposed to assess the
content covered (Perrone, 1997).

Methodology
The research design adopted in this study is basically qualitative. It employed a small sample which
allowed interrogation of the issue from more than one perspective. The only data collection
instrument applied was document analysis. The Lesotho junior secondary science papers analysed
were those that were written at the end of the years, 2011 and 2012. They were analysed for their
ability to assess handling of knowledge, cognitive processes to be engaged in responding to the
questions and validity to the syllabus which is the main curriculum document guiding the teacher in
implementation.

Each question in the examination papers was analysed for two aspects; the cognitive process
implying the behaviour to be demonstrated which was identified and placed along the horizontal
dimension of the taxonomy, while the scientific knowledge through which the behaviour was to be
demonstrated was identified and placed along the vertical dimension of the taxonomy. A question
such as “What is an atom?” requires simple recalling of factual information and can therefore be
placed in cell 1A of the taxonomy, while a question such as “In what form is the energy in food?”
was placed ion cell 2B as it would require a learner to demonstrate understanding of the concepts;

187
energy, food and their relationship. The science content of each question was further checked
against the topic listed in the syllabus so that the whole paper was assessed for validity for the
syllabus.

Results
Objectives of the programme whose examinations have been analysed reflect the social aspect of
science. The knowledge and skills that learners are expected to acquire in the junior secondary
science are the ones that are supposed to be used and applied in interrogating personal and social
issues of life around the learners. The questions in these papers show some validity in that most
subtopics have been tested. The questions are contextualised; they give learners an opportunity to
apply scientific concepts in addressing real life issues around them. A question such as:
“Many plants and animals species whose body parts are used in traditional medicine are
endangered.
What could be done to protect these plants and animals species from being endangered?”
(2011, paper 2, section B, Q1 (d)
requires learners to be conversant with concept of extinction of species and how it can be dealt with
while medical problems of people are also attended.
Lesotho Junior secondary science syllabus is made up of 29 topics covering Biology, Chemistry and
Physics. The examination is constructed in such a way that almost all the topics have been covered.
There is at least one item on each topic (see table 1). This eliminates the use of essay type question
as they will limit the coverage.
The items comprising this junior secondary science examination are short answer questions
demanding an application of a range of cognitive skills. Short as they are, they range from those
requiring recalling of factual information to those that require application of scientific knowledge in
real situations. There are a few that require learners to go beyond what is given in the question. A
question such as:
“When a candle burns, there are both physical and chemical changes. Explain ...”
(2011, paper 2, Section A, Q3)
requires learners to interpret what would be visible in terms of the scientific knowledge behind the
observations. It requires the learners to demonstrate their understanding of combustion, melting and
vaporisation. It can therefore be slotted in cell 2A of Krathwohl’s taxonomy. On the other hand a
question such as:
“Which cells are destroyed by HIV?”
(2011, paper 2, section A, Q1)
requires learner to apply their conceptual knowledge on blood cells and their respective functions in
addressing and demonstrating some understanding on the issue of HIV which is a social problem.
The question can be placed in cell 2C of Krathwohl’s taxonomy.
There are also questions that required the learner to demonstrate their own creativity or problem
solving skills in addressing the given situation.
Water from stage 4 (last stage of sewerage treatment, before disposal into the river)
sometimes has pH values below 7.
Explain how the water from stage 4 can be treated to increase its pH.
(2012, paper 2, section B, Q2, (d))
requires a learner to demonstrate an understanding on the nature of water at that particular stage and
the chemistry that can be applied in making the water safe before it can be disposed. It can therefore
be placed in cell 3C.
Some of the questions are highly contextualised, in that they asses scientific knowledge and process
skills in the context of life around the learner.
Give reasons why public smoking should be discouraged.
(2012, paper 2, section A, Q1, (b))
needs the learners to utilise the knowledge they have on the effects of smoking in explaining the
effect of a social problem; public smoking.

188
Conclusions
The items in papers do not fully address metacognition, analysis, evaluation and creating,
apparently due to a diversity of topics to be covered, which would lower the content validity if there
were to be questions on them (see table 1). For a single item to carry more than five marks would be
an injustice to other topics. There are therefore no items requiring the learners to respond by
expressing themselves in more than one paragraph or more.

The Lesotho junior secondary science papers address the first three cognitive processes. They
demand learners to remember, demonstrate understanding as well as applying factual, conceptual
and procedural knowledge in responding (see tables 2a, 2b, 2c, and 2d). Their formative use will
make science teachers who strife to enable learners to attain high levels of thinking.

A large fraction of items in the examinations are highly contextualised. They assess scientific
concepts in the context of life around the learners. Their formative use will enable the teachers to be
constructivist in their teaching.

Some of the items are practical work based, they need learners to have been exposed to laboratory
practical work. The influence that they may have on teaching thereafter is that a teacher will find it
necessary to include at least one practical (where learners handle the materials or observe certain
processes) in most topics.

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Table 1 Content Validity of the examination papers

Topic 2011 2012 2011 2012
Paper Paper Paper Paper
1 2 2 2
Observing and using 8
instruments
Diversity
Cells 4 2 3 4
Reproduction 3 3 7
Nutrition 5 1 7 11
Breathing and respiration 2 2 6
Transport systems 1 2
Support and locomotion 1 1
Responses 1 2
Common diseases 1
Environment 1 2 9 5

Experimental techniques 2 1 7 12
Particulate nature of matter 1 2 5
Atomic structure 2 2 2
Periodic table 4 6
Formation of compounds 5 6 9 8
Metals and non metals 7 5 5

Pressure 1 1 5
Forces 1 1 6 4
Equilibrium 1 1 11
Work, energy, power & 2 2 8 1
efficiency
Rectilinear motion
Elasticity
Simple machines 1 1
Electrostatics 1 2
Electricity 1 2 4 7
Magnetism and 1 2
electromagnetism
Thermal energy 1 2 5 10
Waves 4 1 3

Distribution of marks over different levels of handling knowledge cognitive processes needed
to respond to the questions
Table 2 a. Analysis of 2011 paper I
Knowledge Cognitive processes dimension
Dimension 1 2 3 4 5 6
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
A 12 4 6 - - -

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 Factual
knowledge
B 5 16 7 - - -
Conceptual
knowledge
C - 2 4 - - -
Procedural
knowledge
D - - - - - -
Metacognitive
knowledge

Table 2 b. Analysis of 2012 paper I

Knowledge Cognitive processes dimension
Dimension 1 2 3 4 5 6
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
A 4 4 2 - - -
Factual
knowledge
B 5 17 9 - - -
Conceptual
knowledge
C - 1 13 = - -
Procedural
knowledge
D - - - - - -
Metacognitive
knowledge

Table 2 c. Analysis of 2011 paper II (distribution of marks)

Knowledge Cognitive processes dimension
Dimension 1 2 3 4 5 6
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
A 15 5 2 - - -
Factual
knowledge
B 3 38 8 - - -
Conceptual
knowledge
C 6 4 8 - - -
Procedural
knowledge
D - - - - - -
Metacognitive
knowledge

Table 2 d. Analysis of 2012 Paper II (distribution of marks)

Knowledge Cognitive processes dimension
Dimension 1 2 3 4 5 6
Remember Understand Apply Analyse Evaluate Create
A 24 4 2 - - -

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 Factual
knowledge
B 1 26 9 - - -
Conceptual
knowledge
C - 7 14 - - -
Procedural
knowledge
D - - - - - -
Metacognitive
knowledge

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Indigenous knowledge and multiculturalism: Applicability for school science teaching in
Zimbabwe

Dominic Mashoko,
University of the Witswatersrand, Faculty of Education, Marang Centre, Johannesburg, South
Africa. e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
Indigenous knowledge practices in Chivi district, Masvingo, Zimbabwe, on plant medicines and
methods of weather forecasting were investigated. The aimed at finding the applicability of these
forms of knowledge in the teaching of science in schools. A total of 50 participants were used which
consisted of traditional healer, doctor, nurse, agricultural worker, form four students and two
science teachers .This sample had 60% males and and 40% females, and 10% of them being below
the age of 25 years. Data were obtained through interviews and questionnaires from the
purposively sampled respondents and then analysed thematically. The study was guided by the
Bantu philosophy, cultural capital theory and the hegemonic theory. All concurred that local
people’s knowledge of plant medicines and methods of weather forecasting were useful in the
teaching of science in schools. The study revealed that essential concepts such as neutralisation,
fermentation, food preservation and diseases could be taught basing on these indigenous forms of
knowledge. It was found that knowledge possessed by the people be harnessed for the teaching of
science in secondary schools. On weather forecasting, participants indicated behavior of birds
and insects, changes of the moon and stars and movement of winds as indicative of weather
patterns. Thus curriculum planners need to include indigenous forms of knowledge systems in the
design and implementation of science education in schools.

Key terms: indigenous knowledge, multiculturalism, school science, weather forecasting, and
medicinal plants

Introduction
World-wide there has a growing shift in emphasis of the science curriculum from that which is
concerned exclusively with the acquisition of scientific knowledge to that which encompasses the
cultural aspect of science as a human endeavour. This has been necessitated by various researches
into children’s learning in science that indicated that science curriculum content was exclusively
western in orientation, and teaching and learning methods employed were inappropriate to the
cultural traditions of the local people (Hodson, 1993). Although a significant number of science
curricula have taken up some vivid and bold steps towards the provision of a more philosophically
and sociologically valid view of school science context is mostly western in form and practice.
Several climates of opinions have been observed for shifts in science curriculum notably during the
1960s and 1970s with emphasis on scientific theories and the processes of scientific inquiry, and
during the 1980s and early 1990s with focus on science as cultural phenomenon (Cobern & Loving,
2001). In line with these views, most curricula especially in Africa adopted the concept of
multiculturalism as a teaching strategy to characterise school science. Currently there is debate on
what actually constitute school science in Africa raging from the dimensions from the multicultural
perspective to a contrast with the universalistic perspective of science. Some even argue that
science would still be universal even if we incorporate indigenous knowledge as scientific (Snively
& Corsiglia, 2000). This is the multicultural paradigm of science education.

Notably, in Africa there has been movement towards Afro-centricity throughout Africa for quite a
long period informed by African authors who have given their descriptions of the principles of
thought and practice in the African context (Matsika, 2012; Asante, 2000). This paradigm helped
African nations to realise that no country can develop without valuing its culture. As a result many
African countries are awakening to a new realisation that the colonisation comforts could not solve

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their social problems. Thus African traditional practices are now being valued more and
consequently there has been a call for the incorporation of traditional education in principles in
current educational practices. Most importantly schools are encouraged to employ culturally
responsive teaching. In the African context,the classroom should be regarded as cultural space
where students learn the wisdom of dealing with societal problems. According to Matsika(2012)
this pedagogical approach would be culturally responsive in practice and thus utilises the students’
present knowledge and experiences as a foundation for acquiring new knowledge.

In the light of the foregoing insights, it might be prudent to note that in a multicultural education
paradigm the entire education program is redesigned to reflect the concerns of diverse cultural
groups. However this approach can prove to be difficult to implement considering the diversity in
culture the country is. There are many ethnic groups in Zimbabwe that include the shona, ndebele,
tonga, nambiya, kalanga, venda and the shangani (Matsika, 2012). The Zimbabwean cultural policy
allows Ministry of education, art, sport and culture to teach science in schools using indigenous
knowledge systems locally available in the communities so as to make science relevant to the
learners (Chigwedere, 2006). This policy resonates very well with the science and technology
policy (2011) which acknowledges the importance of indigenous knowledge systems in the teaching
of school science in Zimbabwe. However in Zimbabwe there has been low usage of the indigenous
forms of knowledge in the teaching and learning of science in schools (Shizha, 2006; Matsika, 2012
).In Zimbabwe, little research has examined how multicultural science classrooms can be done with
specific reference to medicinal and weather prediction strategies (Muguti & Maposa, 2012;
Mashoko & Kazembe, 2008). The study therefore posits that since the current science teaching
strategies are deficient, it is necessary to make use of the complimentary role of indigenous
knowledge systems of medicinal plants and methods of weather forecasting with a specific
reference to the shona cultural group.

Theoretical perspective
This study is guided by Pierre Bourdieu & Passeron (1977) cultural capital theory and the Antonio
Gramsci’s hegemonic theory. The cultural capital theory postulates that schools primarily reflect the
knowledge and the values economically and culturally dominant group in society they validate and
reinforce the cultural capital that students from such groups already bring from home (Haralambos
& Holborn, 2004; Miksch, Bruch, Higbee, Jahangir,& Lundell, 2003). Cultural capital implies
linguistic and social competencies such as qualities like style, manners, know-how as well as the
aspirations of the objective chances of success (Blackledge & Hunt, 1985). In Africa and in
Zimbabwe, the western scientific principles are dominating the African science thus in this context
school science is disadvantaging the local people whose culture is less dominant than that of
western as a result of colonialism. Parallel to this view, the hegemonic theory asserts that a social
group, the conventional western science, can continue to maintain its domination of another by
using education as an instrument to propagate its ideology (Haralambos & Holborn, 2004). In the
case of Zimbabwe, this view leaves school science mainly western in orientation. In the Bantu
philosophy, most Africans hold on to their spiritual past even if they are exposed to modern
scientific knowledge (Matsika, 2012; Shumba, 1999). This implies that African learners in schools
continue to make reference to their cultural norms and values since they consider these to be
relevant to their everyday life.

The concept multicultural science education

According to Banks (2001 in Miksch et al 2003) multicultural education is an idea that seeks to
create equal educational opportunities for all students so that it reflects the diverse cultures and
groups within society and classrooms. Hodson (1993) argues that it can take three forms: first,
assimilationist approach, encompassing the transmission of the cultural beliefs and norms of the
dominant group; secondly, integrationist approach, advocates equal opportunities within culturally
diverse and mutually tolerant society; and, ethnic and cultural pluralism, which accepts and

194
promotes diversity. In this context, this study, argues for the integrationist and cultural pluralism
types of multiculturalism in Zimbabwean schools. In the context of multicultural science education,
there are problems related to language, knowledge and beliefs of learners, and teaching and
learning styles that can be adopted I the schools to make science relevant t learners (Cobern
&Loving, 2001; Hodson, 1993).These however can be addressed case by case in multicultural
science classroom without impeding learning program as one make reference to indigenous forms
of knowledge that can facilitate learning of science(Cobern & Loving, 2001; Irvine & Armento,
2001). Indigenous knowledge systems are local people’s cultural practices that include their norms,
values, beliefs and behavior (Muguti & Maposa, 2012). Thus this paper looks at the indigenous
people’s cultural practices with reference to medicinal plants and weather forecasting. This study,
therefore, is an attempt to argue for the incorporation of traditional weather forecasting and
medicinal knowledge in school science in Zimbabwe.

The study undertook to investigate the implementation of multicultural science education in

Zimbabwe. The study addressed the following questions: 1) What are some of the medicinal and
weather forecasting ways do teachers and students cite as suitable for multicultural science teaching
and learning in schools? 2) How can these indigenous forms of knowledge be utilised in
multicultural science classrooms?

Methodology
The study was conducted in two secondary schools with form four students and two teachers in
Chivi district, Zimbabwe. The study also sought data from members of the community that included
traditional healer, doctor, nurse and agricultural extension worker. It aimed at identifying,
indigenous ways of medicines and weather forecasting strategies in Chivi district of Masvingo
Province, Zimbabwe. A case study of medicinal plants and weather forecasting was used. For data
collection, the study employed both quantitative and qualitative methods using two kinds of
instruments questionnaires and interviews. The instruments were piloted to test the relevance of
their content and to help in sample selection from the area. Questionnaire was answered by all
participants except traditional healer while interviews were done to all participants. This was done
in a village and one school next to the intended area of study. A total of 50 respondents were used
in the study. The data yielded in this study were analysed using both descriptive statistics for
questionnaires and qualitative procedures for interviews.

Results and discussions

Table 1: Some Medicinal plant knowledge in Chivi
Condition Drugs used
Snake bites Cyprus angolensis
(ruvhunabadza),tapinathus quequensis
(gomarara renyoka)
Dysmenorrhoea (jeko) Cyperus digitatus (jekacheka)
Stomach aches Elephantorrhiza elephantine (torani)
Reproductive organs problems Scleronya birrea (mupfura), ximenia caffra
(munhengeni)
Wound healing(external) Mupfura,Aloe vera(gavakava)

The data which was sought was mainly in terms of drugs for stomach aches (including ulcers,
diarrhea and dysentry, dysmenorrhea, snake bites and wound healing. The results indicate that the
people in the area had full knowledge of the traditional plant medicines to use for various ailments.
For example, the traditional healer revealed that Cyprus angolensis (Ruvhunabadza) causes the
patient to vomit foam, taking poison out of the blood and stomach when used in the treatment of
snake bites. It was interesting to note that the traditional healer understood what he was doing but
lacked theoretical explanations which could not be equated with ignorance. Health practitioners
195
such as nurses and doctors interviewed acknowledged the importance of traditional drugs however
could not explain the mechanisms of cure of some drugs people use. The worrisome view by the
traditional healer was the unclear collaboration with the biomedicine that existed, which inherently
triggered fears of bio piracy of their medicines.

Table 2: Some Traditional methods of weather forecasting in Chivi

Indicators Concepts taught in science
a) 24 hours indicators
Whirl wind (chamupupuru)- hot day Heat energy
Haze(uma), chigogodza bird singing-hot
day
Rings around the sun- rain Electromagnetic spectrum
b) 2-10 days indicators
Circles around the moon bigger- less rain waves
Halo effect around the moon(dziva waves
remvura)- rain is expected
Insects, birds singing (hwaya)- expect Temperature variations
rains-
c) Seasonal indicators
Group of stars around the astroid temperature
(mazhara), wild fruits many(mazhanje)-
drought year
Many birds fly around (matendera,
hwaya)-expect rains
Northerly winds(mbambara)-rains Air masses
Easterly wind (peta gomwe)- no rains Air masses
Burning of high mountains- drought year Temperature variations
Existence of pests- summer season Temperature for reproduction
Trees shedding leaves- dry season, winter temperature

Findings on table 2 above indicate that there were many aspects of the traditional culture which
could be used in the teaching of science in schools. This is well suitable in the areas such as biology
when dealing with plants, animals and diseases, and in physics when dealing with matter. Most of
the participants agreed that indigenous ways of weather predictions could be used in the teaching
and learning of science concepts in schools specifically for the topics as shown in table 2 above.
Teachers suggested that they can utilize these weather concepts when they formulate lesson plans.
As an example, they cited students will be expected to define temperature, heat and conduction, and
then state the relationship of each to weather. Some students suggested that from their homes they
would use a plant called ‘Zumbani’ to make the skies clear if it is cloudy, by burning it. Teachers
went on to say that students would then determine the effect of temperature on air movements by
relating to their knowledge at home. This was also indicated to happen when they discuss the
concept of water cycle in class. Thus instead just use textbooks in explaining concepts teachers can
make use of indigenous forms of knowledge held by the students. This was essential in that one
teacher pointed out that he spends considerable classroom time developing a personal relationship
with his students, like telling stories from cultural perspectives.

196
Table 3: Summary of respondents on indigenous knowledge systems
Statement % Agree % Disagree % Not sure Total %
I use 30 70 0 100
traditional
medicine
Indigenous 95 5 0 100
knowledge is
important
Traditional 90 5 0 100
medicines are
derived from
plants
Indigenous 70 20 10 100
knowledge is
useful in
weather
forecasting
Traditional IK 60 30 10 100
could be used
in lessons by
teachers
IK scientific 50 40 10 100
Oldpeople 80 20 0 100
above60 should
only visit trad
healers
Trad medicines 60 40 0 100
have an
advantage over
biomedicine
Many pple use 70 20 10 100
IK for weather
Old pple only 60 40 0 100
tell weather
Trad weather 50 40 10 100
forecasting
cover wide area
Plant medicines 70 10 20 100
are useful in
schools
Trad weather 40 60 0 100
forecasting
misleads

The responses for strongly agree and agree were pooled together to Agree for easier analysis and
the same was done for Disagree and Strongly disagree. This was the summarized as shown in the
above table 3. From table 3, a majority (60 %) agreed that traditional indigenous knowledge
systems could be integrated in science curriculum. However, half of the respondents (50 %)
indicated that they would consider indigenous knowledge to be scientific if it appears in science
textbooks and teaching aids. A significant percentage of the local people both plant medicines (70
%) and traditional methods of weather forecasting (80%) agreed that they were useful in schools.
Others have also reported that many people use indigenous knowledge systems to predict weather

197
thus it implied that if used in schools it can benefit some more people. Locals in this study had a
better understanding of the complimentary role of traditional knowledge systems to modern
practices.

Despite a reasonable percentage of their reluctance to use traditional medicines (70 %) it seems
locals value these traditional strategies of survival. A significant number of them also said
traditional practices were not scientific. It could be that the locals do not know what scientific
imply.

On interviewing, it was found that the respondents had mixed feelings towards the use of traditional
practices in schools. One teacher lamented: ‘plant medicines at times do not work and it is just a
belief in those stuff’. However, another teacher had a slightly different perception on plant
medicines. She commented: ‘traditional medicines work very well especially on some diseases
such as cancer and heart diseases. If you seek treatment of these from biomedical clinics you risk
being amputated one of your organs’. Teachers indicated that medicinal and weather forecasting
practices could be used in science lesson topics such as neutralization, reproduction, heat changes
and air movements. But nurse, doctor and agricultural worker pointed out that caution must be
exercised when dealing with such practices. All these commented that ‘seasons have changed
making it difficult for weather to be predicted with accuracy’. Overall it appears that the
participants in this study acknowledged the important role of traditional practices in schools.

Conclusion
This study revealed that the people of Chivi district regard traditional drugs and traditional methods
of weather forecasting as important and relevant in the teaching of science in schools. So taking a
multicultural approach in teaching of science results in relevant learning of concepts in schools.
This enables contextualization of teaching of science in schools. Hence there is need to include
indigenous forms of knowledge to facilitate multicultural science education in schools. It is possible
to create culturally responsive science education in schools. Indigenous knowledge enables teachers
to react appropriately in teaching contexts in schools.

References
Asante, M, K. (2000) The Afrocentric idea in education. In Duarte, E.M& Smith, S (eds)
Foundational perspectives in multicultural education, pp 39-53. New York. Longman.
Bourdieu, P. & Passeron, J. (1977) Reproduction in education, society and culture. London: Sage.
Chigwedere, E. (2007) Cultural policy of Zimbabwe, Harare: Ministry of education, art, sport and
culture.
Cobern, W.W.& Loving, C.C.(2001) Defining ‘’science’’ in a Multicultural World: Implications for
science education. Science education,85(1): 50-67.
Haralambos, M. & Holborn, M. (2004) Sociology: Themes and perspectives. London: Collins
educational.
Hodson, D. (1993) In search of a rationale for Multicultural science education. Science education
77(6):685-711.
Irvine, J.J. & Armento, B.J. (2001) Culturally responsive teaching: lesson planning for elementary
and middle grades. Boston: McGraw Hill.
Mashoko, D.& Kazembe, T. (2008) Should traditional Medicine practiced in Chivi, Zimbabwe be
included in school curriculum. Zimbabwe journal of educational research, 20(1):49-69.
Matsika, C. (2012) Traditional African education: Its significance to current educational practices-
with special reference to Zimbabwe. Gweru. Mambo Press.
Miksch, K.L; Bruch, P.L; Higbee, J.L; Jahangir, R.R, & Lundell, D.B. (2003) The centrality of
multiculturalism in developmental education: multicultural awareness project for instructional
transformation.In J.L.Higbee; D.B. Lundell, & I.M. Durancy(eds) Multiculturalism in
developmental education. Minneapolis, University of Minneapolis.

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Muguti,T& Maposa, R.S.(2012) Indigenous Weather Forecasting: A Phenomenological study
engaging the Shona of Zimbabwe.The journal of Pan African Studies, 4(9): 102-112.
Shizha, E.(2006) Legitimising indigenous knowledge in Zimbabwe: A theoretical analysis of post-
colonial school knowledge and its colonial legacy. Youth and children’s studies, (2), pp 20-35.
Shumba, O.(1999) Relationship between secondary science teachers’ orientation to traditional
culture and beliefs concerning science instructional ideology. Journal of research in science
teaching, 36(3): 333-355.
Snively, G. & Corsiglia, J. (2000) Discovering indigenous science: Implications for science
education. Science education, 85, 6-34.

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 Measuring the quality of Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge of
experienced, Zimbabwean Physical Science, expatriate teachers, in
electrochemistry.

Fumai Martin Mudindo1 and Elizabeth Mavhunga2

Marang Centre for Mathematics and Science Education, University of the Witwatersrand,
South Africa
[email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract
The aim of this paper is to present the findings of measuring and establishing the quality of Topic
Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TSPCK) of experienced teachers of physical science in
electrochemistry using Zimbabwean educators as my sample. The TSPCK and Content Knowledge
(CK) instruments or tools were administered to a group of Zimbabwean experienced physical
science educators, whose background is believed to be strong particularly with regard to CK and
have been deployed in large numbers in the South African schools in a bid to improve learner
performance. The responses obtained from these tools were used as part of the data to measure and
establish the quality of their TSPCK and conceptual understanding in electrochemistry. The results
were used also to generate a comparison of the quality of TSPCK of these educators to the larger
group of 64 educators comprised of township, Independent Examination Board (I.E.B) and former
model C high school educators in Johannesburg. We found that the Zimbabwean educators had
good CK and developing PCK which placed them slightly lower than IEB teachers but above model
C and township educators.
Introduction and Research Question
The ability of educators to transform CK to suit particular learners in their particular context is
reported to be a unique kind of knowledge that is the domain of educators, and is associated with
teaching with the understanding of learners in mind. This kind of knowledge is called Pedagogical
Content Knowledge (PCK), a term introduced by Shulman (1986). Since Shulman’s introduction of
the term, there has been much research into PCK and its nature but less on whether and how it can
be measured. This paper is based on the construct of topic specific content knowledge (TSPCK)
(Mavhunga and Rollnick, 2013) which asserts that PCK is topic specific. TSPCK is grounded on
the notion of transformation of topic specific concepts for teaching and is made up of the following
components: learner’s prior knowledge, curricular saliency, what makes a topic easy or difficult
to understand, representations including analogies and conceptual teaching strategies Ndlovu,
Mavhunga, and Rollnick (2013).
Thus measuring the above components in transforming concepts, the research question to be
answered in this paper is:
What is the quality of Zimbabwean expatriate teachers’ TSPCK in electrochemistry and how does it
compare to a larger group of teachers in Johannesburg, South Africa?

Literature Review
Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TSPCK)
PCK at a topic level, in this paper, refers to the ability to synthesize conceptual understanding of a
given topic (electrochemistry) within a specified subject domain (physical science) into forms that
are teachable. The construct TSPCK includes understanding of the nature of knowledge measured,
different from teacher’s content knowledge but more about their reasoning about the teaching of the

200
content. According to Veal and MaKinster (1999, p 10 ‘the most specific and novel level of the
general taxonomy is topic specific PCK’.
Components of teacher knowledge transformation as mentioned above to be measured are:
• Representations including analogies -these are forms of representation that manifest
themselves by the use of most powerful analogies, illustration, examples, explanations,
simulations and demonstrations (Shulman 1986).
• Curricular saliency- It refers to the depth the teacher decides to venture when teaching a
specific topic and also what not to teach. Curricular saliency is in most cases influenced by
the CAPS curriculum in terms of its guidelines and also by what is most likely to be in the
learners’ final examinations or what may be useful to the learners.
• Learner’s prior knowledge- According to Ball, Bass & Hill (2004), effective teaching takes
into account more than just recognizing learners’ response as right or wrong. This means
that a teacher needs to analyse the site and cause of the error. Teaching also involves
explaining why learners answered the way they did.
• What makes a topic easy or difficult to understand- The ability to identify gate-keeping
concepts within a concept, which are difficult to understand, triggers dedicated awareness
and possible interventions for teaching them.
• conceptual teaching strategies- conceptual teaching strategies refers to effective instruction
strategies for particular misconceptions, known areas of difficulty to learn, or known
importance of concepts. It refers to the use of combinations of conceptual principles and
rules of a topic as tools to confront potential confusion and misconception. However, it does
not refer to general pedagogical knowledge strategies.

Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is an abstract concept that poses a challenge to teach. Learner performance in this
topic in the Grade 12 examination has been found to be particularly poor. The National Senior
Certificate Examination: National Diagnostic report on learner performance (2012) suggested that
electrochemistry questions were poorly answered in comparison to other topics. Students encounter
electrochemistry for the first time under chemical change in the CAPS curriculum at the FET level.
They are expected to learn about electrolytic cells, galvanic cells, standard electrode potentials,
understanding the processes of redox reactions taking place in cells, oxidation and reduction
reactions. Students possess misconceptions (Garnett and Treagust, 1992)and tend to solve problems
of electrochemistry using algorithms because of the complex nature of the electrochemistry
concepts and probably because of the way this concept is taught and possibly because of poor
understanding by the teachers.

Method
The research methodology adopted in this study is Mixed Methods (MM). MM research is within
the pragmatist paradigm asit employs both narrative (qualitative) and numeric (quantitative)
approaches to answering research questions.In our case of measuring TSPCK components, due to
the tacit nature of TSPCK, descriptions (qualitative) mostly bring out the most valuable of
information of the depth of knowledge the educator has on the topic in question. The conversion of
the qualitative aspect (descriptions & explanations) into numerical data (quantitative aspect) allows
graphing, plotting, output tables and summary statistics to be generated. This allows concrete
analysis of the TS-PCK framework than what expressions & explanations on their own could
provide. The use of MM in this study requires that both methods be given equivalent weight
201
because they dependent on each other. In this study, both methods have equal weight as each
captures a different aspect of the same question perhaps not reflected by the other.
In this study, we used Case Study as a research strategy, Merriam (2002, p. 8) describes a case
study as “an intensive description and analysis of a social unit”. The ‘social unit’ in this study is a
specific small group of 20 experienced Zimbabwean expatriate teachers. The group is bounded by
nationality – Zimbabwean, experienced in teaching physical science, on the specific topic of
electrochemistry, practicing in Johannesburg, South Africa at the same time. These boundaries were
firm, unlikely to change during the term of the study. A case study, as a research strategy, has
limitations in that it focuses on a particular group, exclusive to others, restricting the generalization
of findings. The limitation was minimized by comparing to other groups of teachers in terms of
context (township, I.E.B., former ex-C model school teachers, etc.).
Purposive sampling technique was used.We settled for 20 participants, who were selected after all
procedures were cleared with the Wits Ethics Committee. .
Research Instruments-a tool measuring the quality of TSPCK in electrochemistry was previously
developed and validated (Ndlovu, et al., 2013) and administered to Zimbabwean sample. The data
in the TSPCK instrument is descriptive in nature. The instrument has semi closed questions with
prompts for provision of explanations of choices made. Some of the questions are originally open
type questions and others are based on given diagrams. An example of a completed question in
category C is exemplified below in figure 1:
CATEGORY C: UNDERSTANDING OF WHAT MAKES TOPIC EASY OR DIFFICULT
TO UNDERSTAND

Fig 1: example of TSPCK question in category C

The tool was found to have acceptable fit statistics and reliability indices (Ndlovu, et al., 2013).
However, reliability for the data generated in this study was established by using the Rasch
Statistical Model.
The tool captures descriptions that are qualitative in nature and allows conversion of these into
numerical scores that could be analysed quantitatively. The tool focuses on explicit transformation
of content concepts in electrochemistry through the use of five topic specific components (Ndlovu,
et al., 2013). These have been identified as enumerated above namely, (a) Learners’ Prior
Knowledge, (b) Curricular Saliency, (c) Understanding of what makes topic easy or difficult to
understand, (d) Representations /analogies/models and (e) conceptual teaching strategies. These
knowledge components were ordered in this sequence in the form of teacher tasks.
A second tool measuring the CK (content knowledge) was also developed and validated as above
and also administered to the same sample. The CK tool comprised 21 questions comprised

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predominantly of multiple choice questions covering all aspects of electrochemistry, viz.,
electrolytic cells, galvanic cells, standard electrical potentials, understanding the processes of redox
reactions taking place in cells, oxidation and reduction reactions as exemplified below in Figure 2:

Fig 2: Example of CK question

The CK tool yields a score that reflects performance and is obtained when a teacher has keyed in a
correct response.
Administration of Tools -the process of collecting data therefore consisted of two phases, the first
in which the TSPCK and the CK tools were administered simultaneously to the sample of
Zimbabwean expatriate educators and the second phase dealt with the procedures and marking of
instruments using the rubric (Ndlovu et al., 2013).
Validity- theestablishment of the quality of the study relies on methods of assessing credibility.
Measurement on the reliability and validity of the tool was done using the Rasch Statistical model.
We marked each completed questionnaire and chose 5 random questionnaires for inter rater
reliability. These were marked by two other knowledgeable people and a 79% agreement was
obtained. Similarly we marked the CK questionnaires according to the agreed marking scheme. The
items were scored on a scale of 1 to 4 where 1 was limited TSPCK and 2, 3 and 4 were basic,
developing and exemplary TSPCK respectively.
The generated scores above were then analysed, using the Rasch statistical model.The statistical
model entails transforming the raw scores obtained from the rubric as ordinal data, into statistical
measures that are located on a linear scale with equal intervals (Bond & Fox, 2001). This
conversion has been referred to above as ‘normalized in Rasch’ and the data generated allows
comparison by different statistical instruments/graphs.
Findings

In this paper we assess the PCK of the Zimbabwean teachers and compare the findings of our
sample to those in the larger group. The larger group comprised of 64 teachers (11 teachers from
former model ex C schools, 20 Zimbabwean expatriate teachers, 15 teachers teaching in townships,
18 teachers from I.E.B. schools.)
The following indicators were agreed to be used as parameters of comparison of results as shown in
Table 1 below: validity of analysis as determined by the fit statistics; the TSPCK score (ex-TSPCK
rubric); the Rasch mean; person reliability index and item reliability.

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Table 1: Indicators from TSPCK test
Item Sample Group (Zimbabwe) Combined Larger Group
Validity (infit/outfit Between -2 and +2 Between -2 and +2
statistic)
TS-PCK Raw average 3* 3*
Score
Person Reliability 0.72 0.83
Item Reliability 0.71 0.81
Rasch Mean 0.85 0.92
Significant Difference P = 0,04145

P<0.05 significant difference at 95% confidence level

The fit statistics of between -2 and +2 is obtained for my sample and the larger group is satisfactory.
This is considered a good match, coherent, conventionally acceptable and therefore indicating that
the items and the person measures work together to measure a single construct, and therefore
constitute a valid measure for TSPCK.
We used bubble maps to show the relationships between person and item scores. Figure 3 below
shows bubble map representations for the Zimbabwe teachers and the larger group.

Figure 3: TSPCK Score (Quality of Zimbabwe Educators versus the Larger Group)
In figure 3, the lighter colored bubbles represent the teachers while the darker colored bubbles
represent the items. The vertical scale represents the Rasch score and the horizontal scale represents
the validity. Of particular interest for this paper is the vertical position of the teacher bubbles in
relation to the items and in relation to each other. If a teacher bubble lies above the item it means
that the teacher has a high probability of being able to answer the item and vice versa. Hence the
higher the position of a teacher relative to the item bubbles, the easier they have found the test.
Since the item bubbles lie approximately in the middle of the diagram, it means that many of the
teachers were able to answer the items correctly and that the Zimbabwean teachers (on the right)
compare favorably with the larger group (on the left).
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As shown in table 1, the TSPCK raw scores are 3 for both the sample of Zimbabwean teachers and
the teachers in the larger group. At 3 on the rubric of TSPCK this means that the teachers have a
“developing” PCK.
Using the categories for developing TSPCK from the rubric, this means qualitatively that:
Learner prior Knowledge (category A): Teacher acknowledges misconception and provides
explanation to confront misconception that has logic and provide standardized knowledge as
definition and/or expands and re-phrase explanations.
Curricular Saliency (Category B): Teacher identifies at least 2 Big Ideas/ Identifies subordinate
ideas and shows links to big ideas with no linking words. Provides logical sequence of concepts of
at least two Big Ideas. Reasons given are either clear or logical. Uses at least 2 big ideas as a
starting point. Subordinate ideas relate to big ideas.
What is difficult to teach (Category C): Teacher identifies specific concepts with reasons related to
prior knowledge of students or common misconceptions.
Representations (Category D): Teacher use of macroscopic representation (analogies, demos, etc.)
and/or use of scientific symbolic representation to enforce a specific aspect of a concept. Discussion
on how the model shows logic and part of explanation shows conceptual orientation. Gives clear or
satisfactory explanation on how the chosen representation is going to be used. Suggested procedure
is workable
Conceptual Teaching Strategies (Category E): Considers confirmation/confrontation of student
prior knowledge and/or common misconceptions. Considers at least one aspect related to
curriculum saliency: sequencing or emphasis of important conceptual aspects. Uses at least two
different levels of representations, to enforce an aspect of a concept, and conceptual orientation to
approach.
The findings shows that the Zimbabwean expatriate educators had a statistically acceptable Person
Reliability Index of 0.71 compared to the larger group with 0.81.The person reliability index
indicates the replicability of person ordering we could expect if this sample of persons were
givenanother set of items measuring the same construct (Wright & Masters, 1982).
The findings show that the Zimbabwean expatriate educators had a modest mean of 0.77 compared
to the 0.83 of the larger combined group. The item reliability index indicates the replicability of
item placements along the pathway if these same items were given to another sample with
comparable ability levels. The relative high item reliability of the sample compared to the group
indicate, we can infer that we have developed a line of inquiry in which some items are more
difficult and some items are easier, and that we can place confidence in the consistency of these
inferences (Bond & Fox,2001).
The larger group has a statistical mean measure of 0.92 and our sample has 0.85. The person ability
estimate mean of +0.92 and 0.85 is the first indicator that this sample finds this test comparatively
manageable. The mean person estimate (i.e., the group average) would be closer to 0 for a well-
matched test (Bond & Fox, 2001)
We conducted a t test for significance difference between the person measures of the 64 teachers in
the whole group compared to the sample of 20 Zimbabwe teachers. The result was marginally
significant at the 95% level at P = 0, 04145. Figure 4 shows the bubble maps and summary
statistics of Zimbabwean teachers compared to the separate groups of teachers.
The Rasch means of the groups show that the Zimbabwean teachers performed better than all
groups except the IEB teachers.

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Figure 4: Summary Statistics of the various groups
Discussion and Conclusions
It is clear that the Zimbabwean teachers are making an important contribution to the teaching of
science in the secondary schools of Gauteng. Only the IEB teachers performed better than they did.
However their PCK still shows much room for improvement in the topic of electrochemistry.

Teachers should be provided with professional development activities in topic-specific professional

development. Electrochemistry is tough to learn because it necessitates much pre-requisite
knowledge both from chemistry (e.g. chemical reactions, periodic table, chemical equilibrium,
oxidation number- charge, etc.) and from physics (e.g. circuits, electron flow, etc.) The lack of the
pre-requisite knowledge results in problems in learning electrochemistry (Sirhan, 2007, p. 8) In
addition to that, electrochemistry includes many underpinning concepts (e.g. redox reactions,
reactivity, etc.), which makes previous ones (e.g. reactivity of metals) pre-requisite for learning the
later ones(electrochemical cells). Therefore, for effective electrochemistry teaching, teachers should
be aware of the chemistry curriculum regarding to sequence of the topics, and horizontal and
vertical relations.

In light of the results, the study has many implications for pre-and in-service teacher education,
curriculum developers and textbook writers, and teacher education research.

References:
Ball, D., Bass, H. & Hill, H.C. (2004). Knowing and using mathematical knowledge in
teaching: Learning what matters. In A. Buffler and R.C. Laugksch (Ed.) Proceedings of the
12th Annual conference of the Southern African Association for Research in Mathematics,
Science and Technology Education. Durban: SAARMSTE.

Bond, T. G., & Fox, C. M. (2001). Applying the Rasch Model:

Fundamental Measurement in the Human Sciences. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

206
Garnett, P., & Treagust, D. (1992). Conceptual difficulties experienced by senior high school
students of electrochemistry: Electrochemical (galvanic) and Electrolytic cells. Journal of Research
in Science teaching, 1079-1099.

Merriam, S. B. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and

analysis. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

National Senior Certificate Examination: National Diagnostic Report on Learner Performance,

Department of Basic Education, Republic of South Africa, 2012.

Ndlovu, M., Mavhunga, E. And Rollnick, M. (2013) The Design of an Instrument to Measure
Physical Sciences Teachers’ Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge in
Electrochemistry. Paper presented at the 21st Annual Meeting of the Southern African
Association for Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, University of the
Western Cape, Cape Town.

Sirhan, G. (2007). Learning difficulties in chemistry: An Overview. Journal of Turkish

Science Education, 4(2), 2-20.

Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. Educational

Researcher, 4-14.

Veal, W., & Makinster, J. (1999). Pedagogical Content Knowledge: How teachers transform
Subject matter Knowledge. International Journal of Science Education.

Wright, B. D., & Masters, G. N. (1982). Rating scale analysis. Chicago: MESA Press.

207
 Determination of the Quality of TSPCK of Physical Sciences Ex-model C Teachers in
Electrochemistry

Rudo Sithole1,Elizabeth Mavhunga 3&Marissa Rollnick 2

1
BSc (Hons.) in Science Education Programme, Wits School of Education, University of the
Witwatersrand, South Africa.2,3 Marang Centre for Maths and Science Education, University of the
Witwatersrand, South Africa.
1
[email protected], [email protected]&[email protected]

Introduction
It is generally accepted that expert teachers use specialized knowledge to transform their knowledge
of the subject matter into a form that can easily be understood by learners, called pedagogical
content knowledge (PCK) (Shulman, 1986). In South Africa, ex-Model C schools are considered to
offer a better quality of education as compared to their previously disadvantaged schools. However,
the analysis of the national matric results reflects a generally low performance in Electrochemistry
as a physical science topic (Department of Education, 2012). Electrochemistry is acknowledged in
the literature to be a difficult chemistry topic to teach because of its abstract nature (Gannett &
Treagust, 1992). In science education PCK is increasingly being associated with effective teaching,
giving teachers the benefit of reasoning through their teaching in ways that transforms their content.
In view of the challenge experienced nationally on poor performance of learners in the topic, we
specifically asked about the quality of PCK with respect to electrochemistry in a sample of Ex-
Model C teachers. This study therefore aims at investigating the quality of PCK within
electrochemistry in a sample of ex-Model C schools in the Johannesburg region. The study thus
answers the following questions:

1. What is the level of TSPCK of Ex-model C School teachers in Electrochemistry?

2. What is the relationship between the teachers’ level of CK in Electrochemistry and their
PCK?

Literature Review
Rogers (2000) is of the view that concepts used in Electrochemistry are abstract and teachers use
everyday language that has different meaning in Science resulting in misconceptions on the part of
the learners. As a result there is great need for educators to transform the content knowledge in a
particular learning area into a form that is easy for the learners to understand. This specialised
knowledge was termed Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) by Shulman (1986). Several
science education researchers (e.g. Van Driel, De Vos, Verloop, & Dekkers, 1998),attested to the
topic specific nature of PCK, meaning PCK is located within a topic of science. Mavhunga and
Rollnick (2013) have built on this notion and proposed five content specific components that
constitute PCK within a topic, shown in Figure 1 below. They regarded PCK within a topic as a
construct termed Topic Specific PCK.

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Figure 1: Model of Topic Specific PCK adapted from Mavhunga & Rollnick (2012)

The model considers PCK influenced by four teacher knowledge domains: knowledge of context,
knowledge of students, content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge. For a specific topic, content
knowledge is considered a pre-cursor for its transformation. Thus content knowledge of a specific
topic when understood, it may be reasoned through five content specific components that, as a
collective, result in a content suitable for teaching. The five content specific components are:

Learner Prior Knowledge

Students are not just empty vessels, they possess some knowledge that they have acquired before
being introduced to a topic and this prior knowledge may be ‘different’ or may hold misconception
(Driver, R., Guesne, E., &Tiberghien, A., 1985). To effectively transform knowledge, the educator
is in a better position to do so if they are aware of what the learners know then use this knowledge
to build on the new knowledge.

Curricular Saliency
Curricular Saliency speaks to the ability of the teachers to clearly articulate the central ideas in a
topic and be able to relate them to subordinate ideas. This way a logical sequencing of concepts is
given with proper guidance that triggers interest in the learners and link the new knowledge to other
topics and daily application. Geddis & Wood (1997) suggest that observation of curricular saliency
allows for proper judgement on how deep a topic should be taught and how much time should be
spent on it.

Understanding What makes Learning Easy or Difficult

Next, is the paramount importance of the educator to know what makes the learning of a particular
topic easy or difficult. Good PCK is demonstrated by the ability of the educator to identify the
topics and be able to explain why they are difficult or easy for learners. This way, upon teaching,
the educator is able to address the problem areas and provide explanations that make understanding
to be easy on the part of the learners.

Use of Representations, Analogies and Models

Another important aspect in the development of TSPCK is the ability of the educator to use

209
representations, analogies and models to facilitate learning. Chemistry concepts are abstract and
they should be represented microscopically, macroscopically and symbolic so that it becomes easier
for learning to take place.

Conceptual Teaching Strategies

Last but not least is the ‘Conceptual teaching strategies’. These are not mere generic teaching
strategies such as organizing a class in particular format, but arecontent based considerations that
the educators make in reasoning about the teaching of the topicin reference to their responses to the
above content specific components. Here the educator unites all the previously mentioned aspects in
the development of PCK. This way, proper sequencing of the topic is done taking note of what
should or should not be discussed at that particular moment. Representations are used to enforce the
learning of a particular topic.

The degree at which the educator is able to engage and employ interactions of these components
determines the quality of TSPCK in a given topic (Mavhunga & Rollnick, 2013). In this study we
have adopted the TSPCK model as our theoretical framework and used a tool specially designed to
measure the quality of TSPCK in electrochemistry in reference to the TSPCK framework(Ndlovu,
M., Rollnick, M &Mavhunga, M.E., 2013). The tool is structured according to the five components
of Topic Specific PCK outlined above. An extract of the question in a category for ‘Learners’
Prior Knowledge’ is shown below.

Figure 2: An extract from TSPCK tool in Electrochemistry (Ndlovu, 2012)

Following below is a discussion on the methodology followed and the findings.

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Methodology
In this study we employed Mixed Method (MM). We usedconcurrent triangulation where both the
quantitative and qualitative methods are given equal weight and are used concurrently in data
collection (Creswell, 2003). The two methods used complement each other’s weaknesses resulting
in more accurate findings in the study as compared to uniquely using either one of these methods.
This study is considered to be a case study as it focuses on a specific group and draws conclusions
only about the group and in a specific context.

The study had a sample comprised of 11 school teachers, particularly experienced Grade 12
teachers who have taught Electrochemistry for at least five years in Johannesburg, particularly in
Ekurhuleni District. These were teachers specifically in Ex-model C Schools teaching Grade 12
Electrochemistry.

The educators were given a set of two tools. The first tool was the CK tooland the second
wasTSPCK tool in Electrochemistry. The CK tool was also adapted from existing content
diagnostic tools in the literature (Ogude& Bradley (1994). The analysis of the responses from this
tool allowed us to establish the nature of the relationship between TSPCK and CK, a component of
our research question. As show in Figure 2 above, the design of the TSPCK tool was such that it
allowed descriptive explanations to chosen responses. The qualitative descriptions were
considered in conjunction to the chosen responses in marking in scoring the questions. A rubric
based on qualitative criteria was used (Mavhunga & Rollnick, 2011). The rubric corresponds to the
five content specific components with each being rated on a four point scale, from 1 (‘Limited’) to 4
(‘Exemplary’) see Figure 3
below:

Figure 3: An extract from the TSPCK Rubric – Learners’ Prior Knowledge Category

The questions in each component were scored singly as an item, so the test comprised of 5 items
each with a maximum score of 4. Rubric scores were peer validated by independent raters and an
agreement rate of 73% was obtained. The grading results in the generation of scores from the
descriptive data enabling placement into a quality category of TSPCK.

Analysis and findings

TSPCK findings
On completion of scoring of the responses from the completed TSPCK tool, the results were
recorded as shown inTable 1 below.

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Table 1. Shows the final scores obtained for TSPCK for all the participants.

Learner   Teachin
Prior   Curricul Understandi g  
COD Knowled ar   ng   Representati Strategi TSPC
E   ge   Saliency   Difficulties   ons   es   K   Key  
RS01   3   2   3   3   2   3      
RS02   2   2   3   2   3   2       1    
Limited  
RS03   2   2   3   2   1   2     2   Basic  
  Developi
RS04   2   3   1   2   1   2   3   ng  
  Exemplar
RS05   2   4   4   2   3   3   4   y  
RS06   2   3   2   2   3   2    
RS07   2   3   2   1   1   2        
RS08   2   3   4   4   4   3        
RS09   3   3   4   3   4   3        
RS10   2   3   2   2   2   2        
RS11   3   4   4   2   4   3        
MEA      
N   2   3   3   2   3   3  
     
*The 11 teachers are coded from RS01 to RS11

The results of the raw scores of the TSPCK tool gave a mean score of 3 which was obtained by
adding all the mean scores and dividing by the number of items which is five.This shows that
according to the rubric used, the TSPCK of the educators in Electrochemistry isat a level of
‘Developing’. At this level, educators are able to expand on potential misconceptions although
confrontation of the misconceptions is not spontaneous; they are able to organize the topic
according to concepts that are most important to the understanding of the topic and corresponding
subordinate concepts, although not explaining the connections explicitly; they can identify prior to
teaching potential difficult areas to understand by learners without necessarily identifying
succinctly the gate keeping concepts that cause the challenge; concepts may be explained with a
combination of multiple representations however not including microscopic explanations.
Suggested conceptual teaching strategies reflect platforms for interaction of two or more of the
other content specific components however, not linked to microscopic explanations in the same
explanation. While the above quality is not exemplary, it is however, reasonable and in the right
path of development.
The location of the participants in the category of developing may be supported by an extract of one
of the responses on one of the question on curricular saliency:

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Extract1: Response capturing one of the five items i.e Curricula Saliency

In the extract, the educator managed to identify two big ideas given as 2 and 3 and gave subordinate
ideas and could be classified in either Developing or Exemplary. The participant did not give
reasons why she considered these three big ideas and the suggested topics are not immediately or
directly linked to the learning of Electrochemistry. The participant further lists concepts much
further to electrochemistry as needed immediately prior to teaching the topic.Responses reflecting
the importance of the topic lack reference to conceptual scaffolding or application of other concepts
in the discipline.

Validity and Reliability of TSPCK tool

The validity and reliability of the tool was established using the Rasch statistical model. For
establishing validity, fit statistics were used. Fitting measures fall within traditionally accepted
parameters -2 and +2. Such a fit indicates that both the items and persons responses work together
to measure a single construct (Bond & Fox, (2001)as argued theoretically to be TSPCK in
electrochemistry. A bubble chart showing location and fitting of both items (pink colour) and
persons (green colour) on the (-2;+2) x-axis (fit statistics) is shown below.

Figur
e 4. Graphical representation of the item difficulty and persons’ abilities

213
The headings, ‘Overfit’ and ‘underfit’ refer to the standard range of parameters that measure fit
statisticsMavhunga (2012). These values measure the coherence of the responses of the persons to
the level of difficulty of the items hence takes into account whether the persons and the items are
working coherently in the measurement of the construct. The reliability of the items was measured
at 0.55 while persons reliability was found to be at 0.72. Both these are within the acceptable range
of 0.5. The item reliability was noted to be lower due to average reparability of the items on the
latentscale.

Both the validity and reliability measures indicate that the tool measured the intended construct as
desired and the measured scored are reliable. Following below is a presentation of the findings on
CK.

CK findings

Performance here was extremely good with teachers obtaining a mean score of 83% as indicated in
Table 2 below.

Table 2: Shows the results of CK tool of all the participants

CK CK
Code Score/28 Score/%
RS01 21 75
RS02 25 89
RS03 16 57
RS04 26 93
RS05 22 76
RS06 24 86
RS07 27 96
RS08 26 93
RS09 23 82
RS10 22 76
RS11 24 86
Mean 23 83

Most of the questions were well answered except Questions 11 and 21. In Question 11, participants
could not deduce the charges in the different parts of the cell and this is one problem area that was
noted by Ogude& Bradley (1994).For Question 21, it appears that the participants had difficulties in
using the electrode potentials hence could not properly deduce whether the reaction was
spontaneous or not. However, overally the participants displayed good understanding of the topic,
affirming the general perception that Ex-model C schools offer good quality of education inferring
that their teachers has a good understanding of the science concepts at most.

214
 Low
TSPCK

Comparison of the TSPCK score to CK score

Figure 5. A visual representation of the relationship of the quality of TSPCK and the CK of Ex-
model C Physical Science teachers

The plot shows us that the horizontal axis has been set at 10 for the TSPCK which marks 50% and
the vertical line has been set at 14, marking also 50% of the scores in the CK tool. As shown in
Table 2, the plot shows that all the educators obtained above half hence none have less than 14
(which make 50%) on the CK tool. This again shows a good display of Content Knowledge. On the
other hand, the same cannot be said about the TSPCK tool. Here, we can see three educators who
scored more than 75%, six between 50% and 75% and two with less than 50%.
Overally, the results reflect that most participants had good CK and moderately good TSPCK. This
finding supports the findings in the literature that a good CK is a precursor of developing PCK
(Rollnick, Bennett, Rhemtula, Dharsey,&Ndlovu, T. (2008) and Tapner and Dollny (2011)).
What is of particular interest are the two educators who scored below 50% in the TSPCK, their CK
scores are above 89%. This shows that having very good understanding in the content knowledge in
a specific topic does not necessarily mean that the TSPCK will be also good. An educator may not
be able to transform her understanding as needed for the purpose of teaching, thus will display low
quality of TSPCK. So the educator may fail to make learning easy resulting in learners finding it
difficult to grasp the knowledge that the educator has. Upon drawing a line of best fit on the scatter
plot above, we can see that it is almost horizontal with a small incline that shows a positive
gradient. This tells us that there is a very weak positive correlation between the quality of TSPCK
and the quality of CK of the Ex-model C school teachers. In other words the positive tell us that as
the CK level increases, the TSPCK also increases but the small incline indicates that the chances of
that happening are there but are very low. Hence educators in this sample are very knowledgeable
in Electrochemistry but some of them do not transform that knowledge well in order to facilitate
understanding on the part of the learner.

Conclusions
The purpose of the study was to establish the quality of TSPCK of Physical Science teachers in Ex-
model C schools in Johannesburg and compare it with their CK.
Data handling led to the realisation that the raw scores from using the TSPCK rubric for the Ex-
model C school produced an arithmetic mean of 3 upon considering all the five items in the TSPCK
tool. The average of 3 corresponds with the level of quality of TSPCK considered as ‘Developing’
in the rubric. Hence the quality of TSPCK of the Ex-model C schools in my sample is considered to
be Developing.
On the other hand marking of the CK tool using the rubric resulted in an Arithmetic mean of 83%,
hence the quality of CK of the Ex-model C school teacher is considered to be very good.

215
The scatter plot displays the correlation between the TSPCK and all educators have high CK but
some display high TSPCK and others low TSPCK. In other words, teachers with high CK can have
high quality level of TSPCK or it can be low. Meaning having high CK does not necessarily
translate to high TSPCK which is the knowledge needed for effective teaching within the topic.
Having very good content knowledge is no guarantee that the pedagogical content knowledge is
also high. Upon plotting the line of best fit, an almost horizontal straight line was obtained which
was slightly inclined such that the gradient is positive. This reveals that there is a very weak
positive correlation between the quality of TSPCK and CK. In other words, the probability of
having high CK and high TSPCK are extremely low in our sample.

References
Bond, T. G., & Fox, C. M. (2001).Applying the Rasch Model : Fundamental Measurement in the
Human Sciences. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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approaches(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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Press.Whitestone.
Garnett, P. J., Treagust, D. F. (1992a). Conceptual difficulties experienced by senior high school
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Study in Teacher Education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 13(6), 611-626.
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Electrochemistry.Journal of Chemical Education. Vol. 77(1), 104-110
Mavhunga, M. E., & Rollnick, M. (2012).Improving Topic Specific PCK in Chemistry Pre-
ServiceTeachers and Capturing their Belief about Teaching Science. Paper presented at the
20th AnnualConference of the Southern African Association for Research in Mathematics,
Science andTechnology Education, Malawi.
Mavhunga, E., & Rollnick, M. (2012).Improving PCK of Chemical Equilibrium in Pre-service
teachers. In press, African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology
Education, 1-23.
Ndlovu, M., Rollnick, M & Mavhunga, M.E. (2013).The Design of an Instrument to Measure
Physical Science Teachers’ Topic Specific Pedagogical Content Knowledge in
Electrochemistry.SAARMSTE Conference Paper, Western Cape.
Ogude, N.A. & Bradley, J.D. (1994).Ionic conduction and electrical neutrality in operating
electrochemical cells. Pre-college and college student interpretations.Journal of Chemical
Education, 71 (1), 29-34.
Rogers, F. (2000). Using a teaching model to correct known misconceptions in electrochemistry.
Journal of Chemical Education, 77(1), 104-109.
Rollnick, M., Bennett, J., Rhemtula, M., Dharsey, N., & Ndlovu, T. (2008). The place of subject
matter knowledge in pedagogical content knowledge: A case study of South African teachers
teaching the amount of substance and chemical equilibrium. International Journal of Science
Education, 30 (10), 1365–1387.
Sanger, M., Greenbowe, T. (1997). Students' misconceptions in electrochemistry: Current flow in
electrolyte solutions and the salt bridge. Journal of Chemical Education, 74(7), 819-823.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and training: Foundations of the new reform. Hardward
Educational Review, 57, 1-22.
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those Who Understand: Knowledge Growth in Teaching. Education
Researcher, 15(2), 1-14.
Tapner, O., Dollny, S. (2011). Chemistry Teachers’ Content Knowledge and its Correlation to
Pedagogical Content Knowledge: Journal of Chemistry Education, 12(1)

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Van Driel, J. H., De Vos, W., Verloop, N., &Dekkers, H. (1998). Developing Secondary Students'
Conceptions of Chemical Reactions: The Introduction of Chemical Equilibrium.International
Journal of Science Education, 20(4), 379-392

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SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
SYMPOSIUM

218
 The Transfer of Reasoning behind Topic Specific PCK within Chemistry Topics.

Mavhunga M E and Rollnick M

Marang Centre for Mathematics Science and Technology Education Research, Wits
University, South Africa

Abstract
It is commonly accepted that Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) has a topic-specific nature.
However, its implementation in teacher education programmes has remained generic and tacit. This
paper reports on an investigation to determine the transferability of learnt reasoning in developing
Topic Specific PCK (TSPCK) in particle nature of matter to reasoning for teaching in Chemical
Equilibrium. Previous research has argued on the location of PCK at a topic level, and a refined
theoretical description of the construct sensitive to the specificity of the topic was suggested and its
validity argued. This paper reports on large scale implementation of the construct and the
investigated transferability within chemistry topics. The study was located in a methodology class
of third year pre-service teachers most of whom are less likely to major in physical science, but
would be expected to teach the subject in schools at Secondary level.Following an intervention
based on explicit discussion of content specific components regarded as Learners’ Prior
Knowledge, Curricular Saliency,What makes a topic easy or difficult to understand, Representations
including analogies and ConceptualTeaching Strategies, the findings showed enabled transfer of the
proficiency to reasoning about the teaching of Chemical Equilibrium, to a quality level of
‘developing’. A ‘developing’ quality, precedes an ‘exemplary’ quality in a scale used in this study.
The measurements were found valid and generated acceptable item and person reliability of 0,96
and 0,81 respectively. The implications from the findings are encouraging and recommendations are
made for teacher preparation programmes.

Introduction
The topic specific nature of PCK has been attested by many empirical studies in science education
(e.g.Van Driel, De Vos, Verloop, & Dekkers, 1998). The value of this understanding lies in
considering PCK at a topic level as a theoretical construct that, once defined, maybe captured for
measurement and developed explicitly in pre-service teachers topic by topic. In our previous
study(Mavhunga & Rollnick, 2013) we have introduced the construct as Topic Specific PCK
(TSPCK) and argued that its emphasis lies in the capacity to transform concepts within the topic by
packaging them for teaching, and that this capacity may be developed by focusing on selective
knowledge components that are oriented to Content Knowledge (CK). In a separate study
(Mavhunga & Rollnick, 2013), we have demonstrated that the quality of PCK in a topic, chemical
equilibrium, maybe improved significantly when both the idea of teaching as requiring
transformation of content and the knowledge components that enable such transformation are
explicitly discussed in pre-service teachers. This improvement happens at pre-service level, a level
generally perceived to rarely have developed PCK. In the South African context,wherethe
existence of poorly prepared science teachers is prevalent, the idea of topic specific PCK provides a
possible route for mastering,in the short term,a few core topics for teaching. In this paper the
development of PCK within a specific chemistry topic ‘particle nature of matter’ is explored and the
transferability of learnt reasoning for purposes of transformation of concepts is measured. First, the
context of the study is briefly outlined.

Background Context
The study is part of a large scale project that seeks to develop PCK within key science and
technology topics at pre-service level. The study is implemented across methodology courses of
four different disciplines: chemistry, physics, life sciences and technology education. The
implementation is based on the Topic Specific PCK model, where, as mentioned above, the
emphasis is placed on the explicit transformation of concepts using the five content specific

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components originally suggested by Geddis and Wood (1997). In addition to the development of
PCK within topics, the project, further seeks to investigate the transferability of learnt reasoning for
transformation of topics not explicitly discussed in class. Thus, the connecting aspect in all the
studies across the four disciplines is the use of a commontheoretical framework in the
implementation of PCK.

Literature review
The implementation is anchored on a theoretical framework based on the foundational statement by
Shulman that: comprehended ideas must be transformed in some manner if they are to be taught”
(Shulman, 1987, p. 16). This statement has been expanded upon by many science education
researchers. For example, Geddis (1993) read two important aspects from the statement. First, a
belief that a teaching instruction is viewed as transformation of the CK. Secondly, that knowledge
of a multitude of particular things about CK that are relevant to its teachability is required to enable
the required transformation (Geddis, 1993, p.676). The author identifies ‘particular things’ as the
following five components (i) Students’ Prior Knowledge including misconceptions, (ii) Curricular
Saliency, (iii) What makes a topic easy or difficult to understand, (iv) Representations including
analogies and (v) Conceptual Teaching Strategies. These components have a content specific
orientation to CK, requiring specific considerations to be made about CK. When a particular
element of CK (topic K, in Figure 1 below) is thought about and reasoned through these content
specific components, understanding for teaching is generated that is specific to that topic(K’). That
is, the core conceptual facts of a topic are transformed to a version that is suitable for use in
teaching learners. This process is considered as the transforming of the specific topic, and therefore,
we have termed the proficiency as Topic Specific PCK (TSPCK).

Figure 1: A model of Topic Specific PCK

In light of the notion that each teaching instruction is viewed as transformation of the CK, the
implication is that the process of transformation is therefore repeated for each topic of CK being
taught. This argument for individual topic transformation is linked to the widely reported
understanding that PCK is topic specific (e.gPCK Summit, 2012http://pcksummit.bscs.org;
Rollnick, Bennett, Rhemtula, Dharsey, & Ndlovu, 2008). The findings of these authors suggest
teaching proficiency should be seen within a particular topic that may differ in level from topic to
topic. We further see a discussion by Veal and MaKinster (1999, p. 9)suggesting different
proficiencies of PCK in a structured taxanomy ‘the most specific and novel level of the general
taxonomy [..of PCK] is topic specific PCK’. It refers to the understanding and use of content
specific components that are specific to the transformation of the content of a given topic. The
value of acquiring PCK at this level has been hinted at by Magnusson et al. (1999) who pointed out

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that‘Effective teachers need to develop knowledge with respect to …. all of the topics they teach’ (p.
115). In her review of the PCK theoretical construct, Abell (2008) pointed out the need for science
education researchers to explore teacher knowledge within science topics. Emerging from all of the
above foundational literature on PCK in science education, there is a developing consensus among
research educators in the field to conceptualizePCK as meaning PCK at a topic level, comprised of
content specific components such as Instructional teaching practices, content representations,
etc.similar to those suggested for the TSPCK used in this study(PCK consensus model,
http://pcksummit.bscs.org). Although, the consensus toward this unifying conception of PCK is
growing, the practical demonstration of the implementation of the construct in teacher development
programmes has remained a challenge. The discussion in this paper aims to provide a possible
concrete example of how the conception of PCK being topic specific may be explored at pre-
service.

In this particular paper, we explored the Topic Specific PCK Framework in teaching about the
teachability of the particulate nature of matter as a topic. The topic was chosen because of its
foundational stature in the discipline, highly importantfor understanding other topics and also
contained in the senior phase school curriculum.

Method

The study employed a mixed research method and a case study as a research strategy. It was
conducted on a sample of 40 pre-service teachers in the Physical Science curriculum methodology
class. The cohort is in their third year of study towards a teacher qualification - B Ed degree. This
class is a mix of pre-service teachers who are majoring in physical science and those who have the
discipline as their second major, and majoring in mathematics. It was important to expose this class
to TSPCK discussions as often in South African Schools mathematics teachers teach physical
science in the FET phase. . The treatment consisted of an intervention where the idea of
transformation of SMK was introduced. The focus of the intervention was placed on the explicit
discussion of the knowledge components that enable transformation of SMK, listed in the literature
review above. The knowledge components were discussed one at a time with examples and
activities in the topic of particle nature of matter. Ethical considerations were observed at the
beginning of the course as the data collected constituted students submitted class tutorials, major
assignments and submitted exam equivalent. Formats of the major assignment and exam equivalent
were organised in line with Content Representations (CoRes)(Loughran, Berry, & Mulhall,
2006)with clear reference to the five content specific components. Opportunities for displaying
thoughts around the five components in the assignment and exam equivalent were increased by
additionally including specific teacher tasks requiring engagement of the topic with components
such as ‘develop a teacher outline for teaching the big ideas identified for the topic’ or ‘add a lesson
plan that conceptually follows a given one’.

The major assignment was based on particle nature of matter. It was also the topic used in all
discussionswhile Chemical Equilibrium was used in the exam equivalent. In this paper we focused
on the analysis of data from the exam equivalent, as it provides a window into understanding
possible transferability.In the exam equivalent task, pre-service teachers were requested to develop
a schedule that they will use to evaluate a recorded video lesson on Dynamic Chemical Equilibrium
for the quality of TSPCK displayed. The topic was chosen because the pre-service teachers would
be familiar with it as it was discussed in the Chemistry III content course in parallel to the
intervention.They were further asked to evaluate and make recommendations for improvement in
TSPCK for the observed lesson. This task was enriched by a supporting task that asked the pre-
service teachers to suggest a lesson and its plan that would conceptually be logical to follow in
sequence to the observed lesson.Thethick qualitative responses in evaluating the lesson, suggesting
improvement and proposing a plan for the next lesson in sequence were scored, collectively, using a
TSPCK rubric (Mavhunga, 2012). The rubric is criterion based, developed to have four different

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categories that reflect the degree to which a response engages with the test question. The categories
are ‘Limited’ assigned a score of 1, ‘Basic’ a score of 2, ‘Developing. a score of 3 and ‘Exemplary’
having a score of 4. Thus, the scoring entailed translating of thickly described qualitative data into
quantitative scores. Adjustment to the rubric were made to reflect the evaluation context in which
the TSPCK proficiency is judged in contrast to judging responses from a structured tool for which
the rubric was originally designed. Following below, Figure 2 is an extract reflecting the
adjustment made. The shaded reflects adjustment different to the original rubric.

Figure 2: An extract of the adjusted TSPCK rubric

The generated scores were translated into probability person measures using a Rasch statistical
model for analysis of validity and reliability.

Findings and discussion

Table 1 below presents the quantitative scores generated from the submitted exam equivalent
scripts. The findings indicate that pre-service teachers displayed a quality of Topic Specific PCK in
Chemical Equilibrium of 3, which corresponds to the ‘developing’ category in the TSPCK rubric.
The measurements generated fit statistics values that fall within the traditional +2 and -2 range. A
fit into this range reflect a measurement environment where both the measured items and the
persons’ responses work in agreement, therefore rendering the measurement valid and measuring a
single construct, in this case TSPCK in chemical equilibrium. The item (0.96) and person reliability
(0.81) indices were found to fall within the acceptable range. It reflects their proficiency in
recognising the presence or lack of, and makes suggestions that display rich TSPCK in a topic not
discussed in class. At this level, the pre-service educators are able to expand on potential
misconceptions although confrontation of the misconceptions is not spontaneous, an example of this
is shown in an extract of Pondo’s evaluation:

“..the teacher failed to address learner’s misconception, nevertheless he kept explaining one thing at same
level of explanation. The learner asked a question about a positive charges repelling as a way of trying to
relate it to the point of dynamic equilibrium, in other words the learner used an analogy to try to
understand better, but the teacher did not attend to it adequately..”

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Table 1: TSPCK scores based on the responses on the engagement in Chemical Equilibrium

Learner Prior Curricular What is Representati Teaching Average

Participants Knowledge Saliency Difficult on Strategies Overall
BAA 3 4 3 3 2 3
CHK 2 1 1 1 1 1
JAQ 3 3 1 3 2 2
KGT 3 4 2 3 3 3
KHM 3 4 1 3 2 3
KHT 4 3 1 3 2 3
KOS 4 4 3 4 3 4
KUA 4 4 3 4 3 4
LES 3 4 3 3 2 3
LEL 4 4 4 4 3 4
MAL 2 2 1 3 2 2
MAR 3 4 3 2 3 3
MAV 3 3 2 2 1 2
MAM 3 4 2 3 3 3
MAE 4 4 4 4 3 4
MAI 4 3 1 3 2 3
MAMA 3 4 2 3 3 3
MAA 2 2 1 2 2 2
MGS 3 4 3 2 3 3
MGT 2 2 1 2 2 2
MKA 3 4 2 3 3 4
MNP 2 2 1 3 2 2
MNB 2 2 2 3 2 2
MON 3 3 3 3 3 3
MOT 3 4 3 3 2 3
MOTL 2 2 1 2 2 2
MOP 4 4 3 3 3 4
MTT 4 3 1 3 2 2
MUM 3 3 3 2 3 3
NDS 4 3 1 3 2 2
NDT 4 3 1 3 2 3
NGS 3 3 3 2 3 3
NKL 3 4 3 2 3 3
PAM 3 4 3 2 3 3
PEM 3 3 1 3 2 2
RAJ 3 3 2 2 2 2
SIT 2 3 2 2 2 2
SIS 2 2 2 3 2 2
SIL 3 3 2 3 1 2
SMJ 4 4 3 4 3 4
Average Score 3

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In this extract, it is clear that Pondo could recognise the misconception embedded in the learners’
suggested analogy and the poor response by the teacher in the recorded lessons.However, Pondo’s
response lacks a suggested strategy to confront the misconception. Furthermore, the category
‘developing TSPCK’ means that the pre-service teacherscouldrecognise and suggest where lacking
main concepts that are most important for the topic and make links tothe corresponding subordinate
concepts, although not explaining the connections explicitly; they can also identify potential
difficult areas for understanding by learners with reference to reasons related to common
misconceptions; The extract below, from Nazier’s evaluation of the observed lesson, typifies this
idea:

“..the fact that the concentration of the reactants is not ‘finished’ can become a barrier for learners to
understand better……. the teacher [in the video] kept on emphasising this point”

The category ‘developing TSPCK’ further means that the pre-service teachers could recognise, use
or make suggestions about the use of a combination of macroscopic and symbolic representations
simultaneously in explaining concepts. This was evident from most of the pre-service teachers with
a typical example (student James’ extract) given below:

“The teacher used symbolic representation throughout his lesson. He drew graphs on the board and also
drew a container with symbols of the molecules involved in the reaction”

The suggested conceptual teaching strategies by the pre-service teachers at this level of
TSPCK,recognised platforms for interaction of two or more of the other content specific
components although not rich in suggestions for linking to microscopic explanations in the same
explanation. As it has been observed in other studies, pre-service teachers seemed to struggle with
this component in suggesting improvements for the observed lesson. The‘developing’ category of
TSPCK is agood and encouraging level of quality for reasoning through topic not discussed in
class.

Conclusion

In this study, we explored whether the reasoning behind developing Topic Specific PCK is
transferable from one chemistry topic to another. The findings indicate a good transfer of learnt
reasoning from an intervention based on one topic (particle nature of matter) to another not
discussed in class but familiar to students. The meaning of this finding, based on the nature of the
intervention, is that pre-service teachers improved their understanding of the collective knowledge
components that enable transformation of SMK. This improved understanding is at the level of
reasoning about the teaching of the topic. It therefore reflects improved thoughts on a string of
aspects related to chemical equilibrium concepts, specifically the structuring the topic into its big
ideas, learners’ common misconceptions, identifying areas of difficulty in understanding,
representations and analogies, and conceptual strategies to teaching the topic. These thoughts have
improved in pre-service teachers prior to their actual teaching of the topic in a real class. The
significance of this finding lies in providing a concrete empirical example of Shulman’s (1987)
argument: pedagogical reasoning is as much part of teaching as is the actual performance itself, and
that it isdesirable (p. 17) as it enriches the grounds from which the teacher may base reasons for
actions in class. Thisoutcome has implications on teacher preparation programmes.The
development of PCK at a topic level,through explicit teaching of the knowledge that enables such
transformation, has promise for not only improving the reasoning in the topic of discussion but that
the reasoning maybe be transferred into another topic, thereby improving also the quality of TSPCK
in the new topic.

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