Chapter 1: Computer System Overview

ANSWERS
Exercises:

1. List and briefly define the four main elements of a computer. (Q 1.1)

Answer:
 A main memory, which stores both data and instructions
 an arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) capable of operating on binary
data;
 a control unit, which interprets the instructions in memory and
causes them to be executed;
 input and output (I/O) equipment operated by the control unit.

2. Define the two main categories of processor registers. (Q 1.2)

Answer:
User-visible registers: Enable the machine- or assembly-language
programmer to minimize main memory references by optimizing register
use. For high-level languages, an optimizing compiler will attempt to
make intelligent choices of which variables to assign to registers and
which to main memory locations. Some high-level languages, such as C,
allow the programmer to suggest to the compiler which variables should
be held in registers.

Control and status registers: Used by the processor to control the

operation of the processor and by privileged, operating system
routines to control the execution of programs.

3. What is an interrupt? (Q 1.4)

Answer:
An interrupt is a mechanism by which other modules (I/O, memory) may
interrupt the normal sequencing of the processor.

4. What are the differences between a trap and an interrupt?

Apakah perbezaan antara perangkap dan sampukan?

Interrupt – external to the execution of the current instruction,

reaction to an asynchoronous externel event.

Trap – associated with the execution of the current instruction,

handling of an error or an exception condition

5. What is cache memory? (Q 1.7)

Answer:
Cache memory is a memory that is smaller and faster than main memory
and that is interposed between the processor and main memory. The
cache acts as a buffer for recently used memory locations.
6. Explain the potential performance disadvantage of a microkernel operating system. (Q 4.13)

Answer:
It takes longer to build and send a message via the microkernel, and
accept and decode the reply, than to make a single service call.

7. What is the basic form of communications between processes or threads in a microkernel operating
system? (Q 4.15)

Answer: Messages.

8. What is Operating System? Briefly explain three objectives of an operating system design.
Apakah sistem pengoperasian? Terangkan secara ringkas tiga objektif reka bentuk sistem
pengoperasian.

Answers:

Operating system is a program that controls the execution of

application programs.

Convenience-Makes the computer more convenient to use

Efficiency - Allows computer system resources to be use in an
efficient manner
Ability to evolve - Permit effective development, testing and
introduction of new system functions without interfering with
service

9. What is the kernel of an operating system? What are the general functions of the kernel?
Apakah ia kernel bagi sebuah sistem pengoperasian? Apakah fungsi-fungsi am bagi kernel?

Answers:

A portion of the operating system that includes the most heavily used
portions of software. Generally the kernel is maintained permanently
in main memory. The kernel runs in a privileged mode and responds to
calls from process and interrupts from devices.

10. Give the difference between uniprogramming and multiprogramming.

Berikan perbezaan di antara pengaturcaraan tunggal dan multipengaturcaraan .

Answers:

Uniprogramming - Processor must wait for I/O instruction to

complete before proceding

Multiprogramming - When one job needs to wait for I/O, the

processor can switch to the other job
11. Draw some figures that show the operation examples of uniprogramming and multiprogramming
with three programs.
Lukiskan beberapa gambar rajah yang menunjukkan operasi bagi contoh-contoh pengaturcaraan
tunggal dan multipengaturcaraan dengan tiga atur cara.

Answers:

Program A Run Wait Run Wait

Time
Uniprogramming

Program A Run Wait Run Wait

Program B Run Wait Run Wait

Program C Run Wait Run Wait

Wait
Combined Run A Run B Run C Run A Run B Run C
Wait
Time
Multiprogramming with 3 programs

12. Define symmetric multiprocessing (SMP).

Takrifkan multi-proses simetrik.

Answers:

A symmetric multiprocessor can be defined as a standalone computer system

with the following characteristics:

There are multiple processor.

These processors share the same main memory and I/O facilities,
interconnected by a communication bus or other internal connection
scheme.
All the processor can perform the same functions (hence the term
symmetric).

13. State THREE of the characteristics of modern operating systems.

Nyatakan ciri-ciri bagi sistem pengoperasian moden.
 Answers: (Any 3 answers)

Microkernel architecture,
multithreading,
symmetric multiprocessing,
distributed operating systems and object-oriented design.

14. What is an operating system? Give two (2) examples of operating systems.
Apakah sistem pengoperasian? Berikan dua (2) contoh sistem pengoperasian.

Answers:

A program that controls the execution of application program.

Windows 2000, XP, ME,

Solaris, Unix Linux, Macintosh

15. What is multiprogramming and what is the main advantage?

Apakah multipengaturcaraan dan apakah kelebihan utamanya?

Answers:

Multiprogramming - When one job needs to wait for I/O, the

processor can switch to the other job
fully utilization of processor

16. What are booting and bootstrap program?

Apakah maksud ‘booting’ dan atur cara ‘bootstrap’?

Answer:
Booting – starting a computer by loading the kernel.

bootstrap program – a code stored in ROM that is able to locate the

kernel, load it into memory and starts its execution.
loaded at power-up or reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EEPROM, generally known as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

17. What is the distinction between blocking and nonblocking with respect to messages?
Apakah perbezaan antara menunggu dan tidak-menunggu bila berkaitan dengan mesej?

Answers:
 There are two aspects, the send and receive primitives. When a send
primitive is executed in a process, there are two possibilities:
either the sending process is blocked until the message is received,
or it is not.

Similarly, when a process issues a receive primitive, there are two

possibilities: If a message has previously been sent, the message is
received and execution continues. If there is no waiting message,
then either (a) the process is blocked until a message arrives, or
(b) the process continues to execute, abandoning the attempt to
receive.

18. Briefly explain the benefits of a microkernel organization.

Secara ringkas terangkan faedah organisasi ‘microkernel’.

Answers:

1. Uniform interface on request made by a process

- Don’t distinguish between kernel-level and user-level services
- All services are provided by means of message passing
2. Extensibility
- Allows the addition of new services
3. Flexibility
- New features added
- Existing features can be subtracted
4. Portability
- Changes needed to port the system to a new processor is changed
in the microkernel - not in the other services
5. Reliability
- Modular design
- Small microkernel can be rigorously tested
6. Distributed system support
- Message are sent without knowing what the target machine is
7. Object-oriented operating system
- Components are objects with clearly defined interfaces that
can be interconnected to form software

19. What is the purpose of interrupts? What are the differences between a trap and an interrupt? Can traps be
generated intentionally by a user program? If so, for what purpose?

An interrupt is a hardware-generated change of flow within the system.

An interrupt handler is summoned to deal with the cause of the
interrupt; control is then returned to the interrupted context and
instruction;.
A trap is a software generated interrupt.
An interrupt can be used to signal the completion of an I/O to obviate
the need for device polling.
A trap can be used to call operating systems routines or to catch
arithmetic errors.

20. Direct memory access (DMA) is used for high-speed I/O devices in order to avoid increasing the CPU’s
execution load.
a. How does the CPU interface with the device to coordinate the transfer?
 b. How does the CPU know when the memory operations are complete?
c. The CPU is allowed to execute other programs while the DMA controller is transferring data. Does
this process interfere with the execution of the user programs? If so, describe what forms of
interference are caused.

The CPU can initiate a DMA operation by writing values into special
registers that can be independently accessed by the device. The device
initiates the corresponding operation once it receives a command from
the CPU. When the device is finished with its operation, it interrupts
the CPU to indicate the completion of the operation.

Both the device and the CPU can be accessing memory simultaneously.
The memory controller provides access to the memory bus in a fair
manner to these two entities. A CPU might therefore be unable to issue
memory operations at peak speeds since it has to compete with the
device in order to obtain access to the memory bus.

21. Give two reasons why caches are useful. What problems do they solve? What problems do they
cause? If a cache can be made as large as the device for which it is caching (for instance, a
cache as large as a disk), why not make it that large and eliminate the device?

Answer:

Caches are useful when two or more components need to exchange data, and the
components perform transfers at differing speeds.

Caches solve the transfer problem by providing a buffer of intermediate speed

between components. If the fast device finds the data it needs in the cache,
it need not wait for the slower device.

The data in the cache must be kept consistent with the data in the
components. If a component has a data value change, and the datum is also in
the cache, the cache must also be updated. This is especially a problem on
multiprocessor systems where more than one process may be accessing a datum.

A component may be eliminated by an equal-sized cache, but only if:

(a) the cache and the component have equivalent-saving capacity (that is if
the component retains its data when electricity is removed, the cache must
retain data as well), and
(b) the cache is affordable, because faster storage tends to be more
expensive.

22. Define the essential properties of the following types of operating systems:

a. Batch
b. Interactive
c. Time sharing
d. Real time
e. Network
f. Parallel
g. Distributed
h. Clustered
i. Handheld

Answer:
 Batch – Jobs with similar needs are batched together and run through the
computer as a group by an operator or automatic job sequencer. Performance is
increased by attempting to keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times through
buffering, off-line operation, spooling, and multiprogramming. Batch is good
for executing large jobs that need little interaction; they can be submitted
and picked up later.

Interactive – This system is composed of many short transactions where the

results of the next transaction may be unpredictable. Response time needs to
be short (seconds) since the user submits and waits for the result.

Time sharing – This system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to

provide economical interactive use of a system. The CPU switches rapidly from
one user to another. Instead of having a job defined by a spooled card
images, each program reads its next control card from the terminal, and
output is normally printed immediately to the screen.

Real time – Often used in a dedicated application, this system reads

information from sensors and must respond within a fixed amount of time to
ensure correct performance.

Network – Provides operating system features across a network such as file

sharing.

SMP – Used in systems where there are multiple CPUs each running the same
copy of the OS. Communication takes place across the system bus.

Distributed – This system distributes computation among several physical

processors. The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each
processor has its own local memory. They communicate with each other through
various communication lines, such as a high-speed bus or local area network.

Clustered – A clustered system combines multiple computers into a single

system to perform computational tasks distributed across the cluster.

Handheld – A small computer system that performs simple tasks such as

calendars, email, and web browsing. Handheld systems differ from traditional
desktop systems with smaller memory and display screens and slower
processors.

23. List five services provided by an OS that are designed to make it more convenient for users to use the
computer system. In what aces it would be impossible for user-level programs to provide these services?
Explain.

Program execution. The OS loads the contents (or sections) of a file into
memory and begins its execution. A user-level program could not be trusted
to properly allocate CPU time.
I/O operations. Disks, tapes, serial lines, and other devices must be
communicated with at a very low level. The user need only specify the
device and the operation to perform on it, while the system converts that
request into device- or controller-specific commands. User-level programs
cannot be trusted to access only devices they should have access to and to
access them only when they are otherwise unused.
File-system manipulation. There are many details in file creation,
deletion, allocation, and naming that users should not have to perform.
Blocks of disk space are used by files and must be tracked. Deleting a
file requires removing the name file information and freeing the
allocation blocks. Protections must also be checked to assure proper file
access. User programs could neither ensure adherence to protection methods
nor be trusted to allocate only free blocks and deallocate blocks on file
deletion.
Communications. Message passing between systems requires that messages be
turned into packets of information, sent to the network controller,
transmitted across communications medium, and reassembled by the
destination system. Packet ordering and data correction must take place.
Again, user programs might not coordinate access to the network device, or
they might receive packets destined for other processes.
Error detection. Error detection occurs at both the hardware and software
levels. At the hardware level, all data transfers must be inspected to
ensure that data have not been corrupted in transit. All data on media
must be checked to be sure they have not changed since they were written
to the media. At the software level, media must be checked for data
consistency; for instance, do the number of allocated and unallocated
blocks of storage match the total number of blocks on the device. There,
errors are frequently process-independent (for instance, the corruption of
data on a disk), so there must be a global program (the OS) that handles
all types of errors. Also, by having errors processed by the OS, processes
need not contain code to catch and correct all the errors possible on a
system.