CHAPTER 6

CHALLENGES TO SPANISH AUTHORITY

(1560 - 1820s)
Ruins of old Spanish forts, a moro watchtower along the coast, statues of Spanish conquistadores
and missionaries, and occasionally, images of Filipino heroes like Lapulapu, Rajah Sulayman,
Sultan Kudarat, mark many Philippine towns. Though seemingly cold and mute, these markers
have great stories to tell and lessons to teach.
The Spanish colonial government was greatly challenge by its rivals, the Portuguese and the
Dutch, as well as the numerous uprisings and revolts by the Filipinos in Luzon, Visayas, and
Mindanao. However, the colonial government was able to quell all these revolts in spite of the
very small number of Spaniards in the country.
Why? First, the revolts lacked coordination. Second, the Filipinos had no leader of great ability.
Third, the Filipino rebels had insufficient arms with which to fight on equal terms the Spaniards
and their Filipino soldiers. Fourth, there was no feeling of unity and nationalism among the
Filipinos. Fifth, many Filipinos were more loyal to the Spaniards, especially to the friars, than to
their countrymen. The Spanish colonial officials and friar-curates worked hand in hand and
adopted the policy of "divide and rule".
This policy was so successful that the Spaniards could boast that with only a few Spanish
soldiers, they were able to hold the Philippines for the King of Spain; that in all the revolts, The
Spaniards used Filipinos against Filipinos. The Spaniards alone never succeeded in quelling the
numerous revolts and uprisings. It was the Filipino soldiers who did the job for them.
THE PORTUGUESE AND DUTCH THREATS
Spanish claim over the Philippines was challenged by a keen rival from the very start. The
Portuguese knowing that the islands belonged to them under the Treaty of Zaragoza, refused to
acknowledge that Legazpi's presence in Cebu was legal. In 1566 and again in 1568, Portuguese
ships under the command of General Gonzalo Pereira anchored in Cebu without Legazpi's
permission and on both occasions asked Legazpi to leave.
When Legazpi refused, Pereira blockaded Cebu to starve the Spaniards but Legazpi and his men
held their ground and forced the Portuguese to leave instead. Returning in 1570, Pereira
bombarded the Spanish settlement. However, the Portuguese again failed to dislodge their rivals.
Portuguese incursions into the archipelago ceased only when Portugal became part of the
Spanish empire in1580.
The Dutch, the inhabitants of a small country called Netherlands or Holland, also threatened
Spanish rule. At the height of Spain's power under King Charles I and his son, King Philip II,
Holland was part of the Spanish Empire. The Dutch, being a freedom-loving people, revolted
against Spain and proclaimed their independence in 1579. Spain, however, refused to recognize
Dutch independence.
Soon after the Thirty Years' War in Europe, in which Spain was deeply involved, Spain finally
recognized Holland's Independence with the conclusion of the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.
Spain, however, closed the port of Lisbon to the Dutch to discourage them from trading with the
Portuguese. The need for trading posts forced the Dutch to send their ships to the East. In the
process, Holland colonized Malaya and what is now Indonesia.
In 1597, Holland sent an expedition to the East under the command of Admiral Oliver van Noort.
Reaching Manila Bay, van Noort seized Filipino and Chinese vessels. A Spanish squadrom
under the command of Antonio de Morga engaged the Dutch in a battle. In the first battle of
Mariveles, van Noort was defeated and was forced to leave for Holland.
The second Dutch attack occurred in 1610 when they tried to land on Cuyo Island. The Filipinos
were, however, hostile the Dutch and fought them off. Another expedition was sent later, and
upon reaching Manila Bay, the Dutch fleet blockaded Manila. The Spaniards, aided the Filipinos,
fought them and the second battle of Mariveles took place. In this battle, the Dutch were badly
beaten.
In spite of this, the Dutch were relentless. In 1616, another Dutch fleet appeared near Manila Bay
and began to plunder vessels carrying foodstuff from the provinces to Manila. The Audiencia,
which was then discharging the duties of the governor-general, sent a fleet against the Dutch and
in a Battle of Playa Honda in 1617, the Dutch were again defeated.
There were more Dutch attacks in the succeeding years, but they were always defeated by the
Spaniards with the help of the Filipinos. The last attack which occurred in 1647, tried to capture
Cavite and Bataan, but this time they were finally driven off. The Dutch never again made any
serious attempt to contest Spanish sovereignty in the Philippines.
EARLY RESISTANCE IN LUZON, VISAYAS, AND MINDANAO
The early uprisings against the Spaniards were from Luzon. These were attempts to regain lost
freedom and authority over their kingdom and territory. Manila was probably the earliest Spanish
stronghold to stage an uprising. Lakan Dula was friendly to Legazpi and his men and cooperated
with them in many ways. For instance, he and his men helped Legazpi rebuild Manila.
He also helped Martin de Goiti, Legazpi's second Master of Camp, in the conquest of what are
now the Central Luzon provinces. Legazpi repaid Lakan Dula by exempting him and his
descendants from the payment of tribute and from forced labor. When Legazpi died, his
successor, Governor Guido de Lavezares, perhaps through ignorance or bad faith, lifted the
exemption of Lakan Dula and his relatives from the tribute and forced labor.
The old rajah resented this treatment. In 1574, during the attack on Manila by the Chinese
adventurer Limahong, Lakan Dula led a revolt against the Spaniards. Having put to death some
Spanish soldiers, he retreated to what is now Navotas, Rizal Province, and gathered his warriors.
Legazpi's grandson, Juan de Salcedo, and Father Geronimo Marin persuaded Lakan Dula to lay
down his arms. In return, they promised to exempt him and his descendants from the payment of
tribute and forced labor. Lakan Dula believed them and ordered his men to return to their homes
in peace. The governor pardoned him and gave him gifts of silk and gold.
The Tondo "Conspiracy"
Despite the Spanish promises of good treatment, the Filipinos harbored feelings of hostility
toward the colonizer. In some cases, the hostility was ignited by love of freedom. These
happened in 1587 when a group of Filipinos in Tondo formed a secret society whose purpose
was to regain their freedom. Among the members of the society, which the Spanish writer
wenceslao E. Retana called the first Katipunan, were Lakan Dula's son Magat Salamat; his
nephew Agustin de Legazpi; Juan Banal Chief of Tondo; Pedro Balingit, Chief of Pandacan; and
many others.
The plot spread throughout Central Luzon and as far as Cuyo Island and Borneo. The society's
plan was to have a Christian-Japanese ally bring Japanese weapons and soldiers to the
Philippines and with these weapons drive away the Spaniards. After which Agustin de Legazpi
would be proclaimed King of the Philippines. The plan seemed good, but it was aborted due to
spies who reported it to Spanish authorities. Immediately, the leaders were arrested and executed,
while those implicated were banished to Mexico.
The Revolt of Magalat
Disillusionment with Spanish rule may not be national in scope but it spread to many places. In
Cayagan, some natives, led by Magalat, rose in revolt against Spanish rule in 1596 and although
it was quelled, the Filipino rebels continued their opposition to the Spaniards. The governor-
general sent a strong contingent composed of a few Spanish soldiers and hundreds of Filipino
recruits against Magalat but the Ilocanos fought bravely. When they failed to defeat Magalat, the
Spanish authorities thought of another way to get rid of him. They hired a Filipino assassin to
murder Magalat. The plan succeeded and Magalat was killed. According to a Spanish
contemporary historian, Antonio de Morga, with the death of Magalat, Cayagan "became quiet"
and peace reigned once more.
Ladia's "Conspiracy"
A man claiming to be a descendant of Lakan Dula tried to instigate a revolt in 1643 against the
Spaniards of Malolos, Bulacan. He was Pedro Ladia, a native of Borneo who came to Bulacan to
lead an armed uprising against Spaniards. If they succeeded he would be proclaimed "King of
the Tagalogs". His plan reached the friar-curate of Malolos who dissuaded the town peolpe from
believing Ladia. He urged them to remain faithful to the Church and to the King of Spain. At the
same time, the friar-curate notified the Spanish authorities of Ladia's activities. Ladia was
arrested, sent to Manila, and then executed.
The Revolt of Maniago
Central Luzon, since time immemorial, had been the center of discontent in the country. In 1660,
Kapampangans, under the leadership of Francisco Maniago, declared war against the Spaniards.
This revolt, like the conspiracyof Agustin de Legazpi and that of Ladia, sought to destroy
Spanish power and to declare that the people of Central Luzon were free and independent.
But aside from this purpose, the revolt was also caused by the abuses of the Spanish officials
who refused to pay for the food they had taken from the Filipinos. The angry Kapampangans set
fire to their houses and swore they would continue to fight until they regained their freedom.
Attempts of the friar-curates of the province to persuade the rebels to lay down their arms failed.
Instead, the Kapampangans tried to stop commerce between Manila and the Central Luzon towns
by setting up stakes along the rivers. At the same time, they issued an appeal to the people of
Pangasinan and the Ilocos provinces to join them in their battle for freedom. The governor-
general deployed Filipinos troops under the Spanish officers to the affected areas to prevent the
further spread of the revolt.
The governor-general himself, fearing other towns might follow Maniago's example, personally
conferred with the Chief of Arayat, Juan Macapagal, who promised to help the Spaniards quell
the revolt. Maniago's cause weakened with Macapagal's announced intention to side with the
Spaniards.
Consequently, Maniago sent an emissary to the governor-general in order to make peace and
make the following demands: (1) for the governor-general to pardon all those who participated in
the revolt; (2) the Kapampangans to receive the sum of P200,000 as payment for the rice which
the Spaniards seized from their barangays, of this amount, P14,000 was actually paid as down
payment, and the remainder of the total amount to be paid in installment; and (3) for the
Kapampangans to continue to cut timber, as required by the law on forced labor, but they would
be given sufficient time to perform their duties at home. The governor-general accepted these
demands and Maniago, satisfied, laid down his arms. The revolt was a success in the sense that
Maniago was able to air his people's grievances and get what they wanted.
The Revolt of Malong
It soon became apparent that these struggles for freedom were due to Spanish oppressive
imposition, for instance, one of the causes of the disillusionment of the people of Pangasinan was
maltreatment of the people by Spanish officials of the province with regard to the polo y servicio
(forced labor). The Spaniards needed labor to cut down trees for timber.
In 1660, under the leadership of Andres Malong, a native of Binalatongan (now San Carlos), the
people of Lingayen rose up in arms, The revolt spread to the whole province and in the course of
the disturbance, many Spaniards including the provincial governor, were killed. So successful
was the revolt that Malong, in his enthusiasm, proclaimed himself “King of Pangasinan”. With
this royal title, he appointed officials in the areas under him.
At the same time, he urged the people of the Ilocos pprovinces, Zambales, and Cagayan to take
arms against the Spaniards. To show his strength, he sent thousands of soldiers to Ilocos,
Cagayan, and even Pampanga, were Maniago was also fighting the Spaniards, to incite the
people of provinces to join the revolt. By sending his own soldiers to other provinces, Malong
weakened his position.
The government forces, as usual consisting mostly of Filipino recruits, pursued Malong and in a
skirmish he was defeated and captured. Later, he was executed for having been a “traitor” to
Spain. In 1762, like Malong’s revolt, the people of Binalatongan, Dagupan, Clasiao, Santa
Barbara, Mangaldan, San Jacinto, Malasiki in Pangasinan, and Paniqui (then a part of
Pangasinan) rose in arms over the imposition of tribute. Led by Juan dela Cruz Palariz, the
uprising lasted a year and came to be known as the Palaris Revolts.
Revolt of Bancao
Disillusionment with Spanish rule was not confined to the provinces of Luzon disturbances in
Visayas were also widespread. In Leyte in 1622, Bancao, a chieftain of Limasawa, led revolt
against the Spaniards because of the intolerance of the friars. Legazpi befriended Bancao who
had given him food and other supplies. He became Catholic and a loyal subject of the Spanish
king. Later, Bancao returned to the religion of his forefathers. Because of this apostasy, the
Spanish friars-curate of his town hated him as he convinced a lot of natives to go back to their
original faith.
The natives stopped going to church, which led the friar-curate to seek help from the governor of
Cebu to help restore Spanish influence on the Warays in Visayas. This uprising spread from
Carigara to other parts of Leyte and endangered the friar-curate and the Catholic faith in the
province. The provincial governor of Cebu sent troops consisting of hundreds of Filipino soldiers
under Spanish officers and defeated Bancao, who died fighting. As in other instances, the
Filipinos, not theSpaniards, defeated their fellow-Filipinos.
The Revolt of Sumuroy
In accordance with the law on forced labor, in 1649the governorgeneral ordered the provincial
governors of the Visayan provinces to send workers to the Cavite shipyard. Consequently, the
provincial governors recruited workers who were sent to Cavite. The workers resented leaving
their homes to be separated from their families. To show their deeps resentments, the people of
Palapag, Samar, gathered under leadership of Agustin Sumuroy, and revolted against the
Spaniards. The friars-curate of Palapag killed and soon the fire of discontent swept other towns
and islands. The revolt spread to Mindanao particularly to Zamboanga, Camiguin, Masbate,
Camarines and Albay.
The governor-general in Manila was alarmed at the spread of the revolt. He gathered a force
consisting mostly of Filipino soldiers under Spanish officers and sent an expedition to Samar.
Sumuroy fought bravely and he won over the Spanish-Filipino forces in several skirmishes.
Sumuroy chose mountain as a natural fortress and he withstood attacks from the enemy. In 1650,
the government sent a strong army contingent and engaged Sumuroy in a battle in the mountains.
He was defeated, captured, and executed. The event in Samar did not discourage Tapar who led
the uprisings in Oton, Panay in 1663, and Dagohoy who just like Tapar wanted to return to the
religion of their ancestors. Dagohoy’s uprising proved to be one of the longest rebellions in our
history, lasting from 1744 to 1829. Dagohoy set up his own “government” in the mountains, with
some 20,000 followers obeying his orders and practicing their own faith.
More Rebellions in Luzon
The succeeding rebellions, mainly Luzon were clearly economic in nature. By the 1700s, friar
estates and the hacienda system had dramatically expanded due to the demand by the galleon
trade for agricultural products. This caused many inhabitants to lose their lands along with their
rights over communal rivers and forests. Thus, the violent uprisings in 1702 in Tondo; Biñan,
Laguna; and Silang, Cavite were due to the loss of pasturelands and lands for agriculture. By
1743, Pasig, Taguig, Bicutan, Parañaque, and parts of Cavite and Bulacan were up in arms due to
their lack of access to rivers and forests
In 1745 haciendas in Bulacan’s Buenavista, Pandi, and Lolomboy were burned and their friar-
owners killed. Up in the north, the principal couple Diego and Gabriela Silang led a widespread
revolt in Ilocos Sur on the issue of the right to engage in the galleon trade (indulto de comercio)
by non-Spaniards on Indios (as what the Spaniards called the native Filipinos). Likewise in 1807,
the Basi revolt in Ilocos Norte erupted over the issue of government monopoly on the
production, pricing, and sale of basi, a favorite local wine among the Ilocanos.
Resistance in the Interior and Mountainous Parts
Rich in gold, forest products and trees for logs or lumber the interior and mountainous areas of
the country were hard to penetrate yet much coveted by the Spaniards. In the Cordillera region,
for instance, people lived in separate and distant tribal communities led by a mingel, a warrior-
leader and expert in headhunting. Trade and commerce with the lowlanders existed but on a
limited basis among the locals. Attempts by the Spaniards to send expeditions to the region
between 1591 and 1608 failed due to the fierce resistance by the taong bundok, which literally
meant, ‘people of the mountains.”
Their ancient beliefs and way of life that were less exposed to the outside world, made them
more resistant to colonization whether Spanish or any of the later incursions by the Americans
and Japanese. The process did not only prove expensive and frustrating for the Spaniards, but
also dangerous as confrontations were practically reduced to pangangayao or headhunting
expeditions for the lumads, another term for those who remained non-Christians and non-Muslim
long after the colonization. This situation would also be true of the Lumads in the Visayas, as
well as in Mindanao.
The Moro Wars in the South
Certainly the longest and the bloodiest attempt by the Spaniards was the colonization and
Christianization of the Muslim in the southern islands of Mindanao. In fact, the process did not
only take the longest, but also the most frustrating for the Spaniards. The Muslims in the country
remained unconquered and unconverted until the end of Spanish rule. The first encounter
between the Spaniards and the Moros (the term used by the Spaniards for the Muslims, who also
ruled their country for more than 400 years), took place in Cebu between Martin De Goiti and
the group of the Bornean traders in 1569. Manila, even in 1571 to 1572 could hardly be called a
Muslim kingdom. The connection between Islamized Brunei and Manila was more by ties in
marriage and economic or commercial transaction, rather than religious. Thus, no sultanate ever
evolved in Manila (Luzon) or in the Visayas. However, Islam penetrated the south early and
spread throughout Mindanao.
Two sultanates were eventually set up, one in Sulu and another in the Maguindanao-Cotabato
area. It was logical, therefore, that ties between Brunei and the sultanates would continue despite
the Spanish conquest of Manila. In fact, the new government in Manila had to send troops to
Borneo three times (in 1576, 1578 and 1588) to put an end to their trading activities and military
aid to manila.
However, succeeding military expeditions by the Spaniards directed at Sulu and Maguindanao
(1596 to 1638), though bloody and fierce on both sides, failed. The Spaniards could only put up
forts as defenses for their small territorial gains as outpost, one in Jolo and another in
Zamboanga. Under the capable leadership of Sultan Kudarat, Maguindanao and Sulu united as a
confederacy (1638-1671). This event forced the Spaniards to finally withdraw from the place and
focus instead on Luzon.
During this time, the Muslims carried out raids in the Visayas and Luzon for labor force (slaves
or bihag) that they needed in the procurement of products and in trading between Sulu and
Maguidanao on one hand, and Borneo, the Moluccas, Malaya, and Indonesia on the other. After
Sultan Kudarat’s death in 1671, these raiding activities slacked. The two sultanates, are lacking
an expert leader like Kudarat, again engaged each other in battles over the issue of trade and
supremacy in the area.
By 1716 to 1747, Spain came back in steamboats equipped with more powerful cannons. Their
victory allowed them to build forts in Iligan Cagayan de Oro. They also brought some Jesuits for
mission work in Mindanao. In the face of developments, The Moro leadership finally entered
into a treaty with Governor-General Urbiztondo in 1851. With some compromises in the treaty,
but with no actual surrender of territory within the realm of the sultanate, the Moros continued to
resist the Spaniards. In 1762-1764, during the brief British occupation of the Philippines, the
Moros were forced to give up of Palawan and Sabah on a lease basis. Nevertheless, until the end
of Spanish rule in 1898 they remained sovereign.
How were the Muslims able to do this? Historians offer the following reasons: (1) the Spanish
force lacked the number and the military capacity to break through the Moro Kuta (defense
forts); (2) Mindanao is far from Manila, the center of power and governance; (3) the Spaniard
were more preoccupied in several fronts with wars or resistances by the Portuguese, the Dutch,
and the various provinces of Luzon and the Visayas; and (4) Islam provided the Spaniards an
Identifiable enemy called “Moros;” thus forcing all followers of Islam to resist as one, despite
ethnic differences among them. Of these four factors, the last one is considered the most
plausible explanation to their successful resistance to Spanish colonization and Christianization.
Their common identity as Muslims, sworn-enemies of the Spaniards, helped to unite them.
REASONS FOR THE GENERAL FAILURE OF THE REVOLTS
There were several reasons why these uprisings failed. First, the Spaniards possessed superior
weapons and were able to employ native volunteers or mercenary soldiers. Second, the people
remained divided and lacked unity, although a centralized form of government and a geographic
identity had been established in the country. This was due to the zeal and clever use by the
Spaniards, particularly the friars, of the “divide and rule” tactic, which kept the strong, if not
intact, regionalistic tendencies of the people.
And third, the giving of positions of power and privileges to the chieftains and their families by
the Spanish authorities, weakened unity among the people and prevented the birth of leaders that
could consolidate the many revolts, however disconnected and isolated from each other they may
be. This further prevented the development of a sense of common identity and purpose as a
people.
It was the factor, the lack of a concept of a nation that was most significant and the hardest one
to come by. The people were not only separated into many ethnolinguistic groups, but also
geographically into more than 7,000 islands. Evolving the idea of belonging to one homeland,
having one soul, and one destiny as a nation, would take longer and require more elements than
what were present at this time
THE CHINESE PRESENCE
Among the early foreign contacts of the ancient Filipinos, the Chinese appeared to be the most
constant and steady visitors, most of them coming in from Canton.They readily interacted with
the Filipinos, adapted to the local ways, and eventually married native women. There had been
economic and cultural contacts with the Chinese for centuries before the Spaniards came. The
Chinese came to Manila annually, bringing with them fruits, ceramics, bowls and plates, silk and
other items to exchange with Philippine gold and silver.
To the Spaniards, the Chinese were Sangleys, which meant “traders who came and went,” with
no intention of conquest and colonization. The Spanish started to get alarmed by the Chinese
presence in 1574 when the famous Chinese commander Limahong came with his shipsand
bombarded the walled city of Intramuros and nearby Malate. Martin de Goiti lost his life in this
attack. The combined forces of the Spaniards and Lakan Dula forced Limahong to leave and
head for Lingayen, Pangasinan, only to be pursued by Spanish-Filipino forces. However,
Limahong and his men managed to escape.
Despite the Chinese treat on the Spaniards, the Chinese merchants, with their stores and
restaurants, remained inside Intramuros. Their wares and goods like chocolate, candles, shoes,
and bread, as well as services that Spanish and Filipino communities needed, like carpentry,
smithing, and many more, were in great demand. Thus, the Sangleysrapidly grew in number and
the Spanish authorities were forced to situate them within a limited space called Parian. The
word, “parian,” according to some, came from the Chinese word palien, meaning“union” or
“federation.” Originally, the Parian occupied a space in front of the old Sto. Domingo Church
inside Intramuros. When it burned down, the government moved their quarters outside
Intramuros, along the present day Manila Post Office, Liwasang Bonifacio, Arroceros, and the
GSIS building in Roxas Boulevard, Manila. In a sense, the parian was the precursor of the
country’s Chinatown. The government also passed laws allowing the Chinese to live in the
provinces, in an effort to spread them out. All sorts of taxes were imposed on the Chinese, which
in the course of time, became abusive and oppressive.
These impositions provoked the Chinese to rebel. In 1603, Chinese uprisings erupted in Tondo
and Quiapo, which were easily quelled by the combined Spansih-Filipino force. To scare the
Chinese, their leader Eng Kang was beheaded and his head was put on public display. But this
did not prevent other Chinese revolts to spread from Manila to Makati, Taytay, Antipolo, and the
provinces.
Again, the combined forces of the Spaniards and their Filipino soldiers stopped these rebellions
in 1639, 1662, and in 1762 at the cost of some 23,000 Chinese lives and great loss to their
properties and businesses. Several decrees were passed for their expulsion in 1744, 1758, and
1759, but these too failed because by this time, the Chinese had controlled the source of
livelihood and even the daily needs of both Spaniards and Filipinos. Their presence had become
a necessity for everyone’s comfort and convenience. Thus, from 150 Chinese living around
Manila upon the arrival of Legazpi in 1571, the Chinese reached 100,000 during the Revolution
of 1896.