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The inclusion and exclusion principle in view of number theory

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DOI: 10.23755/rm.v36i1.465

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 Ratio Mathematica Volume 36, 2019, pp. 43-52

The inclusion and exclusion principle in

view of number theory

Viliam Ďuriš*
Tomáš Lengyelfalusy †

Abstract
The inclusion and exclusion (connection and disconnection) principle is
mainly known from combinatorics in solving the combinatorial problem
of calculating all permutations of a finite set or other combinatorial
problems. Finite sets and Venn diagrams are the standard methods of
teaching this principle. The paper presents an alternative approach to
teaching the inclusion and exclusion principle from the number theory
point of view, while presenting several selected application tasks and
possible principle implementation into the Matlab computing
environment.

Keywords: inclusion, exclusion, number theory, combinatorics, Matlab

2010 AMS subject classification: 11B75.‡

*
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Natural Sciences Constantine the Philosopher
University in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku 1, 949 74 Nitra, Slovakia; [email protected].
†
Department of Didactics, Technology and Educational Technologies, DTI University
Sládkovičova 533/20, 018 41 Dubnica nad Váhom, Slovakia; [email protected].
‡
Received on May 2nd, 2019. Accepted on June 3rd, 2019. Published on June 30th, 2019. doi:
10.23755/rm.v36i1.465. ISSN: 1592-7415. eISSN: 2282-8214. ©Ďuriš, Lengyelfalusy.
This paper is published under the CC-BY licence agreement.

43
 V. Ďuriš, T. Lengyelfalusy

1 Introduction
In traditional secondary school mathematics (in combinatorics, number theory
or even in probability theory), the notion of factorial and combinatorial numbers
is introduced [1]. If n and k are two natural numbers with 𝑛 ≥ 𝑘, then we call a
combinatorial number the following notation

𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) … (𝑛 − 𝑘 + 1)
( )= =
𝑘 (𝑛 − 𝑘)! 𝑘! 1 ∙ 2 ∙ …∙ 𝑘

while (factorial of the number n) 𝑛! = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ ⋯ ∙ 𝑛, where 𝑛 > 1, 0! = 1,

1! = 1.

For combinatorial numbers, the basic properties apply:

𝑛 𝑛 0 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
( )=𝑛 ( )=1 ( )=1 ( )=( ) ( )+( )=( )
1 0 0 𝑘 𝑛 − 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛+1
The relation ( ) + ( )=( ) is the basis for placing combinatorial
𝑘 𝑘+1 𝑘+1
numbers in the plane in the shape of a triangle (a so-called Pascal’s triangle)
[2], in which combinatorial numbers can be gradually calculated using the fact
𝑛 𝑛
that ( ) = ( ) = 1 for each n.
0 𝑛
0
( )
0
1 1
( ) ( )
0 1
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 2
3 3 3 3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0 1 2 3
⋯

If n is a natural number, and if a, b are arbitrary complex numbers, then the

binomial theorem can be applied by using the form:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑎𝑏 𝑛−1 + ( ) 𝑏 𝑛
0 1 𝑛−1 𝑛

The special cases of the binomial theorem are as follows:

44
 The Inclusion and Exclusion Principle in View of Number Theory

a) if 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = −1:
𝑛 𝑛
1 − ( ) + ⋯ + (−1)𝑛−1 ( ) + (−1)𝑛 = 0
1 𝑛−1

b) if 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 1:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(1 + 1)𝑛 = ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ + ( ) + ( ) = 2𝑛
0 1 𝑛−1 𝑛

Let us consider now N given objects and K properties 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝐾 . Let us denote

𝑁(0) as the number of objects that do not have either of these properties, 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 )
as the number of those that have the property 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 𝑎𝑗 ) as the number of those
that have the property 𝑎𝑖 as well as 𝑎𝑗 etc. Then

𝑁(0) = 𝑁 − ∑ 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 ) + ∑ 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 𝑎𝑗 ) − ∑ 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 𝑎𝑗 𝑎𝑠 ) + ⋯ +

(−1)𝐾 𝑁(𝑎1 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝐾 ),

where, in the first addition, we sum up using numbers 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝐾, in the

second addition, using all pairs of these numbers, in the third addition, using all
threesomes of these numbers, etc. We call this relationship the inclusion and
exclusion principle [3].
The validity of the inclusion and exclusion principle can be shown from the
number theory point of view the way that if an object has no property from the
properties 𝑎𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, ⋯ , 𝐾, so it contributes by the unit value to the left equality,
though contributing at the same time to the right side, that is, to the number N
(in the following additions it does not reappear). Let an object now have t
properties (𝑡 ≥ 1). Then, it does not contribute to the left side as there is a
number of objects on the left side that do not have any of the properties. Let us
calculate the contribution of this object to the right side. In the first addition, it
appears t-times. In the second addition, it appears (2𝑡 )–times because from t
properties it is possible to choose pairs of the properties in (2𝑡 ) ways. In the third
addition, it appears (3𝑡 )–times, etc., so the total contribution to the right side is
as follows:

1 − 𝑡 + (2𝑡 )-(3𝑡 )+...+(−1)𝑡−1 (𝑡−1

𝑡
) + (−1)𝑡 = 0,

which is a special case of the binomial theorem. Thus, the total contribution of
such an object to both sides is zero and the right side is actually equal to the
number of objects that do not have any of the given properties.

45
 V. Ďuriš, T. Lengyelfalusy

2 Selected examples of the inclusion and exclusion

principle
The first example requires some mathematical concepts to be recalled. By the
Cartesian product of sets A, B we mean set 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {[𝑥, 𝑦]: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∧ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵},
with the symbol |𝐴| we denote the number of elements (so-called cardinality)
of the finite set A. If |𝐴| = 𝑎, |𝐵| = 𝑏, the Cartesian product then contains 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏
of ordered pairs. Since the Cartesian product contains ordered pairs, 𝐴 × 𝐵 is
not the same set as 𝐵 × 𝐴. [4]
The relation f of set A to set B is called a function of set A to set B if ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴∃𝑦 ∈
𝐵: [𝑥, 𝑦] ∈ 𝑓 and simultaneously if [𝑥, 𝑦] ∈ 𝑓 ∧ [𝑥, 𝑧] ∈ 𝑓, so 𝑦 = 𝑧. The
symbol 𝐵 𝐴 denotes a set of all functions 𝐴 → 𝐵.
If f is a function of set A into set B and ∀𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐴: 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ),
the function f is called an injective function of set A into set B (or simply an
injection; we also say that the function f is ordinary).
Let us now consider two finite sets A, B, where |𝐴| = 𝑛 and |𝐵| = 𝑚. Then the
number of all injective functions from A into B is 𝑚 ∙ (𝑚 − 1) ∙ ⋯ ∙
(𝑚 − 𝑛 + 1) = ∏𝑛−1 𝑖=0 (𝑚 − 𝑖). Injections from set 𝐴 = {1,2, ⋯ , 𝑛} into set B,
where |𝐵| = 𝑚, are called variations without repetition (or simply variations)
of the n-th class from m elements (of the set B). For these functions, the term
𝑉𝑛 (𝑚) is used in practice. It is easier to write the expression 𝑚 ∙ (𝑚 − 1) ∙ ⋯ ∙
𝑚!
(𝑚 − 𝑛 + 1) with the following factorial notation 𝑉𝑛 (𝑚) = (𝑚−𝑛)!.
Variations of the n-th class from n elements of the set B are bijective functions
𝐴 → 𝐵 and their number is 𝑛 ∙ (𝑛 − 1) ∙ ⋯ ∙ 2 ∙ 1 = 𝑛!. They are called
permutations (of set B) and denote 𝑃(𝑛) = 𝑛!.
Let us now consider basic set A with the cardinality |𝐴| = 𝑛. Combinations
(without repetition) of the k-th class (or k-combinations) from n elements are k-
element subsets of set A. We denote them as 𝐶𝑘 (𝑛). If A is a finite set, with
|𝐴| = 𝑛, then, the number of k-combinations of elements of set A is 𝐶𝑘 (𝑛) =
𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛(𝑛−1)⋯(𝑛−𝑘+1)
( ) = (𝑛−𝑘)!𝑘! = . [5]
𝑘 𝑘(𝑘−1)⋯1

Example 2.1. A group of N men is to take part in a chess tournament. Before

entering the room, they place their coats in the locker room. However, when
they are about to leave, they are unable to recognize their coats. What is the
probability that none of them will take their own coat?

Solution. Let us denote the coats 1,2, ⋯ , 𝑁. Then the distribution of the coats on
the chess players can be made 𝑁!, since these are the permutations of the set
{1,2, ⋯ , 𝑁}. First, we determine the number 𝑁(0) of permutations, for which
there is no coat on the right player. The number of permutations that do not leave

46
 The Inclusion and Exclusion Principle in View of Number Theory

in place the k-element set of coats is (𝑁 − 𝑘)! The number of k-sets can be
𝑁
chosen in ( ) ways.
𝑘

Then, based on the inclusion and exclusion principle, there applies

𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
𝑁(0) = 𝑁 − ( ) (𝑁 − 1)! + ( ) (𝑁 − 2)! − ⋯ + (−1)𝑁 ( ) (𝑁 − 𝑁)!
1 2 𝑁
𝑁
𝑁
𝑁(0) = ∑(−1)𝑘 ( ) (𝑁 − 𝑘)!
𝑘
𝑘=0
Next, we get
𝑁 𝑁
𝑁! 𝑘
(−1)𝑘
𝑁(0) = ∑(−1) (𝑁 − 𝑘)! = 𝑁! ∑
𝑘! (𝑁 − 𝑘)! 𝑘!
𝑘=0 𝑘=0

All permutations of N elements is N!, hence the likelihood that no chess player
is wearing his coat when leaving the tournament is

(−1)𝑘 𝑁
𝑁! ∑𝑁 𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑘! = ∑ (−1)
𝑁! 𝑘!
𝑘=0

Example 2.2. A tennis centre has a certain number of players and 4 groups A,
B, C, D. Each player trains in at least one group, while some players train in
multiple groups at once according to the table.

A.............26 AC...........18 ABC...........5

B.............17 AD...........3 ABD...........0
C.............58 BC...........9 ACD...........2
D.............19 BD...........0 BCD...........0
AB...........7 CD...........5 ABCD........0

We will show how many players have a tennis centre.

Solution. Let us denote 𝑀1 as the set of all players in group A, 𝑀2 as the set of
all players in group B, 𝑀3 as the set of all players in group C and 𝑀4 as the set
of all players in group D. Then, set 𝑁 = 𝑀1 ∪ 𝑀2 ∪ 𝑀3 ∪ 𝑀4 is a set of all
players in the centre.

47
 V. Ďuriš, T. Lengyelfalusy

Based on the inclusion and exclusion principle, there applies:

0 = |𝑀1 ∪ 𝑀2 ∪ 𝑀3 ∪ 𝑀4 | − (26 + 17 + 59 + 19) + (7 + 18 + 3 + 9 + 5)

− (5 + 2) + 0

From which |𝑀1 ∪ 𝑀2 ∪ 𝑀3 ∪ 𝑀4 | = 26 + 17 + 59 + 19 − 7 − 18 − 3 −

9 − 5 + 5 + 2 = 85. As a result, the tennis centre has 85 players.

Example 2.3. Let 𝑛 > 1 be a natural number. In number theory, the symbol
𝜑(𝑛) denotes the number of natural numbers smaller than n and relatively prime
𝛼 𝛼
s n, where 𝜑(𝑛) is called Euler’s function [3]. Let 𝑛 = 𝑝1 1 … 𝑝𝑘 𝑘 be a canonical
decomposition of the number n. We will show that the following relation
applies:

1 1 1
𝜑(𝑛) = 𝑛 (1 − ) (1 − ) … (1 − )
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝𝑘

Solution. Once more, we will use the inclusion and exclusion principle. Let 𝑛 =
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝑝1 1 𝑝2 2 … 𝑝𝑘 𝑘 is a canonical decomposition of the number n. The natural
numbers that are relatively prime with the number n are those that are not
divisible by either of the prime numbers 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 , … , 𝑝𝑘 . So, let 𝑎𝑖 mean the
property that “the number m is divisible by the prime number 𝑝𝑖 , 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑘“.
The number of numbers that are smaller or equal to the number n and
𝑛
are divisible by the number 𝑝𝑖 is 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 ) = 𝑝 . It is an integer since 𝑝𝑖 ⃓𝑛. Next,
𝑖
𝑛
we get 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 𝑎𝑗 ) = 𝑝 𝑝 and other members of the notation.
𝑖 𝑗

Then:
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝜑(𝑛) = 𝑛 − ∑ +∑ −∑ + ⋯ + (−1)𝑘
𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑗 𝑝𝑖 𝑝𝑗 𝑝𝑠 𝑝1 𝑝2 … 𝑝𝑘

This expression can be simplified to the form:

1 1 1
𝜑(𝑛) = 𝑛 (1 − ) (1 − ) … (1 − )
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝𝑘

Several other interesting tasks and applications of the inclusion and exclusion
principle can be found e.g. in the resources [6], [7].

48
 The Inclusion and Exclusion Principle in View of Number Theory

3 Implementation of the inclusion and exclusion

principle in the Matlab computing environment
When solving various practical tasks with pupils, it is possible and appropriate
to use some computing environment, e.g. Matlab. We will now solve a simple
task of divisibility.

Example 3.1. We will show how many numbers there are up to 1000 that are
not divisible by three, five, or seven.

Solution. Before proceeding to the solution of the task, we will use divisibility
relations to determine the number of all natural numbers smaller than 1000, each
of which can be divided simultaneously by three, five, and seven.

First, we will generally show that if 3|𝑎, 5|𝑎, then 3 ∙ 5 = 15|𝑎, being valid if
3|𝑎, so 𝑎 = 3𝑏, if 5|𝑎, so 𝑎 = 5𝑐. The left sides are equal, so the right sides
must be equal, too. Then

3𝑏 = 5𝑐

Since (3,5) = 1 ⇒ 3|c ⇒ 𝑐 = 3𝑑. Then 𝑎 = 5𝑐 = 15𝑑 ⇒ 15|𝑎.

Now, we will show that if 15|𝑎, 7|𝑎, then 15 ∙ 7 = 105|𝑎 is valid if 15|𝑎, so
𝑎 = 15𝑒, if 7|𝑎, so 𝑎 = 7𝑓. Since 𝑎 = 𝑎, it holds true that

15𝑒 = 7𝑓

From the relation (15,7) = 1 ⇒ 15|f ⇒ 𝑓 = 15𝑔. Then 𝑎 = 7𝑓 = 105𝑔 ⇒

105|𝑎.
1000 55
We will do the division 105 = 9 + 105 and we see that there exist 9 numbers
with the required property.

Let us get back to our basic task. There, we have 𝑁 = 1000. Let 𝑎1 be the
property that “the number n is divisible by three“, property 𝑎2 stand for “the
number n is divisible by five“, property 𝑎3 stand for “the number n is divisible
by seven“. At the same time, 𝑁(0) is the number of searched numbers not
divisible by any of the numbers 3, 5, 7.
Every third natural number is divisible by three since 1000 = 3 ∙ 333 + 1. We
have the number 𝑁(𝑎1 ) = 333, that is 333 numbers up to 1000 are divisible by
three. By similar consideration, we determine 𝑁(𝑎2 ) = 200, 𝑁(𝑎3 ) = 142.

49
 V. Ďuriš, T. Lengyelfalusy

Based on the previous considerations, we determine the number 𝑁(𝑎1 𝑎2 ). It

holds true that if a number is divisible by three and five, it is also divisible by
its product, i.e. by the number 15 (inasmuch as the numbers 3 and 5 are relatively
prime). Hence, 𝑁(𝑎1 𝑎2 ) equals the number of numbers up to 1000 divisible by
15 and 𝑁(𝑎1 𝑎2 ) = 66. Similarly, we determine 𝑁(𝑎2 𝑎3 ) = 28 and 𝑁(𝑎1 𝑎3 ) =
47. For the number 𝑁(𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ) it is valid that it will be equal to the number of
numbers up to 1000 that are divisible by the product 3 ∙ 5 ∙ 7 = 105, hence
𝑁(𝑎1 𝑎2𝑎3 ) = 9.

Then, based on the inclusion and exclusion principle, we have in total

𝑁(0) = 1000 − (333 + 200 + 142) + (66 + 28 + 47) − 9 = 457

Now we implement the given task into the Matlab computing environment to
verify the result. First we create the function “count_the_divisors”,
which is the application of the inclusion and exclusion principle:

function cnt = count_the_divisors(N, a, b, c)

cnt_3 = floor(N / a); %counts of numbers
divisible by a
cnt_5 = floor(N / b); %counts of numbers
divisible by b
cnt_7 = floor(N / c); %counts of numbers
divisible by c

cnt_3_5 = floor(N / (a * b)); %counts of numbers

divisible by a and b
cnt_5_7 = floor(N / (b * c)); %counts of numbers
divisible by b and c
cnt_3_7 = floor(N / (a * c)); %counts of numbers
divisible by a and c

cnt_3_5_7 = floor(N / (a * b * c)); %counts of

numbers divisible by a, b and c

%and now inclusion-exclusion principle applied

cnt = N - (cnt_3 + cnt_5 + cnt_7) + (cnt_3_5 +
cnt_5_7 + cnt_3_7) - cnt_3_5_7;

We will call the function from the command line:

>> N = 1000;
>> count_the_divisors(N, 3, 5, 7)

50
 The Inclusion and Exclusion Principle in View of Number Theory

ans =

457

When creating functions or scripts solving various problems based on the

inclusion and exclusion principle, it is possible to use various set operations
(functions) built directly in Matlab without the need to create one’s own
structures. [8]

4 Conclusion
The principle of inclusion and exclusion is a “set problem“ that falls within the
field of discrete mathematics with different applications in combinatorics.
However, this principle also plays a significant role in number theory when
defining the so-called Euler’s function or Fermat’s theorem, or in clarifying and
exploring the fundamental problems of number theory, such as expressing the
distribution of prime numbers among natural numbers on the numerical axis and
many other questions still open today.
The paper offered something different than just a set view of the inclusion and
exclusion principle and its definition using number theory knowledge and the
properties of combinatorial numbers. Our work is a guideline for solving
selected practical tasks in which the involvement of the principle might not be
expected at first sight. We also showed the possible application of ICT and the
Matlab computing environment in solving computational problems in the field
of number theory, which can be concurrently involved in mathematics teaching.
In conclusion, the inclusion and exclusion principle has much more application
than we allege in our short contribution and can be used to solve more difficult
tasks, e.g. in algebra to solve specific systems of equations or to solve various
problems in combination with the Dirichlet principle. Some research shows that
the ability to solve problems also depends on the substitution thinking, which
makes possible to use mathematical knowledge effectively in various areas of
number theory [9].

51
 V. Ďuriš, T. Lengyelfalusy

References
[1] J. Sedláček. Faktoriály a kombinační čísla. Praha, Mladá fronta, 1964.

[2] A. Vrba. Kombinatorika. Praha: Mladá fronta, 1980.

[3] Š. Znám. Teória čísel. Bratislava, SPN, 1975.

[4] M.T. Keller, W.T. Trotter. Applied Combinatorics. American Institute of

Mathematics, 2017.

[5] M. Škoviera. Úvod do diskrétnej matematiky. Bratislava, Katedra

informatiky FMFI UK, 2007.

[6] K. H. Rosen. Discrete mathematics and its applications. 4th ed.,

WCB/McGraw Hill, Boston, 1999.

[7] M.J. Erickson. Introduction to Combinatorics. John Wiley & Sons, New
York, ISBN: 0-471-15408-3, 1996.

[8] Mathwork. Online documentation. 2019. Available at:

https://www.mathworks.com/help/matlab/set-operations.html, Accessed
15th of April 2019.

[9] D. Gonda: The Elements of Substitution Thinking and Its Impact On the
Level of Mathematical Thinking. In: IEJME — MATHEMATICS
EDUCATION, vol. 11, no. 7, p. 2402-2417, Look Academic Publishers,
2016.

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