A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development

Module
In
SE 101

College of Engineering and Technology

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

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 Module No. 1

First Semester Academic Year 2021-2022

Eng’r. Samuel A. Espartero

Instructor I

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Subject Contents

1. Chapter 1 Introduction to Design of Steel Structures

Lesson 1: Introduction
Lesson 2: Gravity Loads on Structures
Lesson 3: Lateral Loads

2. Chapter 2 Structural Steel Framing Systems

Lesson 1: Bearing Wall and Building Frame System
Lesson 2: Moment-Resisting Frame System and Dual System with
Special/Intermediate Moment Frames
Lesson 3: Cantilevered Column Building Systems

3. Chapter 3 Structural Analysis for Stress Resultants

Lesson 1: Structural Modeling, Load Combinations for ASD and LRFD
Methods, and Application of Code Provisions for Load
Combinations
Lesson 2: Computer-Aided Structural Analysis
Lesson 3: Determination of the Design Stress Resultant for the Structural
Members

4. Chapter 4 Selection of Structural Members Sizes

Lesson 1: Tension and Compression Members
Lesson 2: Bending, Shear, and Torsion Members
Lesson 3: Combinations of Stress of Members

5. Chapter 5 Design of Steel Members Connections

Lesson 1: Bolted Connections
Lesson 2: Welded Base Plate

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INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This module would provide you an educational experience while independently

accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as well to ensure that
learning is unhampered by health and other challenges. It covers the topic about
the Introduction to the Design of Steel Structures.
Structures

Reminders in using this module:

1. Keep this material neat and intact.

2. Answer the pre-test
pre test first to measure what you know and what to be
learned about the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises
exercises as aids and reinforcement for
better understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test
post to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social media
platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly
answering and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were
spent in the preparation in order that learning will still continue amidst
this Covid-19
19 pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain physical
distancing.

Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU Mascot.

Welcome to Western Philippines University!

Shape your dreams with quality learning experience.

STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY!

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Table of Contents

1. Instruction to the user 4

2. Introduction 6
3. Chapter 1 – Introduction to Design of Steel Structures 7
3.1 Overview 7
3.2 Learning outcomes 7
3.3 Pre-test 7
4. Lesson 1: Introduction to Structural Steel Design 8
4.1 Learning outcomes 8
4.2 Time Allotment 8
4.3 Discussion 8
4.4 Activities/Exercises 26
4.5 Evaluation/Post-test 26
5. Lesson 2: Gravity Loads on Structures 27
5.1 Learning outcomes 27
5.2 Time Allotment 27
5.3 Discussion 27
5.4 Activities/Exercises 64
5.5 Evaluation/Post-test 65
6. Lesson 3: Lateral Loads 67
6.1 Learning outcomes 67
6.2 Time Allotment 67
6.3 Discussion 67
6.4 Activities/Exercises 138
6.5 Evaluation/Post-test 139
7. References 140
8. Student’s information 141
9. Back cover (Vision, Mission, Core Values) 142

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INTRODUCTION

The course is concerned with the Designing of Steel Structures through step-by-step
procedural solutions. The design solutions will be based on the standards and codes of
the National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP 2015 Volume I, 7th Edition
Chapter 5), the National Building Code of the Philippines (NBCP), ASEP Steel
Handbook 2004, AISC Design Manual, ASCE 7, 1997 UBC and other relevant codes and
standards that supports the design of the steel structures.

Designing the steel structures means selecting the proper materials from the ASEP Steel
Manual Tables and AISC Steel Manual. By selecting from the tables, the economic
principles of the design will benefit the designer’s clients. The designer (Structural
Engineer by profession) therefore is opting to secure the applications for loads to be
carried by the structures.

The loads to be carried by the structure will define in this course mainly the dead loads,
live load, wind load, and seismic load. These loads will be taken as design criteria to the
design of the steel structures.

The design of steel structures in this course is not focusing only on the building but to
the other vertical structures like water tank support, transmission tower, and other non-
building structures.

The emphasis in this subject is to apply the structural analysis learned from the lower
year. The design principles will elaborate the use of steel materials.

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CHAPTER 1

Overview

In this module, the student will gain knowledge about the

1. Identification of structures.
2. Specifications and building codes
3. Philosophies of design
4. Factors of safety - ASD and LRFD methods of design

Learning Outcomes

After completion of this module the student will able to:

1. Identify the structures where the steel material is applied.
2. Know the specifications and building codes to apply in designing the steel
structures.
3. Know the categories of steel structures design as per type.
4. Understands the application of LRFD and ASD methods of design

Pre-test

1. Since W 16 x 57 is in English System, what is its equivalent metric?

2. What is the unit load to be carried by the steel beam W14 x 50 with 9 m in length
carrying a dead load of 4.2 kN/m2 and live of 2.4 kN/m2

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Lesson 1

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN

A. Learning Outcome

After the completion of this lesson, the students will:

1. Understand the principles of design
2. Understand the types of steel structures
3. Learn the properties of steel section properties

B. Time Allotment

Reading and answering the lessons = 1 day

C. Discussion

Introduction

Structural design may be defined as a mixture of art and science, combining the
experienced engineer’s intuitive feeling for the behavior of a structure with a sound
knowledge of the principles of statics, dynamics, mechanics of materials, and structural
analysis, to produce a safe, economical structure that will serve its intended purpose.

Until about 1850, structural design was largely an art relying on intuition to determine
the size and arrangement of the structural elements. Early man-made structures
essentially conformed to those which could also be observed in nature, such as beams
and arches. As the principles governing the behavior of structures and structural
materials have become better understood, design procedures have become more
scientific.

Computation involving scientific principles should serve as a guide to decision making

and not be followed blindly. The art or intuitive ability of the experienced engineer is
utilized to make the decisions, guided by the computational results.

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

Design is a process by which an optimum solution is obtained. The design of steel

structures must establish a certain criteria to which the optimum solution must obtain
with the following requirements:

a. Minimum cost
b. Minimum weight

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 c. Minimum construction time
d. Minimum labor
e. Minimum cost of manufacture of owner’s products; and
f. Maximum efficiency of operation to owner.

Usually several criteria are involved, each of which may require weighting. Observing
the above possible critera, it may be apparent that setting clearly measurable criteria
(such as weight and cost) for establishing an optimum frequently will be difficult, and
perhaps impossible. In most practical situations the evaluation must be qualitative.

Design Procedure

Design procedure may composed of two considerable parts namely:

3. Functional design = ensures that intended results are achieved, such as
a. Adequate working areas and clearances;
b. Proper ventilation and/or air conditioning;
c. Adequate transportation facilities, such as elevators, stairways, and cranes or
materials handling equipment;
d. Adequate lighting; and
e. Aesthetics
4. Structural framework design = selection of the arrangement and sizes of structural
elements so that service loads may be safely carried, and displacements are within
acceptable limits.
a. Planning. Establishment of the functions which the structure must serve.
b. Preliminary structural configuration. Arrangement of the elements to serve the
functions in step 1.
c. Establishment of the loads to be carried.
d. Preliminary member selection. Based on the decisions of steps 1, 2, and 3,
selection of the member sizes to satisfy an objective criterion, such as least weight
or cost.
e. Analysis. Strucutral analysis involving modeling the loads and the structural
framework to obtain internal forcces and any desired deflections.
f. Evaluation. Are all strength and serviceability requiremenst satisfied and is the
result optimal? Compare the result with predetermined criteria.
g. Redesign. Repetition of any part of the sequence 1 through 6 found necessary or
desirable as a result of evaluation. Steps 1 through 6 represent the interactive
process. Usually steps 3 through 6 will be subject to iteration, since the structural
confguration and external loading will be prescribed.
h. Final decision. The determination of wheter or not an optimum design has been
achieved.

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Steel Materials

Steel is one of the most commonly used materials and is manufactured from iron ore
which is first converted to molten pig iron. The impurities are then removed and crefully
controlled proportions of carbon, silicon, manganese, etc., added the amounts
depending on the particular steel being manufactured.

Mild steel is the commonest type of steel and has a low carbon content. It is relatively
strong, cheap to produce and is widely used for the sections shown in Fig. 1.22. It is a
ductile material, is easily welded and because its composition is carefully controlled its
properties are known with reasonable accuracy.

High carbon steels posses greater strength than mild steel but are less ductile
whereas high yield steel is stronger than mild steel but has a similar stiffness. High yield
steel, as well as mild steel, is used for reinforcing bars in concrete construction and very
high strength steel is used for the wires in prestressed concrete beams.

Low carbon steels possessing sufficient ductility to be bent cold are used in the
manufacture of cold-formed sections. In this process unheated thin steel strip passes
through a series of rolls which gradually bend it into the required section contour.
Simple profiles, such as a channel section, may be produced in as few as six stages
whereas more complex sections may require 15 or more. Cold-formed sections are used
as ligthweight roof purlins, stiffeners for the covers and sides of box beams and so on.
Some typical sections are shown in Fig. 1.1.

Other special purpose steels are produced by adding different elements. For example,
chromium is added to produce stainless steel althrough this is too expensive for general
structural use.

Figure 1.1 Standard Rolled Shapes

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Figure 1.2 Examples of cold-formed sections.

Built-up Section

Built-up sections are made up by a fabricator from two or more shapes or plates.
Examples of common built-up sections are shown in Fig. 1.2. Built-up members are
specified by the designer when the desired properties or configuration cannot be
obtained in a single hot-rolled section. Built-up sections can be bolted or welded.
Welded members, in general are less expensive because much less handling is required
in the shop and because of more efficient utilization of material. The clean lines of
welded members are also produce a better appearance.

Cover-Plated Rolled Beams

Cover-Plated Rolled Beams are used when the required bending capacity is not available
in a rolled standard beam or when depth limitations preclude use of a deeper rolled
beam or plate girder. Cover-plated beams are also used in composite construction to
obtain the efficiency of a nonsymmetrical section.

Figure 1.3

W Shapes

American wide-flange I or H-shaped steel beams are referred to as W shapes and are
designated by the letter W followed by their nominal depth in millimeters, with their
mass in kg/m as the last designation.

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Example 1.1

W 416 x 85 means that this W shape is 416 mm deep and has a mass of 85 kg/m. this
shape consists of two rectangular-shaped flanges connected by a rectangular plate and
symmetrical about the x and y axes.

Typical W shape
d = depth of beam
bf = width of flange
tf = thickness of flange
tw = thickness of web

The AISC units of steel members are express in English System which derived to Metric
and SI System to adapt the present trades.

Just like the problem in Example 1, the W 416 x 85 is derived from English System of
what Steel Section?

Derivation:
The note W is refers to section type and the number 416 refers to the depth of the steel
section in mm, while the last number 85 refers to weight in kilogram/meter:

Depth: 416 mm = 416/25.4 = 16.38” ≈ 16”

Weight: 85 kg/m = 85 kg/m x 2.204 lbs/kg x 0.3048 m/ft = 57.1 lbs/ft
Therefore, the designation of W 416 x 85 = W 16 x 57

Flange Web
Designation Theoretical Area Depth
Thickness
mass A d Width bf Thickness tw
(kg/m) (mm2) (mm) (mm) tf (mm) (mm)
W 416 x 85 85 10800 410 181 18.2 10.9

S Shapes

These shapes were formerly called I-beams and American Standard Beams. The
difference between W and S-shapes are.

1. The flange width of the S-shape is narrower than W-shape.

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 2. The inner face of the flange of the S-shape has a slope of about 16.7°.

Example 1.2

S 610 x 134
Deep of beam = 610 mm
Theoretical mass = 134 kg/m

AISC Flange Web

Designation Theoretical Area (mm2) Depth Width Thickness Thickness
mass (kg/m) (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
S 610 x 134 134.4 17100 610 181 22.1 15.9

M Shapes (also called HP Shapes)

These are doubly symmetrical shapes which are not classified as W or S-shapes. They
are symmetrical both x and y-axes.

Example 1.3

M 356 x 25.6
Deep of beam = 356 mm
Theoretical mass = 25.6 kg/m

Flange Web
Designation Theoretical Area Depth
Width Thickness Thickness
mass (kg/m) (mm2) (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
M 356 x 25.6 25.6 3258 356 101.6 6.9 5.33

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C Shapes

These are channel shapes formerly called American Standard Channels. The inner face
of the flange has the same slope as S-shapes.
S

Example 1.4

C 380 x 74

Flange Web
Designation Theoretical Area Depth
Width Thickness Thickness
mass (kg/m) (mm2) (mm)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
C 380 x 74 74.4 9480 381 94 16.5 18.2

MC Shapes

These were formerly called ship building or Miscellaneous Channels and are not
classified as C shapes.

Example 1.5

MC 458 x 86

Theoretical Flange Web

Designation Area Depth
mass Width Thickness Thickness
(mm2) (mm)
(kg/m) (mm) (mm) (mm)
MC 458 x 86 86 11032 457.2 106.68 15.88 17.78

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∟ Shapes

These are either equal or unequal leg angles. All angles have parallel flange faces.

Example 1.6

Equal Angle Section ∟ 200 x 200 x 30

Size and Thickness Theoretical mass (kg/m) Area (mm2)

200x 200 x 30 87.1 11100

Example 1.7

Unequal Angle Section ∟ 200 x 150 x 25

Size and Thickness Theoretical mass (kg/m) Area (mm2)

200x 150 x 25 63.8 8120

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WT 300 x 119.3 (Structural Tee or Split Tee)
Structural tees are obtained by splitting W, S or M shapes such that each split section
has one half the area of the original shape. Nominal depth is 300 mm and a mass of
119.3 kg/m obtained by splitting W 600 x 238.6 kg/m

Example 1.8

WT 300 x 119.3

Identification of Steel Structures

Structure

Structures may be divided into three general categories:

a. Framed structures, where elements may consist of tension members, columns,
beams, and members under combined bending and axial load;

Most typical building construction is in this category. The multistory building usually
consists of beams and columns, either rigidly connected or having simple end
connections along with diagonal bracing to provide stability. Even though a
multistory building is three-dimensional,
three dimensional, it usually is designed to be much sti
stiffer in
one direction than the other; thus it may reasonably be treated as a series of plane
frames. However, if the framing is such that the behavior of the members in one
plane substantially influences the
the behavior in another plane, the frame must be
treated as a three-dimensional
dimensional space frame.

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b. Shell-type structures, where axial forces predominate;

In this type of structure, the shell serves as a

use function in addition to participation in
carrying load. One common type where the
main stress is tension is the containment
vessel used to store liquids (for both high and
low temperature), of which the elevated water
tank is a notable example. Storage bins, tanks,
and the hull of ships are other example. On
many shell-type structures, a framed structure
may be used in conjunction with the shell.

On walls and flat roofs, the “skin” elements

may be in compression while they act together
with a framework. The aircraft body is
another such example.

Shell-type structures are usually designed by a

specialist and are not in the scope of this
course.

c. Suspension-type structures, where axial tension predominates the principal support

system. In the suspension-type structure, tension cables are major supporting
elements. A roof may be cable-supported. Probably the most common structure of
this type is the suspension bridge. Usually a subsystem of the structure consists of a

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 framed structure, as in the stiffening truss for the suspension bridge. Since the
tension element is the most efficient way of carrying load, structures utilizing this
concept are increasingly being used.

Many unusual structures utilizing various combinations of framed, shell-type, and

suspension-type structures have been built. However, the typical designer must
principally understand the design and behavior of framed structures.

Specifications and Building Codes

Structural steel design of buildings in the United States is principally based on the
specification of the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC). AISC is composed
of steel fabricator and manufacturing companies, as well as individuals’ interest in steel
design and research. The AISC Specification is the result of the combined judgment of
researchers and practicing engineers. The research efforts have been synthesized into
practical design procedures to provide a safe, economical structure. The advent of the
digital computer in design practice has made feasible more elaborate design rules. The
current specification which is referred throughout this module is the 2015 Volume I, 7th
Edition of the NSCP (National Structural Code of the Philippines) which derived from
the AISC Steel Construction Manual, 15th Edition.

A specification containing a set of rules is intended to ensure safety; however, the

designer must understand the behavior for which the rule applies. Otherwise, an absurd

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design may result, either unsafe or grossly conservative. Behavioral understanding must
come first; application of rules then follows. No matter what set of rules is applicable;
the designer has the ultimate responsibility for a safe structure.

A specification when adopted by AISC is actually a set of recommendations put forth by

a highly respected group of experts in the field of steel research and design, then
incorporate a specification of AISC Steel Design Specifications (ANSI/AISC 360-05,
now ANSI/AISC 360-16) into the building codes.

The design of steel bridges is generally in accordance with specifications of the

American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)

Railroad bridges are designed in accordance with the specifications adopted by the
American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA).

The term building code is sometimes used synonymously with specifications. More
correctly a building code is a broadly based document, either a legal document such as a
state or local building code, or a document widely recognized even though not legal
which covers the same wide range of topics as the state or local building code.

PHILOSOPHIES OF DESIGN

The two philosophies of design that are in current use are:

1. Working Stress Design, referred as Allowable Stress Design (ASD) by AISC
2. Limit States Design, referred as Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) by AISC

The 2005 AISC Specification for Structural Steel Buildings provides an integrated
treatment of Allowable Strength Design (previously referred to by AISC as the Allowable
Stress Method) and Load and Resistance Factor Design. The new specification combines
the two design methods and replaces earlier specifications that treated the two design
methods separately. Allowable Stress Design has been the principal philosophy used
during the past 100 years. During the past 20 years or so, structural design has been
moving toward a more rational and probability-based design procedure referred to as
“limit states” design. Limit states design includes the methods commonly referred to as
“ultimate strength design,” “strength design,” plastic design,” “load factor design,” limit
design,” and the more recent “load and resistance factor design (LRFD).”

Design must provide some reserve strength needed to carry the service loads, meaning
the structure must provide for the possibility of overload. Overloads can arise from
changing the use for which the particular structure was designed, from

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underestimations in construction procedures. In addition, there must be a provision of
understrength.

The selected materials (steel members, bolts, and welds) in design may have less
strength used in the design calculations. A steel section may occasionally have a yield
stress below the minimum specified value, but still within the statistically acceptable
limits.

Structural design must provide for adequate safety no matter what philosophy of design
is used. Provision must be made for both overload and strength.
“Limit state” may rather use term for “failure”. Limit states means “those conditions of a
structure at which it ceases to fulfill its intended function”.

Two categories of Limit States: strength and serviceability

1. Strength (or safety) limit states are such behavioral phenomena as achieving
ductile maximum strength (or plastic strength), buckling, fatigue, overturning, and
sliding.
2. Serviceability limit states are those concerned with occupancy of a building, such
as deflection, vibration, permanent deformation, and cracking.

Both the loads acting on the structure and its resistance (strength) to loads are variables
that must be considered.

The current approach to a simplified method for obtaining a probability-based

assessment of structural safety uses first-order second-moment reliability methods.
Such methods assume that the load (or load effect) Q and the resistance R are random
variables. Typical frequency distributions of these random variables are shown in the
figure 1. When the resistance R exceeds the load (or load effect) Q there will be a margin
of safety. Unless R exceeds Q by a large amount, there will be some probability that R
may be less than Q.

Structural “failure” (achievement of a limit state) may then be examined by comparing R

with Q, or in logarithmic form observing ln(R/Q), as shown in figure 2. The distance
between the failure line and the mean value of the function [ln(R/Q)] is defined as a
multiple β of the standard deviation σ of the function. The multiplier β is called the
reliability index. The larger β the greater is the margin of safety.

Pinkham summarized the usefulness of the reliability index β in several ways:

1. It can give an indication of the consistency of safety for various components and
systems using traditional design methods.

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2. It can be used to established new methods which will have consistent margins of
safety.

3. It can be used to vary in a rational manner the margins of safety for those
components and systems having a greater or lesser need for safety than that required
in ordinary situations.

In general, the expression for the structural safety requirements may be written as

≤∅ (502.3 − 1)
Where
Ru = required strength (LRFD)
Rn = nominal strength, specified in Sections 502 through 511
ø = resistance factor, specified in Sections 502 through 511
øRn = design strength

AISC – Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

During the past 25 years, the general “limit states design” approach has continued to
gain acceptance, particularly for steel design in the United States with the adoption in
1986 of a Load and Resistance Factor Design Specification by AISC. The latest version of
that Specification is 2010. The AISC Specification LRFD Method was developed under
the leadership of T. V. Galambos.

The safety requirement of the LRFD Method is given by Equation 1.8.1. This means the
design strength øRn provided by the resulting design must at least equal the sum ∑γiQi
of the applied factored service loads. The subscript i indicates that there are terms for

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each type of load Qi acting, such as dead load D, live load L, wind load W, snow load S,
and earthquake load E. the γi may be different for each type of load.

The AISC LRFD Method is based on the following:

1. A probability-based model
2. Calibration with the 1978 AISC Allowable Stress Design (ASD) Specification.
3. Evaluation using judgment and past experience, along with studies of representative
structures conducted by design offices.

The development of probability-based criteria by Galambos, Ellingwood, MacGregor,

and Cornell led to the factored load combinations of the 1982 ANSI Standard, which has
become ASCE 7. The ANSI Standard was developed for use in design with all structural
materials. It is reasonable that the probability of overload with certain types of loads
should be unrelated to the material of which a structure is built. With this concept in
mind, the AISC LRFD Method adopted the ASCE 7-10 factored load combinations as
follows:

1.4D (1.8.1)
1.2D+ 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R) (1.8.2)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) +(L or 0.5W) (1.8.3)
1.2D + 1.0W + 0.5(Lr or S or R) (1.8.4)
1.2D+ 1.0E + L + 0.2S (1.8.5)
0.9D+1.0W (1.8.6)
0.9D + 1.0E (1.8.7)

Where the nominal service loads indicated by Eqs. 1.8.2 through 1.8.7 are:

D= dead load (gravity load from the weight of structural elements and permanent
attachments)
E = earthquake load
L = live load (gravity occupancy and movable equipment load)
Lr = roof live load
W= wind load
R = rain load or ice load

AISC – Allowable Strength Design (ASD)

The AISC ASD Method has been included in the 2005 AISC Specification as an
alternative to the LFRD Method. The term “allowable strength” is used to signify that
the same strength limit states are the basis for both the ASD Method and the LFRD
Method. In the past ASD was based on the concept that the maximum stress due to
service load shall not exceed a specified allowable stress, and the method was called
“allowable stress design.” The safety factors in traditional ASD were primarily based on
experience and workmanship, and had remained the same for the past 75 years. While
the actual level of safety provided by traditional ASD has always been variable and
unknown, structures design by ASD performed satisfactorily. The ASD Method in the
current AISC Specification (2005) uses the following Formula (B3-2)

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 ≤ ⁄Ω (502.3 − 2)

Where
Ra = required strength (ASD)
Rn = nominal strength, specified in Sections 502 through 511
Ω = safety factor, specified in Sections 502 through 511
Rn/Ω = allowable strength

FACTORS OF SAFETY – ASD AND LRFD COMPARED

Allowable Strength Design (ASD)

The “safety factor” Ω used in Eq. 1.8.8 was not determined consciously by using
probabilistic methods. The values used in the AISC ASD Specifications have been in use
for many years and are the result of experience and judgment. It is clear that the safety
required must be a combination of economics and statistics. Obviously, it is not
economically feasible to design a structure so that the probability of failure is zero. Prior
to the development of the 1986 AISC LRFD Specification, the AISC Specifications from
1924 through 1978 did not give a rationale for the allowable stresses prescribed.

One may state that the minimum resistance must exceed the maximum applied load by
some prescribed amount. Suppose the actual load exceeds the service load by an amount
ΔQ, and the actual resistance is less than the computed resistance by an amount ΔR. A
structure that is just adequate would have
− Δ = + ΔQ
(1 − Δ ⁄ ) = (1 + Δ ⁄ )(1.9.1)

The margin of safety, or “safety factor,” would be the ratio of the nominal strength Rn to
nominal service load Q; or

1+Δ ⁄
Ω= = (1.9.2)
1−Δ ⁄

Equation 1.9.2 illustrates the effect of overload (ΔQ/Q) and understrength (ΔRn/Rn);
However it does not identify the factors contributing to either. If one assumes that
occasional overload (ΔQ/Q) may be 40% greater than its normal value, and that an
occasional understrength (ΔRn/Rn) may be 15% less than its nominal value, then

1 + 0.4
Ω= = 1.65
1 − 0.15

The above is an oversimplification but it shows a possible scenario for obtaining the
traditional AISC value of FS = 1.67 used as the basic value in Allowable Stress Design.

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Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

The factor for overload are variable depending upon the type of load, and the factored
load combinations that must be considered are those given by the ASCE 7 Standard and
presented as Eqs. 1.8.1 through 1.8.7. The other part of the safety-related provisions is
the ø factor, known as the resistance factor. The resistance factor ø varies with the type
of member and with the limit state being considered. Some representative resistance
factors ø are as follows.

Tension Members (AISC-D2)

Ø = 0.90 for limit state

Ø = 0.75 for limit state

Compression Members (AISC-E1)

= 0.90
Beams (AISC-F1 and E1)
= 0.90
= 0.90 ℎ

Welds (AISC-Table J2.5)

Ø = same as for type of action; i.e., tension, shear etc.

Fasteners intension and Shear (AISC-J3.6 and J3.7)

Ø = 0.75
Standard deviation may be approximated as

( ⁄ ) ≈ + (1.9.3)
Where
= ⁄
= ⁄
The distance representing the margin of safety may be approximated as

( ⁄ ) ≈ + = ln( ⁄ )(1.9.4)

Thus, the larger the distance the smaller the probability of reaching the limit state. The
multiplier β is called the reliability index. The expression for βfro Eq. 1.9.4 becomes

ln( ⁄ )
= (1.9.5)
+

Using the factored load combinations given by the ASCE 7 Standard, the AISC Task
Force and Specification Committee calibrated the 1986 LRFD Specification based on

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past experience. Thus, the resistance factors ø were set in LFRD with the objective of
obtaining the following values of β b:

Load combinations Objective reliability index β

Dead load + live load (or snow load) 3.0 for members
4.5 for connections
Dead load + live load + wind load 2.5 for members
Dead load + live load + earthquake load 1.75 for members

Because of a lower probability of wind or earthquake occurring with full gravity load, the
reliability index β was made lower for those cases. The β values for connections stronger
than members.

ASCE 7-10 uses seven factored load combinations, given as Eqs. 1.8.1 through 1.8.7. This
was necessary to account for each of the separate loads (dead, live, roof, wind additive to
gravity, wind opposite to gravity, and earthquake) acting at its maximum lifetime value.
Loads other than dead load and the load being maximized will act at an “arbitrary point-
in-time” value.

Each factored load combination and its corresponding load occurring at its 50-year
maximum are as follows:

Load combinations Load at its lifetime (50 year) maximum

1.4D Dead load D during construction; other load not present
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5S Live load L
1.2D + 1.6S + (0.8W or 0.5L) Roof load; i.e., snow load S or rain R other than ponding
effect
1.2D + 1.3W + 0.5L + 0.5S Wind load W additive to dead load
1.2D ± 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.2S* Earthquake load E additive to dead load
0.9D ± (1.3W or 1.0E)* Wind load W or earthquake load E opposite to dead load
* The sign following 1.2D or 0.9D is to taken + or – so as to provide the ore severe effect.

Comparison of LFRD with ASD for Tension Members

The original LRFD Specification values were calibrated to the 1978 ASD Specification at
a live load to dead load ratio of 3. To determine the relationship between ø and Ω, the
nominal strengths from ASD and LFRD are equated. Using the live load and dead load
combinations, with L = 3D, the required nominal strength can be expressed as follows:

From ASD: = + = +3 =4
Ω
=4 Ω
From LRFD: = 1.2 + 1.6 = 1.2 + 1.6 3 =6

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 6
=

6 1 1.5
Equating and solving for Ω: Ω= =
4
Therefore, for ø = 0.9, the value Ω = 1.67 and for ø = 0.75, Ω = 2.00

D. Activity / Exercise

1. Provide a photograph or picture of at least three types of steel structures for both
horizontal and vertical structures and even non-building type steel structure that this
course is applied for. Verify what these structures are.

E. Evaluation / Post-test

1. What the equivalent of section MC 18 x 58 in metric systems?

2. What is the equivalent of section S 24 x 121 in metric system?

3. What the theoretical weight of angle ∟100 x 100 x 12 in kg? Consider a 1-meter
length.

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Lesson 2

GRAVITY LOADS ON STRUCTURES

A. Learning Outcome

After the completion of this lesson, the students will:

1. Understand the application of NSCP Code in buiding loads
2. Learn to apply the minimum dead and live loads in steel structures
3. Learn to calculate the NSCP 2015 load combination based on minimum loads
criteria.
4. Learn to calculate the building materials weights as per NSCP 2015 minimum
requirements of gravity loads to apply to the steel structure member as unit weigth.

B. Time Allotment

Reading and answering the lessons = 4 days

C. Discussion

Gravity Loads on Structures

Code Provision – NSCP C101

Combination of Loads
Buildings, towers and other vertical structures and all portions thereof shall be designed
to resist the load combinations specified in Section 203.3, 203.4 and 203.5

The most critical effect can occur when one or more of the contributing loads are not
acting. All applicable loads shall be considered, including both earthquake and wind, in
accordance with the specified load combinations.

Symbols and Notations

D = dead load
E = earthquake load set forth in Section 208.6.1
Em = estimated maximum earthquake force that can be developed in the structure as
set forth in Section 208.6.1
F = load due to fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights
H = load due to lateral pressure of soil and water in soil
L = live load, except roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction
Lr = roof live load, including any permitted live load reduction
P = ponding load
R = rain load on the undeflected roof

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 T = self-straining force and effects arising from contraction or expansion resulting
from temperature change, shrinkage, moisture change, creep in component
materials, movement due to differential settlement, or combinations thereof
W = load due to wind pressure

Load Combinations Using Strength Design (USD) or Load and Resistance

Factor Design (LRFD)

Basic Load Combinations

Where strength design or load and resistance factor design is used, structures and all
portions thereof shall resist the most critical effects from the following combinations of
factored loads:

1.4 (D + F) (203-1)
1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R) (203-2)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (f1L or 0.5W) (203-3)
1.2D + 1.0W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or R) (203-4)
1.2D + 1.0E + f1L (203-5)
0.9D + 1.0W + 1.6H (203-6)
0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H (203-7)

Where
f1 = 1.0 for floors in places of public assembly, for live load in excess of 4.8 kPa,
and for garage live load, or
= 0.5 for other live loads

Other loads

Where P is to be considered in design, the applicable load shall be added factored by

1.2P

Load Combinations Using Allowable Stress or Allowable Strength Design

(ASD)

Basic Load Combinations

Where allowable stress or allowable strength design is used, structures and all portion
thereof shall resist the most critical effects resulting from the following combinations of
loads:

D+F (203-8)
D+H+F+L+T (203-9)
D + H + F + (Lr or R) (203-10)

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 D + H + F + 0.75[L + T(Lr or R)] (203-11)
D + H + F + (0.6W or E/1.4) (203-12)

No increase in allowable stresses shall be used with these load combinations except as
specifically permitted by Alternate Basic Load Combinations.

Alternate Basic Load Combinations (ASD)

In lieu of the basic load combinations specified in Basic Load Combinations, structures
and portion thereof shall be permitted to be designed for the most critical effects
resulting from the following load combinations. When using theses alternate basic load
combinations, a one-third increase shall be permitted in allowable stresses for all
combinations, including W or E.

D + H + F + 0.75[L + Lr(0.6W or E/1.4)] (203-13)

0.6D + 0.6W + H (203-14)
0.6D + E/1.4 + H (203-15)
D + L + (Lr or R) (203-16)
D + L + 0.6W (203-17)
D + L + E/1.4 (203-18)

Exception:

Crane hook loads need not be combined with roof live load or with more than one-half
of the wind load.

Example 2.1

The interior floor system shown in Figure 2.1 has W24 x 55 sections spaced 2.5 m on
center and is supporting a floor dead load of 2.4 kPa and a live load of 3.83 kPa.
Determine the governing load in N/m that each beam must support.

Solution.

Note that each meter of the beam must support itself (a dead load) plus 2.5 x 1 = 2.5 m2
of the building floor.

D = (81.85 kg/m)(9.81 N/kg) + (2.5 m)(2.4 kPa) = 6802.95 N/m

L = (2.5 m)(3.83 kN/m2)(1000 N/kN) = 9575 N/m

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Figure 2.1 Floor load detail

Computing factored loads, using the LRFD load combinations. In this substitutions, the
terms having no values are omitted. Note that with a floor live load of 3.83 kPa a load
factor of 0.5 has been added to load combinations (3), (4), and (5) per the exception
stated in NSCP 2015 and this text for floor live loads.
1. Wu = 1.4 (6802.95) = 9524.13 N/m
2. Wu = 1.2(6802.95) + 1.6(9575) = 23483.5 N/m
3. Wu = 1.2(6802.95) + 0.5(9575) = 12951 N/m
4. Wu = 1.2(6802.95) + 0.5(9575) = 12951 N/m
5. Wu = 1.2(6802.95) + 0.5(9575) = 12951 N/m
6. Wu = 0.9(6802.95) = 6122.65 N/m
7. Wu = 0.9(6802.95) = 6122.65 N/m

Governing factored load = 23483.5 N/m

2.1 Dead Loads

Dead loads consist of the weight of all materials of construction incorporated into the
building or other structures, including but not limited to walls, floors, roofs, ceilings,
stairways, built-in partitions, finishes, cladding and other similarly incorporated
architectural and structural items, and fixed service equipment, including the weight of
the cranes.

Weight of Materials and Constructions

The actual weights of materials and constructions shall be used in determining dead
loads for purposes of design. In the absence of definite information, it shall be permitted
to use the minimum values in Table 204-1 and 204-2 of NSCP 2015 Section 204.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Partition Loads

Floors in office buildings and other buildings where partition locations are subject to
change shall be designed to support, in addition to all other loads, a uniformly
distributed dead load equal to 1.0 kPa.

Exception:

Access floor systems shall be designed to support, in addition to all other loads, a
uniformly distributed dead load not than 0.5 kPa.

Example 2.2

The floor beam in Figure 2.0 is used to support the 1.83 m width of a lightweight plain
concrete slab having a thickness of 102 mm. The slab serves as a portion of the ceiling
for the floor below, and therefore its bottom is coated with plaster.

Furthermore, a 2.44-m-high, 305-mm-thick lightweight solid concrete block wall is

directly over the top flange of the beam. Determine the total dead loads on the beam
measured per meter length of the beam.

Solution

Using the data in Tables 204-1

and 204-2, we have

Figure 2.2

Concrete slab: (0.015 kN/m2.mm) (102 mm)(1.83 m) = 2.80 kN/m

Plaster ceiling: (0.24 kN/m2)(1.83m) = 0.44 kN/m
Block wall: (16.5kN/m3)(2.44 m)(0.305 m) = 12.26 kN/m
Total load 15.50 kN/m Ans

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Example 2.3

The floor system of a building consists of a 125 mm thick reinforced concrete slab
resting on four steel floor beams, which in turn are supported by two steel girders, as
shown in Fig. 2.1. The cross-sectional areas of the floor beams and the girders are 9484
mm2 and 33419 mm2, respectively. Determine the dead loads acting on the beams CG
and DH and the girder AD.

Solution:

Refer to Table 204-1 for density of concrete materials to be carried by the floor beam.

For steel floor beam CG:

Concrete slab: reinforced, stone including gravel = 23.6 kN/m3
Wc = (23.6 kN/m3)(3 m)[125 mm/(1000mm/m)] = 8.85 kN/m
Beam: Density of steel x Area of steel member
Wb = (7850 kg/m3)(9.81 N/kg)[9484 mm2/(1000 mm)2](1 kN/1000 N) = 0.73 kN/m
Total load per linear length = 8.85 kN + 0.73 kN = 9.58 kN/m

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

For steel floor beam DH:
Since beam DH tributary area is half of the beam CG tributary area,
The total load to be carried by the beam DH is,
Concrete slab: reinforced, stone including gravel = 23.6 kN/m3
Wc = (23.6 kN/m3)(1.5 m) [125 mm/(1000mm/m)] = 4.425 kN/m
Beam: Density of steel x Area of steel member
Wb = (7850 kg/m3)(9.81 N/kg)[(9484 mm2/)1000 mm)2](1 kN/1000 N) = 0.365 kN/m
Total load per linear length = 4.425 + 0.365 = 4.79 kN/m
For girder AD:
We have to resolve first the load to be carried by the girder from beams BF, CG and
because AE and DH are symmetrical they are carrying of the beams BF & CG. Therefore,
Resultant A & E = 4.79 kN/m x 7.2 m /2 = 17.244 kN
Resultant D & H = 4.79 kN/m x 7.2 m /2 = 17.244 kN
Resultant B & F = 9.58 kN/m x 7.2 m/2 = 34.488 kN
Resultant D & H = 9.58 kN/m x 7.2 m/2 = 34.488 kN

Wt. of the girder beam itself:

Wb = (7850 kg/m3)(33419 mm2)(9.81 N/kg)/[(1000 mm)2](1000N/kN) = 16.57 kN/m

The girder EH which is symmetrical with the girder AD will carry the same loadings.
The Figures (b), (c), and (d) below shows the beam loading as result of the dead loads
carried by the beam itself.

Figure 2.3 (b)

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Figure 2.3 (c)

Figure 2.3 (d)

Table 204-1 Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials (kN/m3)
Material Density Material Density
Aluminum 26.7 Iron:
Bituminous products: Cast 70.7
Asphaltum 12.7 Wrought 75.4
Graphite 21.2 Lead 111.5
Paraffin 8.8 Lime:
Petroleum, crude 8.6 Hydrated, loose 5.0
Petroleum, refined 7.9 Hydrated, compacted 7.1
Petroleum, benzene 7.2 Masonry, Ashlar Stone:
Petroleum, gasoline 6.6 Granite 25.9
Pitch 10.8 Limestone, crystalline 25.9
Tar 11.8 Limestone, oolitic 21.2
Brass 82.6 Marble 27.2
Bronze 86.7 Sandstone 22.6
Cast-stone masonry (cement, stone, sand) 22.6 Masonry, Brick:
Cement, portland, loose 14.1 Hard, low absorption 20.4
Ceramic tile 23.6 Medium, medium absorption 18.1
Charcoal 1.9 Soft, high absorption 15.7
Cinder fill 9.0 Masonry, Concrete (solid portion):
Cinders, dry, in bulk 7.1 Lightweight units 16.5
Coal: Medium, weight units 19.6
Anthracite, piled 8.2 Normal, weight units 21.2
Bituminous, piled 7.4 Masonry grout 22.0
Lignite, piled 7.4 Masonry, Rubble Stone:
Peat, dry, piled 3.6 Granite 24.0
Concrete, plain: Limestone, crystalline 23.1

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Table 204-1 Minimum Densities for Design Loads from Materials (kN/m3) (Continuation….)
Material Density Material Material Density
Concrete, plain: (Continuation…..) Masonry, Rubble Stone: (Continuation….)
Cinder 17.0 Limestone, oolitic 21.7
Expanded-slag aggregate 15.7 Marble 24.5
Haydite, burned-clay aggregate 14.1 Sandstone 21.5
Slag 20.7 Mortar, cement or lime 20.4
Stone 22.6 Particle board 7.1
Vermiculite and perile aggregate, non-
3.9-7.9 Plywood 5.7
load bearing
Other light aggregate, load bearing 11.0-16.5 Riprap, not submerged:
Concrete, reinforced: Limestone 13.0
Cinder 17.4 Sandstone 14.1
Material Density Material Density
Slag 21.7 Sand
Stone, including gravel 23.6 Clean and dry 14.1
Copper 87.3 River, dry 16.7
Cork, compressed 2.2 Slag
Earth, not submerged Bank 11.0
Clay, dry 9.9 Bank screenings 17.0
Clay, damp 17.3 Machine 15.1
Clay and gravel, dry 15.7 Sand 8.2
Silt, moist, loose 12.3 Slate 27.0
Silt, moist,packed 15.1 Steel, cold-drawn 77.3
Silt, flowing 17.0 Stone, quarried, piled
Sand and gravel, dry, loose 15.7 Basalt, granite, gneiss 15.1
Sand and gravel, dry, packed 17.3 Limestone, marble, quartz 14.9
Sand and gravel, wet 18.9 Sandstone 12.9
Earth, submerged Shale 14.5
Clay 12.6 Greenstone, hornblende 16.8
Soil 11.0 Terracotta, architectural
River mud 14.1 Voids filled 18.9
Sand or gravel 9.4 Voids unfilled 11.3
Sand or gravel and clay 10.2 Tin 72.1
Glass 25.1 Water
Material Density Material Density
Gravel, dry 16.3 Fresh 9.8
Gypsum, loose 11.0 Sea 10.1
Gypsum, wallboard 7.9 Wood (see Chapter 6 for relative densities
for Philippine wood)
Ice 9.0 Zinc, rolled sheet 70.5

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Table 204-2 Minimum Design Dead Loads (kPa)

Component Load Component Load

CEILINGS Single-ply, sheet 0.03
Acoustical fiber board 0.05 Wood sheathing (per mm thickness) 0.0057
Gypsum board (per mm thickness) 0.008 Wood shingles 0.14
Mechanical duct allowance 0.20 FLOOR FILL
Plaster on tile or concrete 0.24 Cinder concrete, per mm 0.017
Plaster on wood lathe 0.38 Lightweight concrete, per mm 0.015
Suspended steel channel system 0.10 Sand, per mm 0.015
Suspended metal lathe and cement
0.72 Stone concrete, per mm 0.023
plaster
Suspended metal lathe and gypsum
0.48 FLOORS AND FLOOR FINISHES
plaster
Wood furring suspension system 0.12 Asphalt block (50 mm), 13 mm mortar 1.44
Cement finish (25 mm) on stone–concrete
COVERINGS, Roof and Wall 1.53
fill
Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) on 13 mm
Asphalt shingles 0.10 0.77
mortar bed
Ceramic or quarry tile (20 mm) on 25 mm
Cement tile 0.77 1.10
mortar bed
Clay tile (for mortar add 0.48 kPa) Concrete fill finish (per mm thickness) 0.023
Book tile, 50 mm 0.57 Hardwood flooring, 22 mm 0.19
Book tile, 75 mm 0.96 Linoleum or asphalt tile, 6 mm 0.05
Luduwici 0.48 Marble and mortar on stone–concrete fill 1.58
Roman 0.57 Slate (per mm thickness) 0.028
Spanish 0.91 Solid flat tile on 25 mm mortar base 1.10
Composition: Subflooring, 19 mm 0.14
Three-ply ready roofing 0.05 Terrazzo (38 mm) directly on slab 0.91
Four-ply felt and gravel 0.26 Terrazzo (25 mm) on stone–concrete fill 1.53
Terrazzo (25 mm) on 50-mm stone
Five-ply felt and gravel 0.29 1.53
concrete
Copper or tin 0.05 Wood block (75 mm) on mastic, no fill 0.48
Corrugated asbestos-cement roofing 0.19 Wood block (75 mm) on 13-mm mortar base 0.77
Deck, metal, 20 gage 0.12 FRAME PARTITIONS
Deck, metal, 18 gage 0.14 Movable partitions 0.24
Fiberboard, 13 mm 0.04 Movable partitions (steel) 0.19
Wood or steel studs, 13 mm gypsum board
Gypsum sheathing, 13 mm 0.10
each side 0.38
Insulation, roof boards (per inch
Wood studs, 50 × 100, unplastered 0.19
thickness)
Cellular glass 0.0013 Wood studs, 50 × 100, plastered one side 0.57
Fibrous glass 0.0021 Wood studs, 50 × 100, plastered two sides 0.96
Fiberboard 0.0028 FRAME WALLS
Perlite 0.0015 Exterior stud walls:
50×100 @ 400 mm, 15 mm gypsum,
Polystyrene foam 0.0004
insulated, 10 mm siding 0.53
50×150 @ 400 mm, 15 mm gypsum,
Urethane foam with skin 0.0009
insulated, 10 mm siding 0.57
Plywood (per mm thickness) 0.006 Exterior stud walls with brick veneer 2.3

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Table 204-2 Minimum Design Dead Loads (kPa)

Component Load Component Load

Rigid insulation, 13 mm 0.04 Windows, glass, frame, and sash 0.38
Skylight, metal frame, 10 mm wire Clay brick wythes:
0.38
glass
Slate, 5 mm 0.34 100 mm 1.87
Slate, 6 mm 0.48 200 mm 3.74
Waterproofing membranes: 300 mm 5.51
Bituminous, gravel-covered 0.26 400 mm 7.48
Bituminous, smooth surface 0.07
Liquid applied 0.05

CONCRETE MASONRY UNITS

Hollow Concrete Masonry Units Unplastered. Add 0.24 kPa for each face plastered.

Wythe thickness (mm) Wythe thickness (mm)

Grout Spacing Grout Spacing
100 150 200 100 150 200
16.5 kN/m3 Density of Unit 3
21.2 kN/m Density of Unit
No grout 1.05 1.15 1.48 No grout 1.39 1.44 1.87
800 1.4 1.53 2.01 800 1.74 1.82 2.39
600 1.5 1.63 2.2 600 1.83 1.96 2.59
400 1.79 1.92 2.54 400 2.13 2.2 2.92
Full 2.5 2.63 3.59 Full 2.84 2.97 3.97
19.6 kN/m3 Density of Unit
No grout 1.24 1.34 1.72
800 1.59 1.72 2.25
600 1.69 1.87 2.44
400 1.98 2.11 2.82
Full 2.69 2.82 3.88

Tributary Area

In order to determine the dead load applied to a structural member, use is made of the
tributary area concept. As shown in Fig. 2.1, the second floor slab is supported on beams
which, in turn, are supported on either girders or columns. The girders carry the dead
load to columns that transfer the total load to the foundations. It may be assumed that
all beams have the same section with a weight of wB lb/ft and all girders have the same
section with a weight of wG lb/ft.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Figure 2.4 Beam tributary area

Slab Supports

Each slab panel is supported on its periphery by either a beam or a girder. For the
situation shown, the aspect ratio of a panel exceeds two, and the slab resists moments in
the direction of the shorter span between beams essentially as a one-way slab. Beams
are supported at each end by either a girder or a column. A further assumption is made
that beams are simply supported at each end. Then the tributary area of a beam is
defined as the area of the slab that is directly supported by the beam.

Dead Load Applied to Beams

For a typical interior beam 25, the tributary area is the shaded area abcd, shown in
Fig. 2.1, which extends over its full length y and a distance of x/2 on either side. The
tributary area is

The tributary width is

For a slab with a weight of q lb/ft2 and a beam with a self-weight of wB kN/m, the
uniformly distributed dead load on beam 25 is

= + = +

The total dead load on beam 25 is

= + = ( )+ = ( + )

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

The dead load reaction at end 2 of beam 25 is

= ( + )⁄2 =

The loading on beam 25 is shown in Fig. 2.2.

As shown in Fig. 2.1, beam 47 supports a cantilevered portion of the slab and the
tributary area is shown shaded. The corresponding loads on beam 47 are

= + = ( + ⁄2) +

= + = [ ( + ⁄2) + ]

Figure 2.5 Dead load on beam 25

Similarly for edge beam 69, the corresponding loads are

= + = ⁄2 +

= + = ( ⁄2 + )

= ( ⁄2 + )⁄2 =

Example 2.4. Dead Load Applied to Beams

The second floor layout of an office facility is shown in Fig. 2.4 and a detail of the floor
construction and of a typical interior beam is shown in Fig. 2.6. Dimension x = 3 m and
y = 9 m. The floor consists of composite steel-concrete construction with a 75-mm
concrete fill over a 75-mm high-formed steel deck. The lightweight concrete fill has a
weight of 17.4 kN/m3 and the formed steel deck is of 20 gage material. A 25 mm terrazzo
finish, and a suspended acoustic ceiling are provided. All beams are W14 × 22 and ribs
of the steel deck are perpendicular to the beams. Determine the dead load acting on a
typical interior beam 25.

The steel deck thickness of 20 gage is selected to support the concrete fill over a span of
3 m without requiring propping during construction. From the manufacturer’s
catalogue, the weight of the steel deck is obtained as 95.76 N/m2 and the weight of the
lightweight concrete fill as 1.964 kN/m2.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

The total distributed load on the floor is

25-mm terrazzo = 622.7 N/m2

Concrete fill = 1963.8 N/m2
Steel deck = 95.8 N/m2
Acoustical ceiling and supports = 143.7 N/m2
Mechanical and electrical services = 143.7 N/m2
Total, q = 2969.7 N/m2

Weight of beam W14 x 22:

W14 x 22 = 22 lb/ft x 4.448 N/lb x 3.281 ft/m = 321.07 N/m ≈ 321 N/m

The tributary area of beam 25 is

Figure 2.6 Beam detail

= = 3 9 = 27

The total dead load on beam 25 is

(2969.7 x 27 + 321 x 9 )
= + = = .
1000

The dead load reaction at the end of beam 25 is

= ⁄2 = 83.07⁄2 = . =

Dead Load Applied to Girders

As shown in Fig. 2.7, the tributary area of a typical interior girder 56 is the shaded area
efgh. The girder supports its own weight wG and also the end reactions of the beams
framing into each side of the girder. Girders are supported at each end by a column.
Since all beams are identical, the concentrated loads acting on the girder at third
points of the span are

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 2 = ( + )

The dead load reaction at end 5 of girder 56 is

= ( + )+3 ⁄2 =

The loading on girder 56 is shown in Fig. 2.8.

Figure 2.7 Girder tributary area

Figure 2.8 Dead load on girder

The tributary area of girder 78 is shown shaded in Fig. 2.7. This is an edge girder
and beams frame into only one side of the girder. Since all beams are identical, the
concentrated loads acting on the girder at third points of the span are
= ( + )⁄2

The dead load reaction at end 7 of girder 78 is

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 = ( + )⁄2 + 3 ⁄2 =

Example 2.3. Dead Load Applied to Girders

The second floor layout of an office facility is shown in Fig. 2.1 and a detail of the floor
construction and of a typical girder 56 is shown in Fig. 2.9. Dimension x = 3m and y = 9
m. The floor consists of composite steel-concrete construction with a 75-mm concrete
fill over a 75-mm high-formed steel deck. The lightweight concrete fill has a weight of
17.4 kN/m3 and the formed steel deck is of 20 gage material. A 25 mm terrazzo finish,
and a suspended acoustic ceiling are provided. All beams are W14 × 22. All girders are
W18 × 40 and ribs of the steel deck are parallel to the girders. Determine the dead load
acting on a typical girder 56.

The total distributed load on the floor is obtained in Example 2.4 as

= 2969.7 N⁄m

Since all beams are identical, the concentrated loads acting on the girder at third points
of the span are

2 =2 41.535 = 83.07 kN

Figure 2.9 Girder detail

Weight of girder W18 x 40:

40 lb 4.448 N 3.281 ft 1kN

W18 x 40 = = 0.584 kN/m
ft lb m 1000N

0.584 x 9
= 83.07 kN + = 85.70 kN =
2

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

The dead load acting on the girder in shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10 Dead load on girder

Dead Load Applied to Columns

As shown in Fig. 2.11, the tributary area of column 5 is the shaded area ijkl. Framing into
the column are beams 52 and 58 and girders 54 and 56, and the column supports the
end reactions from these members.

Hence, the total dead load applied to column 5 at the second floor is

= + + +

The end reaction from beam 52 is

= ( + )⁄2

The end reaction from beam 58 is

= ( + )⁄2

The end reaction from girder 54 is

= ( + )+3 ⁄2

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Figure 2.11 Column tributary area

The end reaction from girder 56 is

= ( + )+3 ⁄2

Alternatively, the weight of the beams and girders may be included in the distributed
floor load, since all beams are identical and all girders are identical. Thus, the total
distributed load on the floor is
= + ⁄ + ⁄

The area tributary to column 5 is

=3

The dead load applied to column 5 at the second floor is, then

= (3 )

The tributary area of column 4 is the shaded area lmni shown in Fig. 2.11. This is a
side column that supports a cantilevered slab, and has beams framing into two sides
and a girder framing into only one side. Framing into the column are beams 41 and 47
and girder 45, and the column supports the end reactions from these members. Hence,
the total dead load applied to column 4 at the second floor is

= + +

The end reaction from beam 41 is

[ ( + ⁄2) + ]
=
2

The end reaction from beam 47 is

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 [ ( + ⁄2) + ]
= =
2

The end reaction from girder 45 is

= ( + )+3 ⁄2

Because of the cantilevered slab, the alternative method of calculating the column load
using the tributary area AT and the total distributed load qd does not apply.
The tributary area of column 9 is the shaded area opqk in Fig. 2.11. This is a corner
column that has a beam framing into only one side and a girder framing into only one
side. Framing into the column is beam 96 and girder 98, and the column supports the
end reactions from these members. Hence, the total dead load applied to column 9 at
the second floor is

= +

The end reaction from beam 96 is

= ( ⁄2 + )/2

The end reaction from girder 98 is

= ( + )/2 + 3 ⁄2

Figure 2.12 Column detail

Example 2.4 Dead Load Applied to Columns

The floor layout of an office facility is shown in Fig. 2.4 and a detail of the column
framing is shown in Fig. 2.12. Dimension x = 3 m and y = 9 m. The floor consists of

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

composite steel-concrete construction with a 75-mm concrete fill over a 75-mm high-
formed steel deck. The lightweight concrete fill has a weight of 17.4 kN/m3 and the
formed steel deck is of 20 gage material. A 25-mm terrazzo finish, and a suspended
acoustic ceiling are provided. All beams are W14 × 22. All girders are W18 × 40 and ribs
of the steel deck are parallel to the girders. Determine the dead load acting on column 5
at each floor.

The total dead load applied to column 5 at the each floor is

= + + +

From Example 2.1, the end reaction from beam 52 is

= = 41.535 kN = V

From Example 2.2, the end reaction from girder 54 is

= 85.70 kN = V

Hence, the dead load acting on column 5 at each floor is

PDF = 2(41.535 + 85.70) = 254.47 kN

Alternatively, the total distributed load on the floor is

= + ⁄ + ⁄

321 584 .
= 2969.70 + + 1000 = 3.142 kN⁄m
3 9
The area tributary to column 5 is

=3 =3 3 9 = 81 m

The dead load applied to column 5 at each floor is, then

= 3.142 x 81 = .

Two-Way Slabs
When the aspect ratio of a slab is not more than two, the slab resists moments
essentially as a two-way slab. The tributary areas for the supporting beams are bounded
by 45° lines drawn from the corners of the panels and by the center lines of the panels
parallel to the long sides. A plan view of floor framing is shown in Fig. 2.13 with beams

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

spanning east-west and girders spanning north-south. The beams are spaced at x on
centers and the girders at y on centers and the aspect ratio is

⁄ =2

Figure 2.13 Two-way slab

For a typical interior beam spanning east-west, the tributary area is the trapezoidal area
abcdef shown shaded in Fig. 2.13. The dead load acting on the beam is shown in Fig.
2.14, where q is uniformly distributed weight of the floor and y is 2x.

Figure 2.14 Dead load supported by beam

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Figure 2.15 Dead load supported by girder

The dead load reaction at each end of the beam, including its own weight wB, is

= 0.75 +

For a typical interior girder spanning north-south, the tributary area is the double
triangular area ghij plus the area iklm shown shaded in Fig. 2.13. The dead load acting
on the girder is shown in Fig. 2.15.

The dead load reaction at each end of the girder, including its own weight wG, is

= 0.5 + +

2.2 Live Loads

Live loads shall be the maximum loads expected by the intended use or occupancy but in
no case shall be less than the loads required in the Section 205 of NSCP 2015. As
required by the code, a movable partition

These loads are composed of floor live loads, roof load, concentrated loads, and special
loads. Table 205-1 shows the minimum uniform and concentrated live loads and Table
205-2 for special loads.

Continuous Beam Systems

Partial loading or “checkerboard” loading conditions that produce more critical loading
on a member must also be considered. A continuous beam with two partial loading
conditions is shown in Fig. 2.13. In loading condition 1, alternate spans are loaded. This

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

produces maximum positive moments at the center of the loaded spans 12, 34, and 56.
This also produces maximum negative moments at the center of the unloaded spans 23
and 45. In loading condition 2, two adjacent spans are loaded with alternate spans
loaded beyond these. This produces maximum negative moment at support 4 and
maximum beam shears. As it is unlikely that the maximum design live load will occur
over the whole of a large area, it is permissible to reduce live loads for this situation. The
allowable reduction increases with the tributary area of the floor supported by a
member. Different methods are specified for reducing floor loads and roof loads.

Figure 2.16 Partial loading conditions

Influence Area

In the case of floor loads, the concept of influence area AI is introduced. Influence area
is defined in NSCP 2015 Section 205.6. The reduced live load shall not be less than 50%
of the unit live load Lo for members receiving load from one level only, nor less than
40% of the unit live load Lo for other members.

= ⁄

As shown in Fig. 2.14, the influence area for a typical interior beam 25 is the shaded area
abcd and the live load element factor is

= ⁄
=2 /
=2
The influence area for an edge girder 78 is the shaded area efgh, and the live load
element factor is
= ⁄
= 3 /1.5
=2

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

The influence area for a corner column 9 is the shaded area ijgf, and the live load
element factor is
= ⁄
= 3 /0.75
=4

Figure 2.17 Influence areas

Distribution of Uniform Floor Loads

Where uniform floor loads are involved, consideration may be limited to full dead load
on all spans in combination with full live load on adjacent spans and alternate spans.

Concentrated Loads

Floors shall be designed to support safely the uniformly distributed live loads prescribed
in herein or the concentrated load given in Table 205-1 whichever produces the greatest
load effects. Unless otherwise specified the indicated concentration shall be assumed to
be uniformly distributed over an area 750-mm square and shall be located so as to
produce the maximum load effects in the structural member.

Provision shall be made in areas where vehicles are used or stored for concentrated
loads, L, consisting of two or more loads spaced 1.5 m nominally on center without
uniform live loads. Each load shall be 40 percent of the gross weight of the maximum
size vehicle to be accommodated. Parking garages for the storage of private or pleasure-
type motor vehicles with no repair or refueling shall have a floor system designed for a
concentrated load of not less than 9 kN acting on an area of 0.015 m2 without uniform
live loads. The condition of concentrated or uniform live load, combined in accordance
with Section 203.3 or 203.4 as appropriate, producing the greatest stresses shall govern.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Table 205-1 Minimum Uniform and Concentrated Live Loads.
Uniform Concentrated
Use or Occupancy
Load Load
Category Description kPa kN
5. Access floor systems Office use 2.4 9.0
Computer use 4.8 9.0
2. Armories --- 7.2 0
3. Theaters, assembly areas and Fixed seats 2.9 0
auditoriums Movable seats 4.8 0
Lobbies and platforms 4.8 0
Stage areas 7.2 0
4. Bowling alleys, poolrooms
and similar recreational --- 3.6 0
areas.
5. Catwalk for maintenance --- 1.9 1.3
6. Cornices and marquees --- 3.6 0
7. Dining rooms and
--- 4.8 0
restaurants
8. Exit facilities --- 4.8 0
General storage and/or repair 4.8 ---
9. Parking Garages and Public parking and ramps 4.8 ---
Ramps Private (residential) or pleasure-
2.4 ---
type motor vehicle storage
Wards and rooms 1.9 4.5
10. Hospitals Laboratories and operating rooms 2.9 4.5
Corridors above ground floor 3.8 4.5
Reading rooms 2.9 4.5
11. Libraries Stack rooms 7.2 4.5
Corridors above ground floor 3.8 4.5
Light 6.0 9.0
Heavy 12.0 13.4
12. Manufacturing
Building corridors above ground
3.8 9.0
floor
Call centers and business
2.9 9.0
processing offices
13. Office
Lobbies and ground floor corridors 4.8 9.0
Other offices 2.4 9.0
Category Description kPa kN
Press rooms 7.2 11.0
14. Printing plants
Composing and linotype rooms 4.8 9.0
Basic floor area 1.9 0
Exterior balconies 2.9 0
15. Residential
Decks 1.9 0
Storage 1.9 0
16. Restrooms --- --- ---

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Table 205-1 Minimum Uniform and Concentrated Live Loads.
(Continuation…)
Uniform Concentrated
Use or Occupancy
Load Load
Category Description kPa kN
17. Reviewing stands,
grandstands, bleachers, and
--- 4.8 0
folding and telescoping
seating
18. Roof decks Same as area served or occupancy --- ---
Classrooms 1.9 4.5
19. Schools Corridors above ground floor 3.9 4.5
Ground floor corridors 4.8 4.5
20. Sidewalks and driveways Public access 12.0 ---
Light 6.0 ---
21. Storage
Heavy 12.0 ---
Retail 4.8 4.5
22. Stores
Wholesale 6.0 13.4
23. Pedestrian bridges and
--- 4.8 ---
walkways

2.3 Special Loads

Provision of special loads shall be made for the special vertical and lateral load as set
forth in Table 205-2 of NSCP 2015 Section 205.

Table 205-2. Special Loads.

Use or Occupancy Vertical Load Lateral Load
Category Description kPa kN
1. Construction, public access at Walkway 7.2 ---
site (live load) Canopy 7.2 ---
2. Grandstands, reviewing stands,
bleachers, and folding and Seats and footboards 1.75 See Note 3
telescoping seating (live load)
3. stage accessories (live load) Catwalks 1.9 ---
Follow spot, projection
2.4 ---
and control rooms
4. Ceiling framing (load) Over stages 1.0 ---
All uses except over stages 0.5 ---
5. Partitions and interior walls --- --- 0.25
6. Elevators and dumbwaiters
--- 2* total load ---
(dead and live loads)
Total load including
7. Cranes (dead and live loads) 1.25* total load 0.10* total load
impact increase

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Table 205-2. Special Loads. (Continuation…)
Use or Occupancy Vertical Load Lateral Load
Category Description kPa kN
Exit facilities serving an
occupant load greater than --- 0.75 kN/m7
8. Balcony railings and guardrails 50 persons
Other than exit facilities --- 0.30 kN/m7
Components --- 1.28
9. Vehicle barriers --- --- 27 kN9
10. Handrails --- See Note 10 See Note 10
11. Storage racks Over 2.4 m high Total loads See Table 208-13
1.1 kN plus
12. Fire sprinkler structural --- weight of water- See Table 208.13
support filled pipe
3 Lateral sway bracing loads of 350 N/m parallel and 145 N/m perpendicular to seat and

footboards

9A horizontal load applied at right angles to the vehicle barrier at a height of 450 mm above
the parking surface. The force may be distributed over a 300-mm square.
10The mounting of handrails shall be such that the completed handrail and supporting
structure are capable of withstanding a load of at least 890 N applied in any direction at any
point on the rail. Theses loads shall not be assumed to act cumulatively with the Note 9.

Floor Live Loads

Floors shall be designed for the unit live loads as set forth in Table 205-1 and Table 205-
3, Method 2 for reduction factor. These loads shall be taken as the minimum live loads
of horizontal projection to be used in the design of buildings for the occupancies listed,
and loads at least equal shall be assumed for uses.

Where it can be determined in designing floors that the actual live load will be greater
than the value shown in Table 205-1, the actual live load shall be used in the design of
such buildings or portions thereof. Special provisions shall be made for machine and
apparatus loads.

Reduction in Floor Live Load

It is unlikely that all floors in a multistory building will be subjected to the full design
live load simultaneously. Similarly, a large floor area is unlikely to be subjected to as
high a loading intensity as a smaller area. For floors in places of public assembly and for
live loads greater than 4.8 kPa, in accordance with the following equation:

= ( − ) (205 − 1)
Where
A = area of floor or roof supported by the member, m2
D = dead load per square meter of area supported by the member, kPa

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 R = reduction in percentage

r = rate of reduction equal to 0.08 for floors. See Table 205-3 for roofs

The reduction shall not exceed 40% for members receiving load from one level only,
60% for other members or R, as determined by the following equation:

= . ( + ⁄ ) (205 − 2)
For storage loads exceeding 4.8 kPa, no reduction shall be made, except that design live
loads on columns may be reduced 20 percent.

The live load reduction shall not exceed 40 percent in garages for the storage of private
pleasure cars having a capacity of not more than nine passengers per vehicle.

Alternate Floor Live Load Reduction

As an alternate to Equation 205-1, the unit live loads set forth in Table 205-1 may be
reduced in accordance with Equation 205-3 on any member, including flat slabs, having
an influence area of 40 m2 or more.

= . + . (205 − 3)

AI = influence area, m2
L = reduced design live load per square meter of area supported by the member
Lo = unreduced design live load per square meter of area supported by the member
(Table 205-1)

The influence area AI is 4x the tributary area (AT) for a column, 2x the tributary area
(AT) for a beam, equal to the panel area for a two-way slab, and equal to the product of
the span and the full flange width for a precast T-beam.

The unit live load shall not be less than 50% of the unit live load Lo for members
receiving load from one level only, not less than 40% of the unit live load Lo for other
members.

Example 2.5 Live Load Applied to Beams

The second floor layout of an office facility is shown in Fig. 2.1 and a detail of the floor
construction and of a typical interior beam is shown in Fig. 2.3. Dimension x = 3 m and
y = 9 m. Determine the live load acting on a typical interior beam 25. From NSCP Table
503-1, the unreduced live load is
= 2.4 kN⁄m

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

From Example 2.1, the area tributary to beam 25 is

= 3 9 = 27

From NSCP 2015 Section 205.6, the influence area for beams is 2 times the tributary
area,

=2 =2 27 = 54 m > 40

NSCP 2015 Equation 503-3 is applicable

The reduced live load for beam 25 is

= . + . (205 − 3)

= . . + . = . ⁄ > 0.5
√
Hence, the minimum permitted value for a member supporting only one floor of L =
0.5Lo is not applicable.

In accordance with NSCP 2015 Section 204.3, an additional 1.0 kPa must be added to
allow for weight of movable partitions. Hence the total live load intensity is

= 2.093 + 1.0 = . ⁄

The total live load is

= = 3.093 27 = .

Example 2.6 Floor Live Load Applied to Columns

The floor layout of a four-story office facility is shown in Fig. 2.8. Dimension x = 3 m
and y = 9 m. Determine the floor live load produced on a typical interior column 5 at
each story.

From NSCP Table 503-1, the unreduced live load for office building is

= 2.4 kN⁄m
From NSCP 2015 Section 205.6, the influence area for a column is 4 times the tributary
area,
=3
=4
The design live load on the column, in each storey, must account for the tributary floor
area by that story.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Top storey
There is no floor live load acting on the column in the top story

Third storey
The column supports the floor live from the 4th floor.

=3 = (3)(3)(9) = 81 m > 40
=4 = (4)(81) = 324 m > 40

NSCP 2015 Equation 205-3 is applicable

The reduced design live load for column 5 is

= . + . (205 − 3)

= . . + . = . ⁄ > 0.5
√
The minimum L = 0.5Lo does not govern

In accordance with NSCP 2015 Section 204.3, an additional 1.0 kPa must be added to
allow for weight of movable partitions. Hence the total live load intensity is

= 1.209 + 1.0 = . ⁄

The total live load is

= = 2.209 81 = .

Second storey
The column supports the floor live from the 3rd and 4th floor.

=3 = (3)(3)(9) = 81 m > 40

= (4 )( )(2) = (4)(81)(2) = 648 m > 40

NSCP 2015 Equation 205-3 is applicable

The reduced design live load for column 5 is

= . + . (205 − 3)

= . . + . = . ⁄ > 0.4
√
The minimum L = 0.4Lo does not govern

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

In accordance with NSCP 2015 Section 204.3, an additional 1.0 kPa must be added to
allow for weight of movable partitions. Hence the total live load intensity is

= 1.031 + 1.0 = . ⁄

The total live load is

= = 2.031 81 = .

Bottom storey
The column supports the floor live from the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th floor.

= 3 = (3)(3)(9) = 81 m > 40
= (4 )( )(2) = (4)(81)(3) = 648 m > 40

NSCP 2015 Equation 205-3 is applicable

The reduced design live load for column 5 is

= . + . (205 − 3)

= . . + . = . ⁄ < 0.4 minimum govern

√

Hence, use the minimum permitted value for a column supporting three floors of

= 0.4 = 0.4(2.4) = 0.96 kN⁄m

In accordance with NSCP 2015 Section 204.3, an additional 1.0 kPa must be added to
allow for weight of movable partitions. Hence the total live load intensity is

= 0.96 + 1.0 = . ⁄

The total live load is

= = 1.96 3 81 = .

Roof Live Load

Roofs shall be designed for the unit live loads, Lr, set forth in Table 205-3. The live loads
shall be assumed to act vertically upon the area projected on a horizontal plane.
Provision of roof live loads shall be made by Method 1 or Method 2 under Section 205.4
of NSCP 2015.

The live loads shall be assumed to act vertically upon the area projected on a horizontal
plane.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Reduction of Live Load

Roof live loads account for loads imposed during construction of the roof and
subsequently by maintenance and re-roofing operations. Roof loads are assumed to act
on the horizontal projection of the roof surface. The design roof live load shall
determine by the following equation:

= ( − ) (205 − 15)

The reduction shall not exceed 40 percent for members receiving load from one level
only, 60 percent for other members or R, as determined by the following equation:

= . ( + ⁄ ) (205 − 2)

Example 2.7 Roof Live Load Applied to Beams

The roof framing layout of an office facility is similar to the second floor layout shown in
Fig. 2.1. Dimension x = 3 m and y = 9 m and the roof is nominally flat. Determine the
live load acting on a typical interior roof beam 25.

The tributary area of beam 25 is

= = (3)(9) = 27 m > 20 < 60

The reduction factor is then

= ( − ) = 0.08(27 − 15) = 0.96

The roof live load intensity is

= 1.0(0.96) = 0.96 ≥ 0.58 = 0.96 minimum does not govern

The total live load is

= = 0.96(27) = 25.92

Example 2.8 Roof Live Load Applied to Columns

The roof framing layout of an office facility is similar to the second floor layout shown in
Fig. 2.1. Dimension x = 3 m and y = 9 m and the roof is nominally flat. Determine the
roof live load acting on a typical interior column 5.

The area tributary to column 5 is

=3
= (3)(3)(9) = 81 m > 60 m

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

From the Table 205-3, the minimum roof live load for flat roof is 0.60 kPa for over 60
m2

The reduction factor is then

R = 0.6

The roof live load intensity is given by ASCE 7 Eq. (4.8-1) as

Where 0.58 ≤ Lr ≤ 0.96

= 0.6(0.6)(1.0) = 0.36 kPa minimum does not govern

The total live load is

= = 0.6(81) = 48.9 kN

Combined Dead and Live Load

In the design of an element, nominal dead loads and live loads must be combined in
accordance with the LRFD or ASD requirements. The following example is an
illustration.

Example 2.9 Total Loads Applied to Columns

The roof framing layout of a four-story office facility is similar to the floor layout shown
in Fig. 2.1. Dimension x = 3 m and y = 9 m and the roof is nominally flat. The dead load
of the roof, including the weight of framing members is 2.92 kN/m2. The column weight
is 1.022 kN/m in all stories and the height of each story is 3.6 ft. Determine the total
dead load, floor live load, and roof live load acting on a typical interior column 5 and the
design load on the column footing.

The area tributary to column 5 is

=3
= 3(3)(9) = 81 m

= roof dead load

= (2.92 kN/m )(81 m ) = .

The column weight over the total height of the building is

= ℎ
= (1.022 kN/m)(3.6 m) (4) = .

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

From previous examples

= roof live load

= .
= dead load of each loor
= .
=
= .
Total dead load on the column footing is

= + +3
= 236.52 + 14.72 + 3(254.50)
= .

Applying NSCP 2015 Sec. 203.3 and 203.4 gives

LRFD ASD
From NSCP 2015 Sec. 203.3.1 combination 3: From NSCP 2015 Sec. 203.4.1 combination 4:
= 1.2 + 1.6 + 0.5 = + 0.75 + 0.75
= 1.2(1014.74) + 1.6(48.9) + 0.5(476.28) = 1014.74 + 0.75(48.9) + 0.75(476.28)
= 1534.068 kN = 1408.625 kN

From NSCP 2015 Sec. 203.3.1 combination 2: From ASCE 7 Sec. 2.4.1 combination 2:
= 1.2 + 1.6 + 0.5 = +
= 1.2(1014.74) + 1.6(476.28) + 0.5(48.9) = 1014.74 + 476.28
= . . . . governs = . … . governs
= required strength = required strength

Combination of Loads

Example 2.10

A roof system with W16 x 40 sections spaced 2.7 m on center is to be used to support a
dead load of 1.92 kPa; a roof live load of 1.44 kPa; and wind load of ±1.54 kPa. Compute
the governing load in per linear meter.

Solution.

W16 x 40, the last number 40 is referring to section weight of 40 lb/ft. Here, we have to
convert the 40 lb/ft to N/m which calculated to 40 lb/ft multiply by 14.59318 N/m =
583.73 N/m.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

D = 583.73 N/m + (2.7 m)(1.92 kPa)(1000) = 5767.73 N/m
L=0
Lr = (2.7 m)(1.44 kN/m2)(1000 N/kN) = 3888 N/m
W = (2.7 m)(4.158 kN/m2)(1000 N/kN) = 11226.6 N/m

Compute the factored loads, using the LRFD load combinations. In these substitutions,
the terms having no values are omitted. Note that with a floor live load of 3.83 kPa, a
load factor of 0.5 has been added to load combinations (3), (4), and (5) per the
exception stated in NSCP 2015 and this text for floor live loads.
1. Wu = 1.4 (5767.73) = 8074.82 N/m
2. Wu = 1.2(5767.73) + 0.5(3888) = 8865.28 N/m
3. Wu = 1.2(5767.73) + 1.6(3888) + 0.5(11226.6) = 18755.38 N/m
4. Wu = 1.2(5767.73) + 1.0(11226.6) + 0.5(3888) = 20091.88 N/m
5. Wu = 1.2(5767.73) = 6921.28 N/m
6. Wu = 0.9(5767.73) + 1.0(11226.6) = 16417.56 N/m
7. Wu = 0.9(5767.73) = 5190.96 N/m

Governing factored load = 20091.88 N/m

Example 2.11

The various axial loads for a building column have been computed according to the
applicable building code, with the following results: dead load = 96 kN; load from roof =
2.4 kN (roof live load); live load from floors (reduced ass applicable for large floor area
and multistory columns) = 12 kN; compression wind = 6.144 kN; tensile wind = 4.992 k;
compression earthquake = 2.88 kN; and tensile earthquake = 3.36 kN.

Determine the critical design column load, Pu, using the LRFD load combinations.

Solution.

This problem solution assumes the column floor live load meets the exception for the
use of the load factor of 0.5 in load combinations (3.), (4.), and (5.).

1. Pu = (1.4)(9.6) = 13.44 kN
2. Pu = (1.2)(9.6) + 1.6(12) + (0.5)(2.4) = 31.92 kN
3. (a) Pu = (1.2)(9.6) + 1.6(2.4) + (0.5)(12) = 21.36 kN
(b) Pu = (1.2)(9.6) + (1.6)(2.4) + (0.5)(6.144) = 18.432 kN
4. (a) Pu = (1.2)(9.6) + (1.0)(6.144) + (0.5)(12) + (0.5)(2.4) = 24.144 kN
(b) Pu = (1.2)(9.6) – (1.0)(4.992) + (0.5)(12) +(0.5)(2.4) = 13.728 kN
5. (a) Pu = (1.2)(9.6) + (1.0)(2.88) + (0.5)(12) = 21.4 kN
(b) Pu = (1.2)(9.6) – (1.0)(3.36) + (0.5)(12) = 14.16 kN
6. (a) Pu = (0.9)(9.6) + (1.0)(6.144) = 14.784 kN
(b) Pu = (0.9)(9.6) – (1.0)(4.992) = 3.648 kN

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 7. (a) Pu = (0.9)(9.6) + (1.0)(2.88) = 11.52 kN
(b) Pu = (0.9)(9.6) – (1.0)(3.36) = 5.28 kN

The critical factored load combination, or design strength, required for this column
is 31.92 kN, as determined by load combination (2). It will be noted that the results
of combination (6a) and (6b) do not indicate an uplift problem.

Special Roof Loads

Roofs to be used for special purposes shall be designed for appropriate loads as
approved by the building official. Greenhouse roof bars, purlins and rafters shall be
designed to carry a 0.45 kN concentrated load, Lr, in addition to the uniform live load.

Table 205-3Minimum Roof Live Loads.

Method 1 Method 2
2
Tributary Area (m ) Uniform Rate of Maximum
ROOF SLOPE
0 to 20 20 to 60 Over 60 Load Reduction Reduction R
Uniform Load (kPa) (kPa) r (percentage)
1. Flat or rise less than 1-unit vertical in
3-unit horizontal (33.3% slope). Arch 1.00 0.75 0.60 1.00 0.08 40
and dome with less than 1/8 of span.
2. Rise 1-unit vertical to less than 3-unit
vertical in 3-unit horizontal (33.3% to
less than 100% slope). Arch and dome 0.75 0.60 0.06
0.70 0.75 25
with rise 1/8 of spans to less than 3/8
of span.
3. Rise 1-unit vertical in 1-unit
horizontal (100% slope) and greater.
0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60
Arch or dome with a rise 3/8 of span
or greater. No reduction
permitted
4. Awnings except cloth covered 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25
5. Greenhouses, lath houses, and
0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
agricultural buildings
1
For special-purpose roofs, see Section 205.4.4
2
See Section 205.5 and 205.6 for live-load reductions. The rate of reduction r in Equation 205-1 shall be
as indicated in the Table. The maximum reduction, R, shall not exceed the value indicated in the table.
3
A flat roof is any roof with a slope less than 1-unit vertical in 48-unit horizontal (2% slope). The live m
load for flat roofs is in addition to the ponding load required by Section 206.7.
4
See definition in Section 202.
5
See Section 205.4.4 for concentrated load requirements for greenhouse roof members.

Other Minimum Loads

In addition to the other design loads, structures shall be designed to resist the other
minimum loads and the special loads set forth in Table 205-2 of NSCP 2015. Wind loads
and Seismic loads are other loads to be part of the loads to be carried by the structure
and it will be tackled also in this course.

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Other Loads

Buildings and other structures and portions thereof shall be designed to resist all loads
due to applicable fluid pressures, F, lateral soil pressures, H, ponding loads, P, and self-
straining forces, T.

Impact Loads

The live loads specified in Sections 205.3 shall be assumed to include allowance for
ordinary impact conditions. Provisions shall be made in the structural design for uses
and loads that involve unusual vibration and impact forces. See Section 206.9.3 for
impact loads for cranes, and Section 206.10 for heliport and helistop landing areas.

Elevators

All elevator loads shall be increased by 100% for impact.

Machinery

For the purpose of design, the weight of machinery and moving loads shall be increased
as follows to allow for impact:

1. Elevator machinery 100%

2. Light machinery, shaft- or motor-driven 20%
3. Reciprocating machinery or power-driven units 50%
4. Hangers for floors and balconies 33%

All percentages shall be increased where specified by the manufacturer.

Crane Loads

The crane load shall be the rated capacity of the crane. Design loads for the runway
beams, including connections and support brackets of moving wheel loads of the crane
and the vertical impact, lateral, and longitudinal forces induced by the moving crane.

The maximum wheel loads shall be the wheel loads produced by the weight of the
bridge, as applicable, plus the sum of the rated capacity and the weight of the trolley
with the trolley positioned on its runway where the resulting load effect is maximum.

The maximum wheel loads of the crane shall be increased by the percentages shown
below to determine the induced vertical impact or vibration force:

1. Monorail cranes (powered) 25%

2. Cab-operated or remotely operated bridge cranes (powered) 25%
3. Pendant-operated bridge cranes (powered) 10%
4. Bridge cranes or monorail cranes with hand-geared ridge, trolley and hoist 0%

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The lateral force on crane runway beams with electrically powered trolleys shall be
calculated s 20% of the sum of the rated capacity of the crane and the weight of the hoist
and trolley. The lateral force shall be assumed to act horizontally at the traction surface
of a runway beam, in either direction perpendicular to the beam, and shall be
distributed with due regard to the lateral stiffness of the runway beam and supporting
structure.

D. Activity / Exercise:

1. The office building is made of steel framing system and is carrying the following live
load of 2.4 kPa and materials weight at every floor as follows:
Reinforced concrete floor = 23.6 kN/m3
Floor finishes ceramic tile on 25 mm mortar fill = 1.10 kPa
Steel decking of ga. 20 = 0.12 kPa
Suspended steel channel system (ceiling) = 0.10 kPa
Mechanical duct allowance = 0.20 kPa
Acoustical fiber board = 0.05 kPa
a. Determine the unit live load on beam B-2
b. Determine the unit dead load on beam B-2
c. Determine the live load on column at B-1
d. Determine the dead load on column at B-1

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E. Evaluation / Post-test

1. Using the LRFD combinations, determine the Pu of the following loads:

a. Dead load = 220 kN
b. Live load, floor = 4.80 kN
c. Live load, roof = 4.80 kN
d. Wind load, compression = 1.92 kN
e. Wind load, tension = 1.28 kN
f. Earthquake, compression = 9.60 kN
g. Earthquake, tension = 6.60 kN
h. Draw the loading diagram

2. Compute the unit loads of the roof systems having 3.0 m spans of beam W16 x 50
using LRFD load combinations:
a. Dead load, wu = 2.26 kPa
b. Live load, roof = 1.98 kPa
c. Wind load = ± 1.32 kPa
d. Draw the loading diagram in both LRFD and ASD.

3. From the given loads in problem 1, calculate the load in LRFD and ASD using the
following loads combinations to apply at steel column:

a. 1.4 (D + F) (203-1)
b. 1.2(D + F + T) + 1.6(L + H) + 0.5(Lr or R) (203-2)
c. 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or R) + (f1L or 0.5W) (203-3)
d. 1.2D + 1.0W + f1L + 0.5(Lr or R) (203-4)
e. 1.2D + 1.0E + f1L (203-5)
f. 0.9D + 1.0W + 1.6H (203-6)

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g. 0.9D + 1.0E + 1.6H (203-7)

Draw the loading diagram in both LRFD and ASD.

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Lesson 3

LATERAL LOADS

A. Learning Outcome
After completing this lesson, the student will:
1. Learn to calculate the wind loads acting to the structure
2. Learn to calculate the earthquake/seismic loads acting to the structure
3. Learn to calculate the rain load applied to the building

B. Time Allotment

Reading, answering the activities and evaluation/post-test = 5 days

C. Discussion

Introduction

The National Structural Code of the Philippines by reference adopts the American
Society of Civil Engineers/Structural Engineers Institute (ASCE/SEI 7-10) the Minimum
Design Loads for Building and Other Structures.

Basic Components

The basic function of a lateral force-resisting system is to transfer the lateral forces
acting on the structure to the foundation. Vertical and horizontal resisting components
are used to provide a continuous and competent load path from the top of the structure
to the foundation.

For the single-story, light-framed steel structure shown in Fig. 3.1, the steel roof deck
forms the horizontal resisting component or diaphragm.6 The lateral wind or seismic
force acting on the south wall of the structure delivers a line load of w (in units of N/m)
to the roof diaphragm. The diaphragm acts as a deep beam with end reactions of

=
2
These reactions produce a maximum unit shear at the ends of the diaphragm of

= =
2
The edges of the diaphragm normal to the direction of the lateral force are known as
chords and act in a manner similar to the flanges of a steel beam to resist the bending
moment produced by the lateral force. As shown in Figure 3.1, one chord is in tension
and the other in compression. The force in a chord is given by the equation

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 = = =
8
As shown in Fig. 3.1, the diaphragm must be designed with a capacity to resist the
maximum shear at the ends, but may be designed for a smaller shear nearer midspan.
Diaphragms are typically constructed from concrete, composite and non-composite
formed steel deck, or wood structural panels. Alternatively, in place of a diaphragm,
horizontal bracing may be used to resist the lateral load.

The diaphragm shear force is transferred by the collector elements, or drag struts, to the
vertical resisting components. In Fig. 3.1, these are the bracing elements in the end
walls. The bracing elements transfer the lateral force to the structure’s foundation.

Code Provisions – NSCP C101

Buildings and other vertical structures shall be designed and constructed to resist wind
loads as specified and presented in Section 207A through 207F of the NSCP 2015.

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Antenna towers and antenna supporting structures shall be designed and constructed to
resist wind loads as specified and presented in ANSI/TIA-222-G-2005, entitled as
“Structural Standards for Steel Antenna Towers and Antenna Supporting Structures –
Addendum 1.

Another lateral loads is the earthquake loads or seismic loads that the buildings and
other vertical structures are subject to resist and will presented as per Section 208 of the
NSCP 2015. The purpose of the succeeding earthquake provisions is primarily to design
seismic-resistant structures to safeguard against major structural damage that may lead
to loss of life and property. These provisions are not intended to assure zero-damage to
structures nor maintain their functionality after a severe earthquake.

Structures and portions thereof shall, as a minimum, be designed and constructed to

resist the effects of seismic ground motions as provided in the Earthquake Load section.

When the code-prescribed wind design produces greater effects, the wind design shall
govern, but detailing requirements and limitations prescribed in Earthquake Load
section and referenced sections of the NSCP 2015 shall be made to govern.

Wind Load

When wind strikes an enclosed building the wind flows around the sides and over the
roof and either a pressure or suction is produced on the external surfaces of the
building. As shown in Fig. 3.2, the windward wall that is perpendicular to the wind
direction experiences an inward, positive pressure. As wind flows round the corners of
the windward wall, the turbulence produced separates the air flow from the walls and
causes an outward, negative pressure or suction on the side walls and the leeward wall.
As wind flows over a high-sloping gable roof, a positive pressure is produced on the
windward side of the ridge and suction on the leeward side of the ridge. However, for
gable roofs with shallow slopes, suction also develops on the windward side of the ridge
and for flat roofs; suction develops over the whole roof.

Figure 3.2 Wind Pressure

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Procedures are provided in the NSCP 2015 for determining pressures on the
main wind-force resisting system (MWFRS) and on components and cladding. The main
wind-force resisting system is defined in NSCP 2015 Section 207A.2 as the structural
elements that transfer wind loads to the ground and provide support and stability for
the whole structure. Components and cladding are defined as elements of the building
envelope that do not qualify as part of the main wind-force resisting system. The
cladding of a building receives wind loading directly. Examples of cladding include wall
and roof sheathing, windows and doors. Components receive wind loading from the
cladding and transfer the load to the main wind-force resisting system. Components
include purlins, studs, girts, fasteners, and roof trusses. Some elements, such as roof
trusses and sheathing may also form part of the main wind-force resisting system and
must be designed for both conditions. Because of local turbulence, which may occur
over small areas at ridges and corners of buildings, components and cladding are
designed for higher wind pressures than the main wind force resisting system. The
design procedures consist of two basic approaches:

• The directional procedure determines the wind loads on buildings for specific wind
directions, in which the external pressure coefficients are based on wind tunnel
testing of prototypical building models for the corresponding direction of wind.

• The envelope procedure determines the wind load cases on buildings, in which
pseudo external pressure coefficients are derived from wind tunnel testing of
prototypical building models successively rotated through 360°, such that the
pseudo pressure cases produce key structural actions (uplift, horizontal shear,
bending moments, etc.) that envelope their maximum values among all possible
wind directions.

In order to apply these methods, a number of prerequisites must be determined. These

include exposure category, wind speed, low-rise building designation, velocity pressure
exposure coefficient, site topography, wind direction, importance factor, and velocity
pressure.

Wind Loads: General Requirements

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Exposure Category

Exposure category accounts for the effect of terrain roughness on wind speed and is
defined and illustrated in NSCP 2015 Section 207A.7. The exposure category is
dependent on surface roughness category and the upwind fetch distance. The exposure
category assigned to each surface roughness category is listed in Table 1. Buildings and
other structures, including the Main Wind-Force Resisting System (MWFRS) and all
components and cladding (C&C) thereof, shall be designed and constructed to resist the
wind loads determined in accordance with Section 207A through 207F. The provisions
of section 207 define the basic wind parameters for use with other provisions contained
in the NSCP 2015 code.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Surface Roughness Categories
A ground surface roughness within each 45° sector shall be determined for a distance
upwind of the site as defined in Exposure Categories. The categories defined below is the
purpose for the assigning an exposure category.

Surface Roughness B: Urban or suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with
numerous closely spaced obstruction having the size of single-family dwellings or larger.

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Surface Roughness C: Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights
generally less than 9 m. This category includes flat open country and grasslands.

Surface Roughness D: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces. This category
includes smooth mud flats, salt flats, and unbroken ice.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Exposure Categories
Exposure B: For buildings with a mean roof height of less than or equal to 9m, Exposure B
shall apply where the ground surface roughness, as defined by the Surface
Roughness B, prevails in the upwind direction for the distance greater than
450m. For building with a mean roof height greater than 9m, Exposure B shall
apply where the Surface Roughness B prevails in the upwind direction for a
distance greater than 790m or 20times the height of the building, whichever is
greater.
Exposure C: Exposure C shall apply for all the cases where Exposures B or D do not apply.
Exposure D: Exposure D shall apply where the ground surface roughness, as defined by
Surface Roughness D, prevails in the upwind direction for a distance greater than
1500m or 20 times the building height, whichever is greater. Exposure D shall
also apply where the ground surface roughness immediately upwind of the site is
exposure B or C, and the site is within a distance of 180m or 20 times the
building height, whichever is greater, from an Exposure D condition as defined
in the previous sentence.
For a site located on the transition zone between exposure categories. The category resulting in
the largest wind forces shall be used.

Basic Wind Speed

The basic wind speed, V, used in the determination of design wind loads on buildings
and other structures shall be determined from Figure 207.5-1 as follows, except as
provided in NSCP 2015 Section 207A.5.2 and 207A.5.3.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Wind speed, V, is determined from the wind speed maps NSCP 2015 Fig. 207.5-1A, B,
and C. The gradient heights zg for different exposure conditions are given in NSCP 2015
Table 207A.9-1.

The wind shall be assumed to come from any horizontal direction. The basic wind speed
shall be increased where records or experience indicate that the wind speeds are higher
than those reflected in Figure 207A.5-1A through 207A.5-1C.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Seismic Zone Map of the Philippines

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Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in kilometers per hour at 10 m
above the ground for Exposure C category.
2. Linear interpolation between contours is permitted.
3. Islands and coastal areas outside the contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the
coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be
examined for unusual wind conditions.
5. Wind speeds corresponds to approximately a 15% probability of excellence in 50 years
(Annual Exceedance Probability = 0.00333, MRI = 300 years)
6. Results are from PAGASA.

Figure 207A.5-1A Occupancy Category III, IV and V buildings and other structures

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in kilometers per hour at 10 m
above the ground for Exposure C category.
2. Linear interpolation between contours is permitted.
3. Islands and coastal areas outside the contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the
coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be
examined for unusual wind conditions.
5. Wind speeds corresponds to approximately a 7% probability of excellence in 50 years
(Annual Exceedance Probability = 0.00143, MRI = 700 years)
6. Results are from PAGASA.

Figure 207A.5-1B Occupancy Category II buildings and other structures

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Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-second gust wind speeds in kilometers per hour at 10 m
above the ground for Exposure C category.
2. Linear interpolation between contours is permitted.
3. Islands and coastal areas outside the contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the
coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be
examined for unusual wind conditions.
5. Wind speeds corresponds to approximately a 3% probability of excellence in 50 years
(Annual Exceedance Probability = 0.000588, MRI = 1700 years)
6. Results are from PAGASA.

Figure 207A.5-1C Basic Wind Speeds for Occupancy Category I buildings and other
structures

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

The basic wind speed for every regions and provinces are tabulated below:
Main Basic Wind Speed Basic Wind Speed
Region Region Main Province
Province (km/hr) (m/s) (km/hr) (m/s)
Caloocan 270 75.00 Angeles 260 72.22
Las Piñas 270 75.00 Aurora 300 83.33
Makati 270 75.00 Bataan 250 69.44
Malabon 270 75.00 Bulacan 280 77.78
Mandaluyong 270 75.00 III Nueva Ecija 290 80.56
Manila 270 75.00 Olongapo 250 69.44
Marikina 270 75.00 Pampanga 270 75.00
Muntinlupa 270 75.00 Tarlac 260 72.22
NCR Navotas 270 75.00 Zambales 250 69.44
Parañaque 270 75.00 Batangas 260 72.22
Pasay 270 75.00 Cavite 270 75.00
Pasig 270 75.00 Laguna 280 77.78
IV-A
Pateros 270 75.00 Lucena 270 75.00
Quezon City 270 75.00 Quezon 280 77.78
San Juan 270 75.00 Rizal 280 77.78
Taguig 270 75.00 Marinduque 260 72.22
Valenzuela 270 75.00 Occidental
Dagupan 270 75.00 Mindoro 250 69.44
Ilocos Norte 290 80.56 IV-B Oriental Mindoro 250 69.44
I Ilocos Sur 280 77.78 Palawan 230 63.89
La Union 270 75.00 Puerto Princesa 230 63.89
Pangasinan 260 72.22 Romblon 260 72.22
Abra 280 77.78 Albay 300 83.33
Apayao 300 83.33 Camarines Norte 300 83.33

Baguio 270 75.00 Camarines Sur 300 83.33

V Catanduanes 320 88.89
CAR Benguet 270 75.00
Ifugao 290 80.56 Masbate 280 77.78
Kalinga 300 83.33 Naga 300 83.33
Mountain Sorsogon 310 86.11
300 83.33
Province Aklan 250 69.44
Batanes 320 88.89 Antique 240 66.67
Cagayan 320 88.89 VI Capiz 250 69.44
Isabela 320 88.89 Guimaras 240 66.67
II Nueva Iloilo 260 72.22
300 83.33
Vizcaya Basilan 250 69.44
Quirino 300 83.33
Lanao del Sur 270 75.00
Santiago 310 86.11 ARMM Maguindanao 270 75.00
Sulu 250 69.44
Tawi-Tawi 250 69.44

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Basic Wind Speed Basic Wind Speed
Region Main Province Region Main Province
(km/hr) (m/s) (km/hr) (m/s)
Bacolod 260 72.22 XI Compostela Valley 300 83.33
Negros
260 72.22 Davao City[ 290 80.56
XVIII
Occidental Davao del Norte 290 80.56
Negros Oriental 260 72.22
Davao del Sur 300 83.33
Bohol 280 77.78
Davao Oriental 300 83.33
VII Cebu 280 77.78
Cotabato 300 83.33
Siquijor 260 72.22
Cotabato City 300 83.33
Biliran 300 83.33
General Santos 300 83.33
Eastern Samar 320 88.89 XII
Sarangani 290 80.56
Leyte 300 83.33
VIII South Cotabato 290 80.56
Northern Samar 320 88.89
Sultan Kudarat 280 77.78
Samar 310 86.11
Agusan del Norte 300 83.33
Southern Leyte 300 83.33
Agusan del Sur 300 83.33
Zamboanga del
250 69.44 Butuan 300 83.33
Norte XIII
Zamboanga del Dinagat Islands 310 86.11
IX 250 69.44
Sur Surigao del Norte 310 86.11
Zamboanga
250 69.44 Surigao del Sur 310 86.11
Sibugay
Bukidnon 290 80.56
Cagayan de Oro 280 77.78
Camiguin 280 77.78
X Iligan 270 75.00
Lanao del Norte 270 75.00
Misamis
260 72.22
Occidental
Misamis Oriental 290 80.56

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Table 103-1 shows the occupancy category as described below.
Table 103-1 Occupancy Category
OCCUPANCY OCCUPANCY OR FUNCTION
CATEGORY OF STRUCTURE
Occupancies having surgery and emergency treatment areas,
Fire and police stations,
Garages and shelters for emergency vehicles and emergency aircraft,
Structures and shelters in emergency preparedness centers,
Aviation control towers,
Structures and equipment in communication centers and other facilities
required for emergency response,
ESSENTIAL Facilities for standby power-generating equipment for Category I
I structures,
FACILITIES
Tanks or other structures containing housing or supporting water or other
fire-suppression material or equipment required for the protection of
Category I, II or III, IV and V structures,
Public school buildings (except single-story buildings),
Hospitals,
Designated evacuation centers,
Power and communication transmission lines
Occupancies and structures housing or supporting toxic or explosive
HAZARDOUS chemicals or substances,
II
FACILITIES Non-building structures storing, supporting or containing quantities of
toxic or explosive substances,
Buildings with an assembly room with an occupant capacity of 1,000 or
more,
Educational buildings such as museums, libraries, auditorium with a
capacity of 300 or more occupants,
Buildings used for college or adult education with a capacity of 500 or
more occupants,
SPECIAL Institutional buildings with 50 or more incapacitated patients, but not
III OCCUPANCY included in Category I,
STRUCTURES Mental hospitals, sanitariums, jails, prisons and other buildings where
personal liberties of inmates are similarly restrained,
Churches, Mosques, and other Religious Facilities,
All structures with an occupancy of 5,000 or more persons,
Structures and equipment in power-generating stations, and other public
utility facilities not included in Category I or Category II, and required for
continued operation,
STANDARD All structures housing occupancies or having functions not listed in
IV
OCCUPANCY Category I, II or III and Category V.
MISCELLANEOUS
V Private garages, carports, sheds and fences over 1.5 m high.
STRUCTURES

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Low-Rise Building
A low-rise building is defined in NSCP 2015 Section 207A.2 as an enclosed or partially
enclosed building that satisfies both the following conditions:

• Mean roof height h is less than or equal to 18 m.

• Mean roof height h does not exceed least horizontal dimension.

Applying the analytical method to low-rise buildings, requires the use of specific velocity
pressure exposure coefficients.

Regular Building
A regular building is defined in NSCP 2015 Section 207A.2 as a building having no
unusual geometrical irregularity in spatial form.

Simple Diaphragm Building

A simple diaphragm building is defined in NSCP 2015 Section 207A.2 as a building in
which both windward and leeward wind loads are transmitted by vertically spanning
wall elements through continuous roof and floor diaphragms to the main wind-force
resisting system.

Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient

Wind speed increases with height and also as the exposure changes from category B to
category D. The velocity pressure exposure coefficient Kz reflects this and values are
listed in NSCP 2015 Tables 207B.3-1 and 207C.3-1

Table 207B.3-1
Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients, Kh and Kz
Main Wind Force Resisting System – Part 1
Height above ground level, z Exposure
(m) B C D
0-4.5 0.57 0.85 1.03
6.0 0.62 0.9 1.08
7.5 0.66 0.94 1.12
9.0 0.7 0.98 1.16
12.0 0.76 1.04 1.22
15.0 0.81 1.09 1.27
18.0 0.85 1.13 1.31
21.0 0.89 1.17 1.34
24.0 0.93 1.21 1.38
27.0 0.96 1.24 1.4
30.0 0.99 1.26 1.43
36.0 1.04 1.31 1.48
42.0 1.09 1.36 1.52
48.0 1.13 1.39 1.55
54.0 1.17 1.43 1.58
60.0 1.2 1.46 1.61

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Table 207B.3-1 (Continuation)
Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients, Kh and Kz
Main Wind Force Resisting System – Part 1
Height above ground level, z Exposure
(m) B C D
75.0 1.28 1.53 1.68
90.0 1.35 1.59 1.73
105.0 1.41 1.64 1.78
120.0 1.47 1.69 1.82
135.0 1.52 1.73 1.86
150.0 1.56 1.77 1.89

Notes:
1. The velocity pressure coefficient Kz, may be determined for the following
formula:
For 4.5 m ≤ z ≤ zg For z < 4.5 m
⁄ ⁄
= 2.01 ⁄ = 2.01 4.5⁄
2. α and zg are tabulated in Table 209A.9.1
3. Linear interpolation for intermediate values of height z is acceptable.
4. Exposure categories are defined Section 207A.7.

Table 207C.3-1
Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients, Kh and Kz
Height above ground level, z Exposure
(m) Exposure B Exposure C Exposure D
0-4.6 0.70 0.85 1.03
6.1 0.70 0.90 1.08
7.6 0.70 0.94 1.12
9.1 0.70 0.98 1.16
12.2 0.76 1.04 1.22
15.2 0.81 1.09 1.27
18 0.85 1.13 1.31
α 7 9.5 11.5
Zg 365.76 274.32 213.36

Notes:
1. The velocity pressure coefficient Kz, may be determined for the following formula:

For 4.57 m ≤ z ≤ zg For z < 4.57 m

⁄ ⁄
= 2.01 ⁄ = 2.01 4.57⁄

Note: z shall not be taken less than 9 m in exposure B.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 2. α and zg are tabulated in Table 209A.9.1
3. Linear interpolation for intermediate values of height z is acceptable.
4. Exposure categories are defined Section 207A.7.

Site Topography

Structures sited on the upper half of an isolated hill or escarpment experience a

significant increase in the wind speed. To account for this, the velocity pressure
exposure coefficient is multiplied by the topography factor Kzt. The topography factor is
a function of the three criteria:

• Slope of the hill

• Distance of the building from the crest
• Height of the building above the local ground surface

Topographic Effects

NSCP 2015 Section 207A.8 commentary: as an aid to the designer, this section was
rewritten in ASCE 7-98 to specify when topographic effects need to be applied to a
particular structure rather than when they do not as in the previous version.

Wind Speed-Up over Hills, Ridges, and Escarpments

Wind speed-up effects at isolated hills, ridges, and escarpments constituting abrupt
changes in the general topography, located in any exposure category, shall be included
in the design when buildings and other site conditions and locations of structures
meet all of the following conditions:

1. The hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated and unobstructed upwind by other similar
topographic features of comparable height for 100 times the height of the
topographic feature (100H) or 3.2 km, whichever is less. This distance shall be
measured horizontally from the point at which the height H of the hill, ridge, or
escarpment is determined.
1. The hill, ridge, or escarpment protrudes above the height of upwind terrain
features within a 3.2 km radius in any quadrant by a factor of two or more.
2. The structure is located as shown in Figure 207A.8-1 in the upper one-half of a hill
or ridge or near the crest of an escarpment.
3. ⁄ ≥ 0.2
4. H is greater than or equal to 4.5 m for Exposure C and D and 18 m for Exposure B.

Topographic Factor

The wind speed-up effect shall be included in the calculation of design wind loads by
using factor Kzt:
= (1 + + + ) (207 . 8 − 1)

When K1, K2, K3 are given in Figure 207A.8-1

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

If site conditions and locations of structures do not meet all the conditions specified in
Section 207A8.1 then Kzt = 1.0.

Figure 207A.8-1
Topographic Factor, Kzt

TABLE 207A.8-1 TOPOGRAPHIC MULTIPLIERS FOR EXPOSURE C

K1 Multiplier K2 Multiplier K3Multiplier

H /Lh 3-D x/Lh All z/Lh 3-D

2-D 2-D 2-D 2-D 2-D
Axisym. Other Axisym.
Ridge Escarp. Escarp. Ridge Escarp.
Hill Cases Hill
0.2 0.29 0.17 0.21 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
0.25 0.36 0.21 0.26 0.5 0.88 0.67 0.1 0.74 0.78 0.67
0.3 0.43 0.26 0.32 1 0.75 0.33 0.2 0.55 0.61 0.45
0.35 0.51 0.3 0.37 1.5 0.63 0 0.3 0.41 0.47 0.3
0.4 0.58 0.34 0.42 2 0.5 0 0.4 0.3 0.37 0.2
0.45 0.65 0.38 0.47 2.5 0.38 0 0.5 0.22 0.29 0.14
0.5 0.72 0.43 0.53 3 0.52 0 0.6 0.17 0.22 0.09
3.5 0.13 0 0.7 0.12 0.17 0.06
4 0 0 0.8 0.09 0.14 0.04
0.9 0.07 0.11 0.03
1 0.05 0.08 0.02
1.5 0.01 0.02 0
2 0 0 0

Note:

1. For values of hill or escarpment relative than those shown, linear interpolation is
permitted.

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 2. For H/Lh > 0.50, assume H/Lh = 0.50 for evaluating K1 and substitute 2H for Lh
for evaluating K2 and K3.
3. Multipliers are based on the assumption that wind approaches the hill or
escarpment along the direction of maximum slope.
4. Notation:

H= height of hill or escarpment relative to the upward terrain, in meters.

Lh = distance upward of crest to where the difference in ground elevation is half
the height of hill or escarpment, in meters.
K1 = factor to account for shape of topographic feature and maximum speed-up
effect.
K2 = factor to account for reduction in speed-up with distance upward or
downward of crest.
K3 = factor to account for reduction in speed-up with distance height above
local terrain.
x= distance (upwind or downward) from the crest to the building site, in
meters.
z= height above ground surface at building site, in meters.
µ= horizontal attenuation factor.
γ= height attenuation factor.

Equation:

= (1 + + + )
determined from table below
| |
= 1−

⁄
=

Figure 207A.8-2 Parameters for Speed-Up Over Hills and Escarpment

Directionality Factor

The directionality factor Kd is obtained from NSCP 2015 Table 207A.6-1 and for
buildings is given as 0.85. The directionality factor accounts for the reduced probability

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of

• Extreme winds occurring in any specific direction

• The peak pressure coefficient occurring for a specific wind direction

Table 207 A.6-1 Wind Directionality Factor, Kd

Structural Type Directionality Factor Kd*
Building
Main Wind Force Resisting Systems 0.85
Components and Cladding 0.85
Arched Roofs 0.85
Chimneys, Tanks, and Similar Structures
Square 0.9
Hexagonal 0.95
Round 0.95
Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid Freestanding
0.85
and Attached Signs
Open Signs and Lattice Framework 0.85
Trussed Towers

Triangular, square, rectangular 0.85

All other cross sections 0.95
*Directionality Factor Kd has been calibrated with combinations of loads specified in Section
203. This factor shall only be applied when used in conjunction with load combinations
specified in Sections 203.3 and 203.4.

Velocity Pressure

The basic wind speed is converted to a velocity pressure at height z by NSCP 2015
Equation which is

= . (N⁄m ); in m⁄s (207B. 3 − 1)

Where
Kd = wind directionality factor, as defined in Section 207A.6
Kz = velocity pressure exposure coefficient defined in Section 207B.3.1
Kzt = topographic factor defined in Section 207A.8.2
V = basic wind speed defined in Section 207A.5
qz = velocity pressure calculated using Equation 207B.3-1 at height z
qzt = velocity pressure calculated using Equation 207B.3-1 at mean roof height h

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

The numerical coefficient 0.613 shall be used except where sufficient climatic data are
available to justify the selection of a different value of this factor for a design
application.

Example 3.1 Wind Velocity Pressure

The two-story office building, shown in Fig. 3.3, is located in a suburban area with a
wind speed V of 185 km/h. Determine the wind velocity pressure at roof height for the
main wind-force resisting system.

The height to minimum width ratio is

ℎ 6
= = 0.63 < 1
9.6
The mean roof height is

ℎ=6 < 18

Hence, the building qualifies as a low-rise building and Table 207C.3-1 values for the
velocity pressure exposure coefficients are applicable for a building designed using
NSCP 2015 Figure 207C.4-1.

For a suburban area the exposure is category B and the relevant parameters are
obtained as

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Kz = velocity pressure exposure coefficient
= 0.70 ... from NSCP 2015 Table 207C.3-1 for a height of 6.1 m for the main
wind-force resisting system and exposure category B

Kzt = topography factor

= 1.0 ... from NSCP 2015 Section 207A.8.2 Topographic Factor

Kd = wind directionality factor

= 0.85 ... from NSCP 2015 Table 207A.6-1

The velocity pressure qh at the roof height of 6.1 m above the ground is given by NSCP
2015 Equation 207C.3-1 as

=
= (0.7)(1.0)(0.85)(51.39)
= . ⁄
Note: The wind speed, V, which is in kilometer per hour, must convert to meter per
second.

V = 185 km/hr = 185 x 1000/3600 = 51.39 m/s

Envelope Procedure

This procedure is outlined in NSCP 2015 207C.4 and is applicable to low-rise buildings
that meet the following requirements:

• The structure is a regular-shaped building without irregularities such as

projections or indentations.

• The structure does not have response characteristics making it subject to across
wind loading, vortex shedding, and instability due to galloping or flutter.

• The structure is not located at a site subject to channeling effects or buffeting in

the wake of upwind obstructions.

In order to determine the design wind pressures on a structure, it is necessary to

convert the wind velocity pressures to design pressures and the following prerequisites
must be determined:

• Rigidity of the structure

• Gust effect factor
• Enclosure classification

Rigidity of the Structure

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

A rigid structure is defined in NSCP 2015 207A.2 as a structure with a fundamental
frequency greater than or equal to 1 Hz. Most structures, according to ASCE 7 Sec. C6.2,
having a height to minimum width ratio less than four qualify as rigid. Where necessary,
the fundamental frequency may be determined using the procedures given in ASCE 7
Sec. 26.9.2. A low-rise building is permitted to be considered rigid. A structure with a
fundamental frequency less than 1 Hz is considered flexible. A flexible structure exhibits
a significant dynamic resonant response to wind gusts.

Gust Effect Factor

The gust effect factor accounts for along-wind loading effects caused by dynamic
amplification in flexible structures and for wind turbulence-structure interaction. For a
rigid structure, the gust effect factor may be taken as 0.85. Alternatively, the gust effect
factor may be calculated using the procedures given in NSCP 2015 Sections 207A.9.4
and 207A.9.5.

Enclosure Classifications

The internal pressure produced in a structure by wind depends on the size and location
of openings in the external walls of the structure. As shown in Fig. 3.4, an opening in
the windward wall of a structure produces an internal pressure. An opening in the
leeward wall of a structure produces an internal suction.

Glazing that is breached by missiles must be treated as openings, as this may result
in the development of high internal pressures. In accordance with NSCP 2015 Section
207A.10 in a wind-borne debris region, glazing in the lower 18 m of structures shall be
assumed to be openings unless such glazing is impact resistant or protected with an
impact resistant covering. The same requirement applies to glazing that is less than 9 m
above aggregate surface roofs located within 457 m of the structure. A wind-borne
debris area is defined in NSCP 2015 207A.2 as being a hurricane prone area:

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 1. Within 1.6 km (1 mi) of the coastal mean high water line where the basic wind
speed is equal to or greater than 58 m/s, or
2. In areas where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than 63 m/s.

An open building is defined in NSCP 2015 207A.2 as a building having each wall at least
80 percent open. This is given for each wall by the expression

≥ 0.8

Where Ao is total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure and
Ag is the gross area of the wall in which Ao is identified.

A partially enclosed building is defined as satisfying both of the following requirements:

1. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure
exceeds the sum of the areas of openings in the balance of the building envelope
(walls and roof) by more than 10 percent.
2. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive external pressure
exceeds the smaller of 0.37 m2 or 1 percent of the area of the wall, and the
percentage of openings in the balance of the building envelope does not exceed
20 percent.

These requirements are given by the following expressions

> 1.10

⁄ ≤ 0.20
And either
> 0.01
Or
> 0.37 m
where
Aoi = the sum of the areas of openings in the building envelope (walls and roof) not
including Ao, in m2 and
Agi = the sum of the gross surface area of the building envelope (walls and
roof) not including Ag, in m2

An enclosed building is defined as one that does not comply with the requirements for
open or partially enclosed buildings.

Design Wind Pressure on MWFRS for Low-Rise, Rigid Buildings

For the envelope procedure of NSCP 2015 207B Part 1, the gust effect factor is combined
with the external and internal pressure coefficients. The design wind pressure on the
main wind-force resisting system is given NSCP 2015 as

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 = − (N⁄m ) (207C. 4 − 1)

where

qh = wind velocity pressure at a mean roof height h for the applicable

exposure category
(GCpf) = product of the equivalent external pressure coefficient and gust effect
factor as given in NSCP 2015 Figure 207C.4-1.
(GCpi) = product of the internal pressure coefficient and gust effect factor as
given in NSCP 2015 Table 207A.11-1.

In accordance with NSCP 2015 207AC.4.4 the wind load to be used in design shall not
be less than +766 Pa multiplied by the wall area of the building and 383 kN/m2
multiplied by the roof area of the building projected on a plane normal to the wind
direction as shown in NSCP 2015 Figure C207B.4-1.

Example 3.2. Design Wind Pressure for Main Wind-Force Resisting System

For the transverse wind direction, determine the design wind pressure acting on the end
frames of the two-story office building analyzed in Example 3.1. The building may be

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

considered enclosed and the roof and floor diaphragms are flexible. Consider only load
case A.

From Example 3.1, the velocity pressure at mean roof height is obtained as

= . ⁄

The height to minimum width ratio is

ℎ 6
= = 0.63 < 1
9.6

h/L = 6/9.6 = 0.63 < 4 ... rigid structure as defined by NSCP 2015 Section 207A.2

The mean roof height is

h = 6.1 m < 18 m ... low-rise building as defined by NSCP 2015 Section 207A.2.

Hence, the low-rise building analytical method of NSCP 2015 Section 207C.4 is
applicable and values of (GCpf) may be obtained from NSCP 2015 Figure 207C.4-1.

For a two-story building with flexible diaphragms, NSCP 2015 Figure 207C.4-1 Note 5
specifies that torsional load cases may be neglected. To design the end frame of the
building, the pressures on surfaces 1E, 2E, 3E, and 4E must be determined. For an
enclosed building the product of the internal pressure coefficient and gust effect factor is

(GCpi) = ±0.18 ... from NSCP 2015 Table 207A.11-1

Table 207A.11-1 Internal Pressure Coefficient,

Main Wind Force Resisting System and All Heights
Components and Cladding
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, and Open Walls & Roofs
Buildings
Enclosure Classification
Open Buildings 0.00
+0.55
Partially Enclosed Buildings
-0.55
+0.18
Enclosed Buildings
-0.18

For surface 1E the product of the equivalent external pressure coefficient and gust effect
factor is

= . … from NSCP 2015 . −

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Figure 207C.4-1
Main Wind Force Resisting System - Part 1. External Pressure Coefficient (GCpf) on Low-
Rise Walls & Roofs, Enclosed, and Partially Enclosed Building <= 18 m, (LOAD CASE A)

ROOF BUILDING SURFACE LOAD CASE A

ANGLE,
θ 1 2 3 4 1E 2E 3E 4E
0-5 0.4 -0.69 -0.37 -0.29 0.61 -1.07 -0.53 -0.43
20 0.53 -0.69 -0.48 -0.43 0.8 -1.07 -0.69 -0.64
30 - 45 0.56 0.21 -0.43 -0.37 0.69 0.27 -0.53 -0.48
90 0.56 0.56 -0.37 -0.37 0.69 0.69 -0.48 -0.48

The design wind pressure is given by NSCP 2015 Equation 207C.4-1 as

= − (N⁄m )
= 963.24[(0.61) – (±0.18)]
= 760.96 N/m2 for negative internal pressure (suction)
= 414.19/m2 for positive internal pressure
For surface 2E the product of the equivalent external pressure coefficient and gust effect
factor is

=− . … from NSCP 2015 . −

The design wind pressure is given by NSCP 2015 Equation 207C.4-1 as

= − (N⁄m )

= 963.24[(-1.07) – (±0.18)]
= - 857.28 N/m2 for negative internal pressure (suction)
= - 1204.05/m2 for positive internal pressure

For surface 3E the product of the equivalent external pressure coefficient and gust effect
factor is
=− . … from NSCP 2015 . −

The design wind pressure is given by NSCP 2015 Equation 207C.4-1 as

= − (N⁄m )

= 963.24[(-0.53) – (±0.18)]
= - 337.13 N/m2 for negative internal pressure (suction)
= - 683.9/m2 for positive internal pressure

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

For surface 4E the product of the equivalent external pressure coefficient and gust effect
factor is

=− . … from NSCP 2015 . −

The design wind pressure is given by NSCP 2015 Equation 207C.4-1 as

= − (N⁄m )

= 963.24[(-0.43) – (±0.18)]
= - 240.81 N/m2 for negative internal pressure (suction)
= - 587.58/m2 for positive internal pressure
The wind pressure diagrams for both cases, internal suction and internal pressure, are
shown in Figure 3.5.

Design Wind Pressure on Components and Cladding

NSCP 2015 Section 207E provides six separate procedures for the determination of wind
pressure on components and cladding. All procedures require compliance with the
following conditions:

• The structure is a regular-shaped building without irregularities such as

projections or indentations.
• The structure does not have response characteristics making it subject to across wind
loading, vortex shedding, and instability due to galloping or flutter.
• The structure is not located at a site subject to channeling effects or buffeting in the
wake of upwind obstructions.

The six different procedures are

1. The analytical envelope design method of NSCP 2015 Part 1 Section 207E.4. This is
applicable to enclosed and partially enclosed low-rise buildings and buildings with h

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 ≤ 18 m having flat roofs, gable roofs, multispan gable roofs, hip roofs, monoslope
roofs, stepped roofs, and saw tooth roofs. Table 207E.5-1 shows the steps to
determine C& C.

2. The simplified envelope design method of NSCP 2015 Part 2 (Low-Rise Buildings,
Simplified) Section 207E.5 (Building Types). This is applicable to enclosed low-rise
buildings and buildings with h ≤ 18 m having flat roofs, gable roofs, and hip roofs.
This method is based on the procedure of Part 1. Wind pressures are determined
from a Table 207E.5-1 and adjusted where necessary.

3. The analytical directional design method of NSCP 2015 Part 3 Section 207E.6. This is
applicable to enclosed and partially enclosed buildings with h > 18 m having flat
roofs, pitched roofs, gable roofs, hip roofs, mansard roofs, arched roof, and domed
roof. Wind pressures are determined from the specified equation applicable to each
building surface. The determination of wind loads for these types of building is
shown in Table 207E.6-1.

4. The simplified directional design method of NSCP 2015 Part 4 Section 207E.7. This
is applicable to enclosed buildings with h ≤ 49 m having flat roofs, gable roofs, hip
roofs, monoslope roofs, and mansard roofs. This method is based on the procedure
of Part 3. Wind pressures are determined from the Table 207E.7-1 and adjusted
where necessary.

5. The analytical directional design method of NSCP 2015 Part 5 Section 207E.8
(Building Types). This is applicable to open buildings of all heights having pitched
free roofs, monoslope free roofs and troughed free roofs. Wind pressures are
determined from the specified equation applicable to each roof surface. The
determination of wind loads is in Table 207E.8-1

6. The analytical directional design method of NSCP 2015 Part 6 Section 207E.9. This is
applicable to building appurtenances such as roof overhangs and parapets. Wind
pressures are determined from the specified equation applicable to each roof
overhang or parapet surface. Wind loads determination for C&C is shown in the
Table 207E.10-1.

Design of Components and Cladding Using NSCP 2015 Section 207E.4.

The design wind pressure on components and cladding for low-rise building and
buildings with a height not exceeding 60 ft is given by NSCP 207E.4 as

= − ( ⁄ ) (207. 4 − 1)
Where
qh = wind velocity pressure at mean roof height h for the applicable exposure
category

(GCp) = product of the equivalent external pressure coefficient and gust effect
factor as given in NSCP 2015 Figures 207E.4.1 through 207E.4-7.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 (GCpi) = product of the internal pressure coefficient and gust effect factor as given
in NSCP 2015 207A.11-1.

In accordance with ASCE 7 Sec. 30.2.2 the design wind pressure shall not be less than a
net pressure of 16 lb/ft2 applied in either direction normal to the surface.

The velocity pressure exposure coefficients Kz are given in NSCP Table 207E.3-1.

Table 207E.3-1 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients, Kh and Kz

Height above ground level, z Exposure
(m) B C D
0-4.5 0.70 0.85 1.03
6.0 0.70 0.9 1.08
7.5 0.70 0.94 1.12
9.0 0.70 0.98 1.16
12.0 0.76 1.04 1.22
15.0 0.81 1.09 1.27
18.0 0.85 1.13 1.31
21.0 0.89 1.17 1.34
24.0 0.93 1.21 1.38
27.0 0.96 1.24 1.40
30.0 0.99 1.26 1.43
36.0 1.04 1.31 1.48
42.0 1.09 1.36 1.52
48.0 1.13 1.39 1.55
54.0 1.17 1.43 1.58
60.0 1.20 1.46 1.61
75.0 1.28 1.53 1.68
90.0 1.35 1.59 1.73
105.0 1.41 1.64 1.78

Table 207E.3-1 (Continuation) Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients, Kh and Kz

Height above ground level, z Exposure
(m) B (m) B
120.0 1.47 1.69 1.82
135.0 1.52 1.73 1.86
150.0 1.56 1.77 1.89

Local turbulence at corners and at the roof eaves produces an increase in pressure in
these areas. Hence, as shown in NSCP 2015 Figures 207E.4-1 and 207E.4-2, walls are
divided into two zones and roofs are divided into three zones with a different wind

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

pressure coefficient assigned to each. The zone width is given by NSCP 2015 Figure
207E.4-1 Note 6 as the lesser of

a = 0.1 × (least horizontal dimension)

Or
= 0.4ℎ

= 0.04 ( ℎ
Or
= 0.9 m

The values of (GCp) depend on the effective area attributed to the element considered.
Because of local turbulence that may occur over small areas of buildings, components
and cladding are designed for higher wind pressures than the main wind-force resisting
system. An effective wind area is used to determine the external pressure coefficient.
This is defined in NSCP 2015 Section 207A.2 as

= ℓ
where
ℓ = element span length
be = effective tributary width
≥ ℓ/3

For cladding fasteners, the effective wind area shall not be greater than the area that is
tributary to an individual fastener. In accordance with NSCP 2015 Figure 207E.4-1
Note 5, the values of (GCp) may be reduced by 10% for the walls of buildings with a roof
slope of 10° or less.

Example 3.3. Design Wind Pressure for Components

The roof framing of the building analyzed in Example 3.1 consists of open web joists
spaced at 1.2 m centers and spanning 9 m parallel to the long side of the building. For
the transverse wind direction, determine the design wind pressure acting on a roof joist
in interior zone 1 of the building and determine the width of the eave zone. The building
may be considered enclosed.

From Example 3.1, the velocity pressure at mean roof height using Case 1 values for
Kz is obtained as

= 963.24 N⁄m

The mean roof height is

h = 6 m < 18 m

Hence, the low-rise building method of NSCP 2015 Section 207E.3 is applicable.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

The product of the internal pressure coefficient and the gust effect factor is obtained
from Example 3.2 as

= ±0.18

The width of the eave zone 2 is given by NSCP 2015 Table 207E.4-1 Note 6 as the lesser
of
= 0.1 = 0.1 9.6 = 0.96 m
or
= 0.4ℎ = 0.4 6 = 2.4 m

but not less than either

= 0.04 = 0.04 9.6 = 0.384

Or = 0.9 m
Hence, = . . . . governs

The effective tributary width of a roof joist is defined in NSCP 2017A.2 as the larger of

be = joist spacing = 1.20 m

or
be = 1/3 = 9/3 = 3 m . . . . governs

The effective wind area attributed to the roof joist is then

= ℓ=3 9=

The negative external pressure coefficient for roof interior zone 1 is obtained from NSCP
2015 Figure 207E.4-2A as

= −0.9

The negative design wind pressure on a roof joist for interior zone 1 is obtained from
NSCP 2015 Equation 207E.4-1 as

= −
= 963.24[(−0.9) − (0.18)]
=− . ⁄

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

upward load on the roof joist over interior zone 1 is

=
= − 1040.87 1.2
=− /

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

The positive external pressure coefficient for roof interior zone 1 is obtained from NSCP
2015 Figure 207E.4-2A as

(GCp) = 0.2

The positive design wind pressure on a roof joist for interior zone 1 is obtained from
NSCP 2015 Equation 207E.4-1 as

= −
= 963.24[(0.2) − (−0.18)]
= ⁄

The downward load on the roof joist over interior zone 1 is

=
= 366 1.2
= . /

The wind loading acting on the roof joist is shown in Fig. 2.35.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

TABLE 207A.8-1 TOPOGRAPHIC MULTIPLIERS FOR EXPOSURE C

K1 Multiplier K2 Multiplier K3Multiplier

H /Lh 3-D x/Lh All z/Lh 3-D

2-D 2-D 2-D 2-D 2-D
Axisym. Other Axisym.
Ridge Escarp. Escarp. Ridge Escarp.
Hill Cases Hill
0.2 0.29 0.17 0.21 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
0.25 0.36 0.21 0.26 0.5 0.88 0.67 0.1 0.74 0.78 0.67
0.3 0.43 0.26 0.32 1 0.75 0.33 0.2 0.55 0.61 0.45
0.35 0.51 0.3 0.37 1.5 0.63 0 0.3 0.41 0.47 0.3
0.4 0.58 0.34 0.42 2 0.5 0 0.4 0.3 0.37 0.2
0.45 0.65 0.38 0.47 2.5 0.38 0 0.5 0.22 0.29 0.14
0.5 0.72 0.43 0.53 3 0.52 0 0.6 0.17 0.22 0.09
3.5 0.13 0 0.7 0.12 0.17 0.06
4 0 0 0.8 0.09 0.14 0.04
0.9 0.07 0.11 0.03
1 0.05 0.08 0.02
1.5 0.01 0.02 0
2 0 0 0

Example 3.4

Calculate the external wind forces based on NSCP 2015 wind load calculation for main
wind force resisting system of the rigid enclosed building with dimension of 18 m in
width, 81 m in length, ridge height of 8.85, and the height of wall is 6.6 m. The building
has a fundamental frequency of greater or equal to 1 Hz.

Note: Refer to Section 207C discussion about Envelope Procedure for Enclosed &
Partially Enclosed Low-Rise Building in NSCP 2015 Method 2.

Also, see NSCP 2015 Method 1 for MWFRS applicable to the MWFRS of enclosed
simple diaphragm building less than 18m in height.

Solution:
PARAMETERS
Wind Speed, V 150 kph
total height, z 8.85 m
height bottom of roof 6.6 m
horizontal dim. Parallel to wind dir., L 81 m
horizontal dim. Normal to wind dir., B 18 m
mean roof height , h 7.725 m
Roof Angle, θ 14 degrees

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Figure 3.7 Wind directions normal to the face of the building

Figure 3.8 Wind directions parallel to the length of the building

From Section 207C.3.2 Velocity Pressure

= 0.613 (at full height)

Exposure Category: Exposure C

α = 9.5 zg = 274.32
Getting the value of Kz at a height of total height above ground, z (m) = 8.85 m
⁄
= 2.01 ⁄
⁄ .
= 2.01(8.85⁄274.32)
= 0.975517743

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Getting the value of Kh at a mean height above ground, z (m) = 7.725 m
⁄
= 2.01 ⁄
= 2.01(7.725⁄274.32) ⁄ .
= 0.947992044
= 0.613K K K V (at mean roof height)

Convert Wind Speed, V from kph to m/s:

1ℎ 1000
= 150 ℎ = 150 = 41.667 /
ℎ 3600 1

To find the value of Kzt, topographic factor, shall see Section 207A.8 and Figure 207A.8-
1. Since the location of the project is not specified the terrain, let us consider the location
as flat terrain and the value of Kzt = 1.0.

As for wind directionality factor, Kd stated in NSCP 2015 Section 207A.6 and Table
207A.6-1

Kd = 0.85 (Main Wind Resisting Frame Systems)

Table 207 A.6-1 Wind Directionality Factor, Kd

Directionality Factor
Structural Type
Kd*
Buildings
Main Wind Force Resisting Systems 0.85
Components and Cladding 0.85
Arched Roofs 0.85
Chimneys, Tanks, and Similar Structures
Square 0.9
Hexagonal 0.95
Round 0.95
Solid Freestanding Walls and Solid Freestanding and
0.85
Attached Signs
Open Signs and Lattice Framework 0.85
Trussed Towers
Triangular, square, rectangular 0.85
All other cross sections 0.95
*Directionality Factor Kd has been calibrated with combinations of loads specified in Section 203. This
factor shall only be applied when used in conjunction with load combinations specified in Sections 203.3
and 203.4.

Now let us solve the Velocity Pressure:

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

At Total Height above ground, z (m) = 8.85 m

= 0.613
= 0.613(0.975517743)(1.0)(0.85)(4.16667)
= 882.45

For Velocity Pressure at mean roof height, qh = 7.725 m

= 0.613
= 0.613(0.947992044)(1.0)(0.85)(4.16667)
= .

LOW-RISE BUILDING

Alternatively, design wind pressures for the MWFRS of Low-Rise Building shall be
determined by the following equation:

= − Equation 207C. 4 − 1

ℎ :
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at mean roof height as defined in Section 207A.3
= external pressure coef icient from Figure 207C. 4 − 1
= internal pressure coef icient from Table 207A. 11 − 1

Note: ROOF OVERHANGS

The positive external pressure on the bottom surface of windward roof overhangs shall
be determined using Cp = 0.7 in combination with the top surface pressures determined
using figure 207C.4-1

Table 207A.11-1 Internal Pressure Coefficient,

Main Wind Force Resisting System and All Heights
Components and Cladding
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, and Open Walls & Roofs
Buildings
Enclosure Classification
Open Buildings 0.00
+0.55
Partially Enclosed Buildings
-0.55
+0.18
Enclosed Buildings
-0.18

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Example 3.5
From the example 3.5, calculate the external pressure coefficient.
To find the roof angle, θ = tan-12.25/9 , θ = 14.036º
The external pressure coefficient shall then be calculated by interpolation:

5 0.40
1. Surface 1 : 15 9.036 14.036 = 0.13
20 0.53

9.036
= ; = 0.078 ≈ 0.08
0.13 15

14.036 = 0.40 + 0.08 = .

5 −0.69
2. Surface 2 : 15 9.036 14.036 = 0
20 −0.69

9.036
= ; =0
0 15

14.036 = −0.69 + 0 = − .

5 −0.37
3. Surface 3 : 15 9.036 14.036 = − 0.11
20 −0.48

9.036
= ; = −0.066 ≈ −0.07
−0.11 15

14.036 = −0.37 − 0.07 = − .

5 −0.29
4. Surface 4 : 15 9.036 14.036 = − 0.14
20 −0.43

9.036
= ; = −0.084 ≈ −0.08
−0.14 15

14.036 = −0.29 − 0.08 = − .

5 0.61
5. For 1E : 15 9.036 14.036 = 0.19
20 0.8

9.036
= ; = 0.1144 ≈ 0.11
0.19 15

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 14.036 = 0.61 + 0.1144 = .

5 −1.07
6. For 2E : 15 9.036 14.036 = 0
20 −1.07

9.036
= ; =0
0 15

14.036 = −1.07 − 0 = − .

5 −0.53
7. For 3E : 15 9.036 14.036 = − 0.16
20 −0.69
9.036
= ; = −0.096 ≈ −0.1
−0.16 15

14.036 = −0.53 − 0.10 = − .

5 −0.43
8. For 4E : 15 9.036 14.036 = − 0.21
20 −0.64

9.036
= ; = −0.1265 ≈ −0.13
−0.21 15

14.036 = −0.43 − 0.13 = − .

The external pressure coefficient, GCpf calculated is then tabulated below:

External Pressure Coefficient, GCpf on Low-Rise Walls & Roofs Enclosed, Partially
Enclosed Building <= 18 m, (LOAD CASE A)
ROOF BUILDING SURFACE LOAD CASE A
ANGLE,
θ 1 2 3 4 1E 2E 3E 4E
5 0.4 -0.69 -0.37 -0.29 0.61 -1.07 -0.53 -0.43
14.036 0.48 -0.69 -0.44 -0.37 0.72 -1.07 -0.63 -0.56
20 0.53 -0.69 -0.48 -0.43 0.8 -1.07 -0.69 -0.64

Now, we will calculate the wind pressure based on the calculated external pressure coefficient.

1. For surface 1, apply equation 207C.4-1

= −

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 = 857.55 N⁄m [(0.48) − (∓0.18)]
= 566 N⁄m ( )
= 257.3 N⁄m

2. For surface 2

= −
= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.69) − (∓0.18)]
= −437.4 N⁄m ( )
= −746.1 N⁄m

3. For surface 3

= −
= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.44) − (∓0.18)]
= −223 N⁄m ( )
= −531.7 N⁄m

4. For surface 4

= −
= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.37) − (∓0.18)]
= −162.9 N⁄m ( )
= −471.7 N⁄m

5. For surface 1E,

= −
= 857.55 N⁄m [(0.72) − (∓18)]
= 771.8 N⁄m ( )
= 463.08 N⁄m

6. For surface 2E:

= 857.55 N⁄m [(−1.07) − (∓0.18)]

= −763.22 N⁄m ( )
= −1071.93 N⁄m

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 7. For surface 3E:

= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.63)

[(− − (∓0.18)]
= −385.90 N⁄m ( )
= −694.62 N⁄m
8. For surface 4E:

= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.56)

[(− − (∓0.18)]
= −325.87 N⁄m ( )
= −634.59 N⁄m

Tabulated Calculated Wind Pressure (in kPa) based on LOAD CASE A

BUILDING SURFACE LOAD CASE A
GCpi 1 2 3 4 1E 2E 3E 4E
0.18 0.257 -0.746 -0.532 -0.472 0.463 -1.072 --0.695 -0.635
-0.18 0.566 -0.437 -0.223 -0.163 0.772 -0.763 --0.386 -0.326

External Pressure Coefficient, GCpf on Low-Rise

Low Rise Walls & Roofs Enclosed, Partially
Enclosed Building <= 18 m, (LOAD CASE B)
LOAD CASE B
ROOF BUILDING SURFACE
ANGLE,
θ 1 2 3 4 5 6 1E 2E 3E 4E 5E 6E

0-90 -0.45 -0.69 -0.37

0.37 -0.45 0.40 -0.29 -0.48 -1.07 -0.53 -0.48 0.61 -0.43

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A
82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)
Now, we will calculate the wind pressure based on the calculated external pressure
coefficient of Load Case B.

1. For surface 1, apply equation 207C.4-1

= −
= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.45) − (∓0.18)]
= −231.5 N⁄m ( )
= −540.3 N⁄m

2. For surface 2

= −
= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.69) − (∓0.18)]
= −437.4 N⁄m ( )
= −746.1 N⁄m

3. For surface 3

= −
= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.37) − (∓0.18)]
= −162.9 N⁄m ( )
= −471.7 N⁄m

4. For surface 4

= −
= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.45) − (∓0.18)]
= −231.5 N⁄m ( )
= −540.3 N⁄m

5. For surface 5

= −
= 857.55 N⁄m [(0.40) − (∓0.18)]
= 497.4 N⁄m ( )

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 = 188.7 N⁄m

6. For surface 6
= −
= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.29) − (∓0.18)]
= −94.3 N⁄m ( )
= −403 N⁄m

7. For surface 1E,

= −
= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.48) − (∓0.18)]
= −257.3 N⁄m ( )
= −566 N⁄m

8. For surface 2E:

= 857.55 N⁄m [(−1.07) − (∓0.18)]

= −763.22 N⁄m ( )
= −1071.93 N⁄m

9. For surface 3E:

= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.53) − (∓0.18)]

= −300.1 N⁄m ( )
= −608.9 N⁄m
10. For surface 4E:

= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.48) − (∓0.18)]

= −257.3 N⁄m ( )
= −566 N⁄m

11. For surface 5E:

= 857.55 N⁄m [(0.61) − (∓0.18)]

= 677.5 N⁄m ( )

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 = 368.7 N⁄m
12. For surface 4E:

= 857.55 N⁄m [(−0.43)

[(− − (∓0.18)]
= −214.4 N⁄m ( )
= −523.1 N⁄m

Tabulation of Calculated Wind Pressure (in kPa) on LOAD CASE B

LOAD CASE B
BUILDING SURFACE
GCpi
1 2 3 4 5 6 1E 2E 3E 4E 5E 6E
0.18 -0.54 -0.75 -0.47 -0.54 0.19 -0.40 -0.26 -1.07 -0.61 -0.57
0.57 0.37 -0.52

-0.18 -0.23 -0.44 -0.16 -0.23 0.50 -0.09 -0.57 -0.76 -0.30 -0.26
0.26 0.68 -0.21

Design Wind Pressure for Signs.

If the structure reperesnts an above-groud
above groud sign, the wind will produce a resultant force acting on
the face of the sign which is determined from
= ( ) ( . − )
Where
qh = velocity pressure evaluated at height h (defined in Figure 207D.4-1)
207D.4 1) as determined in
accordance with Section 207D.3.2
G = gust effect factor from Section 207A.9

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A
82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)
 Cf = net force coefficients from Figure 207D.4-1
As = the gross area of the solid freestanding wall or freestanding solid sign, m2

Example 3.6:

Determine the resultant force acting perpendicular to the face of the billboard and
through its center if it is located in Coastal Road near Asian Mall in Paranaque, Manila
which is an open flat terrain. The sign is rigid and has a width of 12 m and a height of 3
m. Its top side is 15 m from the ground.

Solution:

= 0.613
Since z = h = 15 m,
kz = 1.09 (Exposure Category C for an open flat terrain, see Table 207D.3-1)
Kzt = 1.0
Kd = 1.0
V = 75 m/s

Figure 3.9 Billboard or signboard wind resisting frame

= 0.613(1.09)(1.0)(1.0)(75)

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 = 3758.46

To calculate the value of Net Force Coefficient, Cf, refer to Figure 207D.4-1

B/s = 12 m/3 m = 4; s/h = 3/15 = 0.2

Cf = 1.80
G = 0.85 as per Section 207A.9.1 where Gust Effect Factor of 0.85 is permitted
for a rigid building or other structure

=
= (3758.46)(0.85)(1.80)(12 3)
= 207015.77 N = .

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

SEISMIC LOADS

The objective of the seismic provisions in ASCE 7 is to preclude structural collapse in a

major earthquake. Hence, fatalities and economic loss are minimized.

Seismic loads on a structure are generated by the effects that an earthquake has on
the structure. Earthquakes are the result of an abrupt rupture along a fault zone below
the earth’s surface. The ground vibrations created as a result of this rupture produce
inertial forces in a structure that may cause severe damage unless the structure is
appropriately designed and constructed. In accordance with Newton’s second law of
motion, the inertial force produced equals the mass of the structure multiplied by the
imposed acceleration. The seismic load must be accurately estimated in order to design
the structure to withstand an earthquake.

Figure 3.10 Seismic base frame

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Basis for Design
The procedures and the limitations for the design of structures shall be determined
considering seismic zoning, site characteristics, occupancy, configuration, structural
system and height in accordance with this section. Structures shall be designed with
adequate strength to withstand the lateral displacements induced by the Design Basis
Ground Motion, considering the inelastic response of the structure and the inherent
redundancy, over-strength and ductility of the lateral force-resisting system.

The minimum design strength shall be based on the Design Seismic Forces determined
in accordance with the static lateral force procedure of Section 208.5, except as modified
by Section 208.5.3.5.4.

Where strength design is used, the load combinations of Section 203.3 shall apply.
Where Allowable Stress Design is used, the load combination of Section 203.4 shall
apply.

Allowable Stress Design may be used to evaluate sliding or overturning at the soil-
structure interface regardless of the design approach used in the design of the structure,
provided load combinations of Section 203.4 are utilized.

Occupancy Categories

For purposes of earthquake-resistant design, each structure shall be placed in one of the
occupancy categories listed I Table 103-1. Table 208-1 assigns importance factors, I and
Ip, and structural observation requirements for each category.

Table 208-1 – Seismic Importance Factor

Seismic Importance Seismic Importance

Occupancy Category
Factor, I Factor, Ip

I. Essential Facilities 1.25 1.50

II. Hazardous Facilities 1.25 1.50
III. Special Occupancy Structures 1.00 1.00
IV. Standard Occupancy Structures 1.00 1.00
V. Miscellaneous Structures 1.00 1.00
1 See Table 103-1 for occupancy category listing
2 The limitation of Ip for panel connections in Section 208.7.2.3 shall be 1.0 for the entire
connector
3 Structural observation requirements are given in Section 107.9
4 For anchorage of machinery and equipment required for life-safety systems, the value of Ip
shall be taken as 1.5

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

Site Geology and Soil Characteristics

Each site shall be assigned a soil profile type based on properly substantiated
geotechnical data using the site categorization procedure set forth in Section 208.4.3.1.1
and Table 208-2

Exception:

When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the soil profile
type, Type SD shall be used. Soil Profile Type SEor SF need not be assumed unless the
building official determines that Type SE or SF may be present at the site or in the
event that Type SE or SF is established by geotechnical data.

Soil Profile Type

Soil Profile Type SA, SB, SC, SD and SE are defined in Table 208-2 and Soil Profile Type
SF is defined as soils requiring site-specific evaluation as follows:

1. Soils vulnerable to potential failure or collapse under seismic loading, such as liquefiable
soils, quick and highly sensitive clays, and collapsible weakly cemented soils.
2. Peats and/or highly organic clays, where the thickness of peat or highly organic clays, where
the thickness of peat or highly organic clays exceeds 3.0 m.
3. Very high plasticity clays with a plasticity index, PI > 75, where the depth of clay exceeds 7.5
m.
4. Very thick soft/medium stiff clays, where the depth of clay exceeds 35 m.
5. The criteria set forth in the definition for Soil Profile Type SF requiring site-specific
evaluation shall be considered. If the site corresponds to those criteria, the site shall be
classified as Soil Profile Type SF and a site-specific evaluation shall be conducted.

Table 208-2 – Soil Profile Types

Soil Average Soil Properties for Top 30 m of Soil Profile

Soil Profile Name /
Profile Shear Wave SPT, N (blows Undrained Shear
Generic Description
Type Velocity, Vs (m/s) /300 mm) Strength, Su (kPa)

SA Hard Rock > 1500

SB Rock 760 to 1500

Very Dense Soil and 360 to 760 > 50 > 100
SC
Soft Rock
SD Stiff Soil Profile 180 to 360 15 to 50 50 to 100

SE Soft Soil Profile < 180 < 15 < 50

SF Soil Requiring Site-specific Evaluation. See Section 208.4.3.1

1 Soil Profile Type SE also includes any soil profile with more than 3.0 m of soft clay defined
as a soil with plasticity index, PI > 20, wmc ≥ 40% and su < 24 kPa. The Plasticity

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Index, PI, and the moisture content, wmc, shall be determined in accordance with approved
national standards.

Site Seismic Hazard Characteristics

Seismic hazard characteristics for the site shall be established based on the seismic zone and
proximity of the site to active seismic sources, site soil profile characteristics and the structure’s
importance factor.

Seismic Zone

The Philippine archipelago is divided into two seismic zones only. Zone 2 covers the provinces of
Palawan (except Busuanga), Sulu and Tawi-tawi while the rest of the country is under Zone 4 as
shown in Table 208-1. Each structure shall be assigned a seismic zone factor Z, in accordance
with Table 208-3.

Table 208-3 Seismic Zone Factor Z

ZONE 2 4
Z 0.20 0.40

208.4.4.2 Seismic Zone 4 near-source factor.

In Seismic Zone 4, each site shall be assigned near-source factors in accordance with
Table 208-4 and 208-5 based on the Seismic Source Type as set forth in Section
208.4.4.4.

The value of Na used to determine Ca need not exceed 1.1 for structures complying with
all the following conditions:
1. The soil profile type is SA, SB, SC or SD.
2. ρ = 1.0
3. Except in single-storey structures, residential buildings accommodating 10 or fewer
persons, private garages, carports, sheds and agricultural buildings, moment frame
systems designated as part of the lateral-force-resisting system shall be special
moment-resisting frames.
4. The exceptions to Section 515.6.5 shall not apply, except for columns in one-storey
buildings or columns at the stop storey of multi-storey buildings.
5. None of the following structural irregularities is present: Type 1, 4 or 5 of Table 208-
9, and Type 1 or 4 of Table 208-10.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Figure 208-2A Seismic Sources: Active Faults and Trenches in the Philippines
208.4.4.2 Seismic response coefficients.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Each structure shall be assigned a seismic coefficient, Ca, in accordance with Table
208-7 and a seismic coefficient Cv, in accordance with Table 208-8.

208.4.4.4 Seismic Source Types

Table 208-6 defines the types of seismic sources. The location and type of seismic
sources to be used for design shall be established based on approved geological data;
see Figure 208-2A. Type A sources shall be determined from Figure 208-2B, 2C, 2D,
2E or the most recent mapping of active faults by Philippine Institute of Volcanology
and Seismology (PHILVOCS)

Table 208-4 - Seismic Source Type

Seismic Seismic Source Definition

Source Seismic Source Description
Maximum Moment
Type
Magnitude, M

Faults that are capable of producing large

A magnitude events and that have a high rate of 7.0 ≤ M ≤ 8.4
seismic activity

B All faults other than Types A and C 6.5 ≤ M < 7.0

Faults that are not capable of producing large

C magnitude earthquakes and that have a relatively M < 6.5
low rate of seismic activity
1 Subduction sources shall be evaluated on a site-specific basis.

208.4.4.3 Seismic Zone 4 Near-Source Factor

In Seismic Zone 4, each site shall be assigned near-source factors in accordance with
Tables 208-5 and 208-6 based on the Seismic Source Type as set forth in Section
208.4.4.2

For high rise structures and essential facilities within 2.0 km of a major fault, a site
specific seismic elastic design response spectrum is recommended to be obtained for the
specific data.

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Table 208-5 Near-Source Factor, Na 1

Seismic Source Closest Distance To Known Seismic Source

Type ≤ 2 km ≤ 5 km ≥ 10 km
A 1.5 1.2 1.0
B 1.3 1.0 1.0
C 1.0 1.0 1.0

Table 208-6 Near-Source Factor, Nv

Seismic Closest Distance To Known Seismic Source

Source Type ≤ 2 km 5 km 10 km ≥ 15 km
A 2.0 1.6 1.2 1.0
B 1.6 1.2 1.0 1.0
C 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

Notes for Tables 208.5 and 208.6:

1. The Near-Source Factor may be based on the linear interpolation of values for
distances other than those shown in the table.

2. The closest distance to seismic source shall be taken as the minimum distance
between the site and the area described by the vertical projection of the source on
the surface (i.e., surface projection of fault plane). The surface projection need not
include portions of the source at depths of 10 km or greater. The largest value of the
Near- Source Factor considering all sources shall be used for design.

The value of Na used to determine Ca need not exceed 1.1 for structures complying with
all the following conditions:

1. The soil profile type is SA, SB, SC or SD.

2. ρ = 1.0
3. Except in single-storey structures, residential building accommodating 10 or fewer
persons, private garages, carports, sheds and agricultural buildings, moment frame
system s designated as part of the lateral-force-resisting system shall be special
moment-resisting frames.
4. The exceptions to Section 515.6.5 shall not apply, except for columns in one-storey
buildings or columns at the top storey of multistory buildings.

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5. None of the following structural irregularities is present: Type 1, 4 or 5 of Table 208-
9, and Type 1 or 4 of Table 208-10.
208.4.4.4 Seismic Response Coefficients
Each structure shall be assigned a seismic coefficient, Ca, in accordance with Table 208-
7 and a seismic coefficient, Cv, in accordance with Table 208-8.

Table 208-7 Seismic Coefficient, Ca

Seismic Zone Z
Soil Profile Type
Z = 0.2 Z = 0.4
SA 0.16 0.32Na
SB 0.20 0.40Na
SC 0.24 0.40Na
SD 0.28 0.44Na
SE 0.34 0.44Na
SF See Footnote 1 of Table 208-8

Table 208-8 Seismic Coefficient, Cv

Seismic Zone Z
Soil Profile Type
Z = 0.2 Z = 0.4

SA 0.16 0.32Nv

SB 0.20 0.40Nv

SC 0.32 0.56Nv

SD 0.40 0.64Nv

SE 0.64 0.96Nv

SF See Footnote 1 of Table 208-8

1Site-specific geotechnical investigation and dynamic site response analysis shall be
performed to determine seismic coefficients

Bearing Wall System

A structural system without a complete vertical load-carrying space frame. Bearing walls
or bracing systems provide support for all most gravity loads. Resistance to lateral load
is provided by shear walls or braced frames.

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Building Frame System
A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support for
gravity loads. Resistance to lateral load is provided by shear walls or braced frames.

Moment-Resisting Frame System

A structural system with an essentially complete space frame providing support for
gravity loads. Moment-resisting frames provide resistance to lateral load primarily by
flexural action of members.

Determination of Seismic Factors

Determination of R

The value of R shall be taken from Table 208-11

Table 208-11B Earthquake-Force-Resisting Structural Systems of Steel

System Limitation
and Building Height
Basic Seismic-Force Resisting System R Ωo Limitation by
Seismic Zone, m
Zone 2 Zone 4
A. Bearing Wall System
Light steel-framed bearing walls with tension-only
2.8 2.2 NL 20
bracing
Braced frames where bracing carries gravity load 4.4 2.2 NL 50
Light framed walls sheathed with steel sheets structural
5.5 2.8 NL 20
panels rated for shear resistance or steel sheets
Light framed walls with shear panels of all other light
4.5 2.8 NL 20
materials
Light-framed wall systems using flat strap bracing 2.8 2.2 NL NP

B. Building Frame Systems

Steel eccentrically braced frames (EBF), moment- 8 2.8 NL 30
resisting connections at columns away from links
Steel eccentrically braced frames (EBF), non-moment- 6 2.2 NL 30
resisting connections at columns away from links
Special concentrically braced frames (SCBF) 6 2.2 NL 30
Ordinary concentrically braced frames (OCBF) 3.2 2.8 NL NP
Light-framed walls sheathed with steel sheet structural 6.5 2.8 NL 20
panels/sheet steel panels
Light frame walls with shear panels of all other
2.5 2.8 NL NP
materials

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B. Building Frame Systems (Continuation. . . . .)
Buckling-restrained braced frames (BRBF), non- 7 2.8 NL 30
moment-resisting beam-column connection
Buckling-restrained braced frames (BRBF), moment- 8 2.8 NL 30
resisting beam-column connections
Special steel plate shear walls (SPSW) 7 2.8 NL 30
C. Moment-Resisting Frame Systems
Special moment-resisting frame (SMRF) 8 3 NL NL
Intermediate steel moment frames (IMF) 4.5 3 NL NP
Ordinary moment frames (OMF) 3.5 3 NL NP
Special truss moment frames (STMF) 6.5 3 NL NP
Special composite steel and concrete moment frames 8 3 NL NL
Intermediate composite moment frames (IMF) 5 3 NL NP
Composite partially restrained moment frames 6 3 50 NP
Ordinary composite moment frames 3 3 NP NP
D. Dual Systems wit Special Moment Frames
Steel eccentrically braced frames 8 2.8 NL NL
Special steel concentrically braced frames 7 2.8 NL NL
Composite steel and concrete eccentrically braced
8 2.8 NL NL
frames
Composite steel and concrete concentrically braced
6 2.8 NL NL
frames
Composite steel plate shear walls 7.5 2.8 NL NL
Buckling-restrained braced frame 8 2.8 NL NL
Special steel plate shear walls (SPSW) 8 2.8 NL NL
Masonry shear wall with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 NL 50
Steel EBF with steel SMRF 8.5 2.8 NL NL
Steel EBF with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 NL 50
Special concentrically braced frames with steel SMRF 7.5 2.8 NL NL
Special concentrically braced frames with steel OMRF 4.2 2.8 NL 50

E. Dual System with Intermediate Moment Frames

Special steel concentrically braced frames 6 2.8 NL NP

Composite steel and concrete concentrically braced
5.5 2.8 NL NP
frames
Ordinary composite braced frame 3.5 2.8 NL NP
Ordinary composite reinforced concrete shear walls with
5 3 NL NP
steel elements

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F. Cantilevered Column Building Systems
Special steel moment frames 2.2 2 10 10
Intermediate steel moment frames (IMF) 1.2 2 10 NP
Ordinary steel moment frames 1 2 10 NP
Cantilevered column elements 2.2 2 NL 10
G. Steel Systems not Specifically Detailed for Seismic
3 3 NL NP
Resistance, Excluding Cantilever Systems

Minimum Design Lateral Forces and Related effects

Simplified Design Base Shear

The total design base shear in a given direction shall be determined from the following
equation:

= (208 − 5)

where the value of Ca shall be based on Table 208-7 for the soil profile type. When the
soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the soil profile type, Type
SD shall be used in Seismic Zone 4, and Type SE shall be used in Seismic Zone 2. In
Seismic Zone 4, the Near-Source Factor, Na, need not be greater than 1.2 if none of the
following structural irregularities are present:

1. Type 1, 4 or 5 of Table 208-9, or

2. Type 1 or 4 of Table 208-10.

Vertical Distribution

The forces at each level shall be calculated using the following equation:

= (208 − 6)

where the value of Ca shall be determined as in Section 208.5.1.1.

Horizontal Distribution of Shear

The design storey shear, , in any storey is the sum of the forces Ft and Fx above that
storey. shall be distributed to the various elements of the vertical lateral force-
resisting system in proportion to their rigidities, considering the rigidity of the

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diaphragm. See Section 208.7.2.3 for rigid elements that are not intended to be part of
the lateral force-resisting systems.

Where diaphragms are not flexible, the mass at each level shall be assumed to be
displaced from the calculated center of mass in each direction a distance equal to 5
percent of the building dimension at that level perpendicular to the direction of the force
under consideration. The effect of this displacement on the storey shear distribution
shall be considered.

Diaphragms shall be considered flexible for the purposes of distribution of storey shear
and torsional moment when the maximum lateral deformation of the diaphragm is more
than two times the average storey drift of the associated storey. This may be determined
by comparing the computed midpoint in-plane deflection of the diaphragm itself under
lateral load with the storey drift adjoining vertical- resisting elements under equivalent
tributary lateral load.

Static Force Procedure

Design Base Shear

The total design base shear in a given direction shall be determined from the following
equation:

= (208 − 8)

The total design base shear need not exceed the following:

.
= (208 − 9)
The total design base shear shall not be less than the following:

= . (208 − 10)

In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear shall also not be less than the
following:

.
= (208 − 11)

Structure Period
The value of T shall be determined from one of the following methods:

1. Method A:
For all buildings, the value T may be approximated from the following equation:
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 = ( ) (208 − 12)

= 0.0853 for steel moment-resisting frames

= 0.0731 for reinforced concrete moment-resisting frames and
concentrically braced frames
= 0.0488 for all other buildings

Alternatively, the value of Ct for structures with concrete or masonry shear walls may
be taken as . / .

The value AC shall be determined from the following equation:

= ∑ [ . + ( ⁄ ) ] (208 − 13)

The value of ⁄ used in Equation 208-13 shall not exceed 0.9.

Example 3.7

In designing a 21.95-m steel frame structure, the natural period is calculated to be 0.8
sec using the NSCP 2015 approximate method, what is the natural period for this
building?

Solution:
The approximate formula (Method A) is given in the NSCP 2015 208.5.2.2 (Structure
Period) Item 1 with the formula:

= ( )
⁄
= 0.0853(21.95)
T = 0.49 sec.
2. Method B:

The fundamental period T may be calculated using the structural properties and
deformational characteristics of the resisting elements in a properly substantiated
analysis. The analysis shall be in accordance with the requirements of Section 208.6.2.
The value of T from Method B obtained from Method A in Seismic Zone 4, and 40
percent in Seismic Zone 2.

The fundamental period T may be computed by using the following equation:

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 ∑
= (208 − 14)
(∑ )

The values of represent any lateral force distributed approximately in accordance

with the principles of Equations 208-15, 208-16 and 208-17 or any other rational
distribution. The elastic deflection, , shall be calculated using the applied lateral forces,
fi.

Example 3.8

A 30.5 m, ten-storey office building has a total weight of 66,723 kN. The building is in
seismic zone 4 at a location 5 km from a seismic source with a high rate of seismic
activity. It is designed with a special moment-resisting steel frame system and is
constructed on rock (soil type SB). Use the NSCP 2015 static lateral-force procedure to
calculate the total design base shear.

Figure 3.11 Ten-Storey office building

Solution:

The total design base shear (V) can be determined from equation 208-8

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To compute V, the natural period (T), seismic response modification factor (R),
importance factor (I), seismic response coefficient (Cv), and total seismic dead load (W)
for this structure must be determined. The natural period (T) can be determined from
Method A of the NSCP 2015 [Section 208.5.2.2, Item 1].

= ( )
For special moment-resisting steel frame systems, Ct = 0.0853 and hn = 30.48 m

= 0.0853(30.5)

= .

From Table 208-11B for special moment-resisting steel frame systems, R = 8.0.
From Table 208-1 importance factor for office building is I = 1.00 (Standard
Occupancy).

The seismic dead load (W) is 66,723 k.

From Table 208-7 for soil profile SB and for Seismic zone factor Z = 0.4, the applicable
acceleration and velocity controlled seismic response coefficients are:

Ca = 0.40Na
Cv = 0.40Nv

From table 208-2, the soil profile type is producing a high rate of seismic activity, then
the seismic source type is Type A. So, the Near-Source Factor Na = 1.2 which is in 5 km
radius, and the Near-Source Factor Nv = 1.6 from the seismic source.

Then, the controlled acceleration and velocity are:

Ca = 0.40Na = 0.40(1.2) = 0.48

Cv = 0.40Nv = 0.40(1.6) = 0.64

Therefore, design base shear is

=

(0.64)(1.00)
= (66723) = 4808.86 kN ≈
(8.0)(1.11)

The total design base shear need not exceed the following:

.
= (208 − 9)

2.5(0.48)(1.00)
= (66723) = 10008.45 kN ≈
8.00

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The total design base shear shall not be less than the following:

= . → (208 − 10)

= 0.11(0.48)(1.00)(66723) = 3522.97 ≈

The structure is built in Zone 4, the required total base shear shall also not be less than
the following:

.
= (208 − 11)

0.8(0.4)(1.6)(1.00)
= (66723) = 4270.27 kN ≈
8.00
Since = < 4809 < 10008
Therefore:
= = is governs

Vertical Distribution of Forces

The total force shall be distributed over the height of the structure in conformance with
Equations 208-15, 208-16 and 208-17 in the absence of a more rigorous procedure.

= + (208 − 15)

The concentrated force at the top, which is in addition to , shall be determined

from the equation:

= . (208 − 16)
The value of T used for the purpose of calculating shall be the period that
corresponds with the design base shear as computed using Equation 208-4. need not
exceed . and may be considered as zero where T is 0.7 s or less. The remaining
portion of the base shear shall be distributed over the height of the structure, including
Level , according to the following equation:

( − )
= (208 − 17)
∑

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At each level designated as , the force shall be applied over the area of the building
in accordance with the mass distribution at that level. Structural displacements and
design seismic forces shall be calculated as the effect of forces and applied at the
appropriate levels above the base.

Example 3.9

From Example 3.8, the design base shear is 4809 kN and the structure period T = 1.11,
and the weight carried by the structure at each level from 2 to 10 is 7000 kN while the
top level is 3723 kilo Newton.

1. Determine Ft
2. Calculate the vertical distribution of forces and label to the structure at every level.

Solution:

1. Since T = 1.11 sec and T > 0.7 sec

Ft = 0.07TV is applicable
By the criteria in Example 3.8, V = 4809 kN
Ft = 0.07TV = (0.07)(1.11)(4809) = 373.66 kN to be applied at the top level of the
structure, but needs to check if Ft < 0.25V.
Check for Ft< 0.25 V, Ft ≤ 0.25(4809) = 1202.25 kN > Ft, therefore Ft will be added
to the top level.
2. Calculation of Fx at every level

− = 4809 − 373.66 = 4435.34 kN

. ( )
=
∑
a. @ Roof Level
h10 = 30.5, w10 = 3923
wxhx = 30.5(3723) = 113,551.5 kN

b. @ level 10,
h9 = 30.5 – 3.05 = 27.45 m
Wxhx = 7000(27) = 192150

c. @ level 9
H8 = 27.45-3.05=24.4
Wxhx = 7000(24.4) = 170800 kN

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d. @ level 8
H8 = 24.4 - 3.05=21.35
Wxhx = 7000(21.35) = 149450 kN

e. @ level 7
H8 = 21.35 - 3.05 = 18.3 m
Wxhx = 7000(18.3) = 128100 kN

f. @ level 6
H8 = 18.3 - 3.05 = 15.25 m
Wxhx = 7000(15.25) = 106750 kN

g. @ level 5
H8 = 15.25 - 3.05 = 12.2 m
Wxhx = 7000(12.2) = 85400 kN.m

h. @ level 4
H8 = 12.20 - 3.05 = 9.15 m
Wxhx = 7000(9.15) = 64050 kN.m

i. @ level 3
H8 = 9.15 - 3.05 = 6.10 m
Wxhx = 7000(6.10) = 42700 kN.m

j. @ level 2
H8 = 6.10 - 3.05 = 3.05 m
Wxhx = 7000(3.05) = 21350 kN.m

ƩWxhx = roof level + level 10 + level 9 + level 8 + level 7 + level 6 + level 5 +

level 4 + level 3 + level 2
ƩWxhx = 113,551.5 + 192,150 + 170,800 + 149,450 + 128,100 + 106,750 +
85,400 + 64,050 + 42,700 + 21,350
ƩWxhx = 1,074,301.5 kN.m

Lateral force, Fx @ each level

. ( )
=
∑

4435.34(113,551.5)
= + 373.66 = 842.47 kN
1,074,301.5

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 4435.34(192,150)
= = 793.31 kN
1,074,301.5

4435.34(170,800)
= = 705.16 kN
1,074,301.5

4435.34(149,450)
= = 617.02 kN
1,074,301.5

4435.34(128,100)
= = 528.87 kN
1,074,301.5

4435.34(106,750)
= = 440.73 kN
1,074,301.5

4435.34(85,400)
= = 352.58 kN
1,074,301.5

4435.34(64,050)
= = 264.44 kN
1,074,301.5

4435.34(42,700)
= = 176.29 kN
1,074,301.5

4435.34(21,350)
= = 88.15 kN
1,074,301.5
Σ = + + + + + + + + + =

Σ = 842.47 + 793.31 + 705.16 + 617.02 + 528.87 + 440.73 + 352.58 + 264.44

+ 176.29 + 88.15 = =

This equations is tabulated below.

Level x
Roof 30.5 m 3723 kN 113,551.5 kN-m 373.66+468.81 = 842.47 kN
10 27.45 7000 192,150 793.31
9 24.40 7000 170,800 705.16
8 21.35 7000 149,450 617.02
7 18.30 7000 128,100 528.87
6 15.25 7000 106,750 440.73
5 12.20 7000 85,400 352.58

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 4 9.15 7000 64,050 264.44
3 6.10 7000 42,700 176.29
2 3.05 7000 21,350 88.15
Σ = 66,723 kN Σ = 1,074,301.5 kN.m Ʃ = 4809 kN

Figure 3.12 Lateral loads @ every storey of office building

Other Loads

Rain Loads

Design rain loads are addressed in ASCE 7 Chapter 8 and in IBC Sec. 1611. A primary
drainage system is provided to cope with the anticipated rainfall intensity produced
during short, intense rainfall events. In the event that the primary drainage system
becomes blocked by debris or ice, a secondary overflow drain must be provided with a
capacity not less than that of the primary system. A free discharge system is the
preferred method of emergency drainage.

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Design Rain Loads

The roof must be capable of resisting the maximum water depth that occurs when the
primary drainage system is blocked. As shown in Fig. 2.30, the maximum depth is the
sum of the static head developed at the inlet of the overflow drain plus the hydraulic
head that develops above the inlet at its design flow.

The design load for rain loads is express by the formula form NSCP 2015 Section 210.2
as

= . ( + ) ( − )

Symbols
R = rain load on the undeflected roof, in kN/m2. When the phrase “undeflected roof”
is used, deflections from loads (including dead loads) shall not be considered
when determining the amount of rain on the roof.

ds = depth of water on the undeflected roof up to the inlet of the secondary drainage
system when the primary drainage system is blocked (i.e., the static head), mm.

dh = additional depth of water on the undeflected roof above the inlet of the secondary
drainage system at its design flow (i.e., the hydraulic head), mm

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In applying this equation, it is assumed that ponding has not occurred and the roof is
undeflected. The hydraulic head may be determined from ASCE 7 Table C8-1 which
relates hydraulic head to flow rate for several types of overflow drain. The required flow
rate is given by ASCE 7 Eq. (C8-1) as

= .

where

A = roof area serviced by a single drainage system, in m2

i = design rainfall intensity as specified by the code having jurisdiction, mm/h
Q = flow rate out of a single drainage system, in m3/s

Example 2.17 Design Rain Loads

A 186 m2 roof with a pitch of 6 mm/300 mm is enclosed by parapet walls and is

provided with a single overflow scupper in the parapet wall. The closed scupper is 152
mm wide and 102 mm high and is set 51 mm above the roof surface. The specified
design rainfall intensity is 51 mm/h. Determine the design rain load.

The required flow rate for the overflow scupper is given by ASCE 7 Eq. (C8-1) as

= .
= . ( )( / )
= . ⁄

The hydraulic head is obtained from ASCE 7 Table C8-1 as

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dh = can be calculated through interpolation from point 1 to point 2. By applying Table
C8-2 of ASCE 7-10 of Drainage system 152 mm wide, 102 mm high, closed scupper:

(0.00262 − 0.0011)
ℎ = 1 +
(0.0032 − 0.0011)
dh = 1.74 in = 44.2 mm

The rain load on the roof is given by ASCE 7 Eq. (8.3-1) as

= 0.0098( + )
= 0.0098(50 + 44.2)
R = 0.923 kN/m2

D. Activity/Exercise:

1. A five-storey building is constructed with 3.6 m in heights. The base shear has been
calculated as 710 kN. Each storey floor has a weight of 3600 kN, and the roof has
weight of 3100 kN. The natural period of oscillation is 0.5 sec. what are the storey
forces?

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E. Evaluation/Post-test:

1. The office building has interior columns spaced 5 m apart in perpendicular

directions. Determine the reduced live load supported by a typical interior
column located on the first floor under the offices.

2. The building is to build at the seismic zone 4 with a total height of 53 m. the
building is 15 storey with 3.5 m from 2nd floor to roof top, and the 1st storey is 4
m from the ground floor. The building is a standard occupancy and a steel special
moment-resisting frame. The building distance from the seismic activity is about
8 kilometers. the soil profile type is SD for being stiff. Determine the following:
a. Near-source factor Na
b. Near-source factor Nv
c. The seismic coefficient Ca
d. The seismic coefficient Cv

3. From problem 2, the building is weighing of 39,000 kN with a 2500 kN at every

storey and 1,500 kN at the roof top.
a. Determine the structure period T.
b. Determine the value of Ft
c. Determine the design base shear
d. Determine the maximum base shear
e. Determine the minimum base in zone 4
f. Identify the govern base shear
g. Determine the lateral force at the roof top
h. Determine the lateral force at the 15th floor
i. Determine the lateral force at the 14th floor

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 j. Determine the lateral force at the 13th floor
k. Determine the lateral force at the 12th floor
l. Determine the lateral force at the 11th floor
m. Determine the lateral force at the 10th floor
n. Determine the lateral force at the 9th floor
o. Determine the lateral force at the 8th floor
p. Determine the lateral force at the 7th floor
q. Determine the lateral force at the 6th floor
r. Determine the lateral force at the 5th floor
s. Determine the lateral force at the 4th floor
t. Determine the lateral force at the 3rd floor
u. Determine the lateral force at the 2nd floor

4. From the problem 3 draw the building frame and indicate the computed lateral
force at each storey.

References:

1. National Structural Code of the Philippines 2015, Vol. 1, 7th Edition

2. American Society of Civil Engineers Standard 2010, [ASCE/SEI 7-10] (Minimum
Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures)
3. Steel Structures Design ASD/LRFD, Alan Williams
4. Steel Structures Design and Behavior, 5th Edition, Charles G. Salmon, John E.
Johnson, Faris A. Malhas
5. Design of Steel Structures, 3rd Ed., 1991, Gaylord, Gaylord and Stallmeyer, McGraw-
Hill.
6. Structural Steel Design, 5th Edition, Jack C. McCormack, Stephen F. Csernak
7. Structural Analysis 5th Edition 2015, Aslam Kassimali

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

 Congratulations for completing this module!

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WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)