Republic of the Philippines

DR. EMILIO B. ESPINOSA, SR. MEMORIAL STATE COLLEGE

OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
(Masbate State College)
College of Engineering
http://www.debesmscat.edu.ph
Mandaon, Masbate

Engr. Brian Kevin B. Bruselas

COS Instructor

Compiled and Edited by:

Engr. Marco Angelo R. Dejucos

Faculty, Chemical Engineering Department

Chemistry for Engineers / Week 5 - Topic 3 Nuclear Chemistry

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 This module is intended for educational purposes only.
This is NOT FOR SALE.

Chemistry for Engineers / Week 5 - Topic 3 Nuclear Chemistry

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 TOPIC 3. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Overview:

Nuclear reactions are used to produce new nuclides or elements, release energy, and produce
subatomic particles. These features can be applied to scientific investigations, engineering projects,
medical diagnosis and treatments, and biological experiments.
In the past, nuclear reactions have been applied to solve some scientific puzzles, and further
research and development have made many beneficial applications.
In this topic, we will discuss the basic concepts of nuclear reactions and their common
applications.

Topic Duration: Week 5 (6 hours per week)

Learning Objectives:

➢ Write, balance and interpret equations for simple nuclear reactions

➢ Define and distinguish among various modes of nuclear decay, including alpha decay, beta decay,
positron emission and electron capture
➢ Examine and identify the stability of the nuclei
➢ Interpret the kinetics of radioactive decay using first-order rate equations.
➢ Describe nuclear fission and fusion.
➢ Explain the effect of radiation on materials, including living tissues
Key Concepts

❑ Nuclear Stability

Atomic nuclei are stable if the ratio of neutrons-to-protons fall within a certain range. Nuclear
binding energy is a quantitative measure of nuclear stability. Nuclear binding energy is defined as the
energy required in breaking up a nucleus into its component protons and neutrons. This energy can be
calculated from the masses of the protons and neutrons and that of the nucleus using Einstein’s mass-
energy equivalence relationship.
❑ Natural Radioactivity and Nuclear Transmutation

When atomic nuclei are unstable, they undergo spontaneous decay with emission of radiation
and particles. These nuclear decays obey first-order kinetics. Some radioactive nuclei have half-lives used
to date objects. On the other hand, stable nuclei can be made unstable by bombardment with elementary
particles or atomic nuclei. Many new elements have been artificially created inside particle accelerators
where such bombardments occur.
❑ Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

Fission is the production of smaller nuclei, neutrons, and energy due to the bombardment of a
certain nuclei with neutrons. Nuclear chain reaction, a self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission
reactions, occurs when enough nuclei are present to reach critical mass. Applications of nuclear fission
include atomic bombs and nuclear reactors. Nuclear fusion is the process which fuses nuclei of light
elements at very high temperatures to form a heavier nucleus. Nuclear fusion releases more energy than
nuclear fission and is used in making hydrogen, or thermonuclear bombs.
❑ Uses of Isotopes

Isotopes, mainly radioactive isotopes, are used as tracers to study the mechanisms of chemical
and biological reactions and as medical diagnostic tools.

COURSE CONTENT

1. Nuclear Chemistry
Difference between Chemical Reactions and Nuclear Reactions
Table 1 Chemical Reactions vs. Nuclear Reactions (Chang & Overby, 2011)
Chemical Reactions Nuclear Reactions
Atoms are arranged by the breaking and forming Elements (or isotopes of the same elements) are
of chemical bonds. converted from one to another.

Chemistry for Engineers / Week 5 - Topic 3 Nuclear Chemistry

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 Only electrons in atomic or molecular orbitals are Protons, neutrons, electrons, and other
involved in the breaking and forming of bonds. elementary particles may be involved.
Reactions are accompanied by absorption or Reactions are accompanied by absorption or
release of relatively small amounts of energy. release of tremendous amounts of energy.
Rates of reactions are influenced by temperature, Rates of reaction normally are not affected by
pressure, concentration, and catalysts. temperature, pressure, and catalysts.

1.1. Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions

A. Radioactive Decay
- Radioactive decay is any process by which an unstable atom or nucleus spontaneously emits
subatomic particles
Nuclear Transmutation
- Results from the bombardment of nuclei by neutrons, protons, or other nuclei. Example:
conversion of atmospheric nitrogen-14 to carbon-12 and hydrogen.
Nuclide
- Includes atoms, ions, and nuclei. Nuclear reactions often involve highly ionized species. The
symbol of a nuclide is:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐸 or 𝐴𝑍𝐸

Example
The most common isotope of nitrogen is nitrogen-14, it has a symbol of:
14
7𝑁

If we recognize that the atomic number is really just the charge on the nucleus, we can also write
similar symbols for subatomic particles, including neutrons ( 10𝑛), protons ( 11𝑝), and electrons ( −10𝑒). Using
this idea, we can assemble the following equation for the formation of carbon-14 from the reaction of
nitrogen-14 with cosmic rays.
14
7𝑁 + 10𝑛 → 14
6𝐶 + 11𝑝

The previous equation is balanced in terms of charge and mass number. We can see that both
sides of the equation have total mass number of 15 and total charge of 7. In balancing nuclear reactions,
we follow the following rules:
- The total number of protons plus neutrons in the products and in the reactants must be the
same (conservation of mass number).
- The total number of nuclear charges in the products and in the reactants must be the same
(conservation of atomic number).
Radiation
- Refers to particles or photons emitted in nuclear decay

Figure 1 (a) Rutherford observed two types of radiation, which he called alpha and beta particles.
Alpha particles are blocked by a thin sheet of aluminum foil while beta rays passed through the foil. (b)
Rutherford also investigated on the effects of electric field on radiation. Beta rays were deflected

Chemistry for Engineers / Week 5 - Topic 3 Nuclear Chemistry

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 towards the positively charged plate while alpha particles were deflected towards the negatively
charged plate. A third type of radiation, gamma rays, can pass through the field undeflected.
Image source: (Brown & Holme, 2011)

Table 2. The symbols for different elementary particles and radiation

Particles or Radiation Symbol
4
Alpha (𝛼) 2𝐻𝑒
− 0 0
Beta (𝛽 ) −1 or −1𝛽
𝑒
Positron (𝛽) 0
1𝛽
0
Gamma (𝛾) 0𝛾
Antineutrino 𝜈̅
Alpha Decay
- Releases alpha particles.
- Mass number decreases by 4 and atomic number decreases by 2.
- Example:
238 234
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒

In a radioactive decay, the reactant nucleus is called the parent and the product nucleus is
referred to as the daughter. So here, U-238 is the parent while Th-234 is the daughter.
Example 1
Complete the equations for each of the following:
210 206
84𝑃𝑜 → 82𝑃𝑏 +?

230
90𝑇ℎ →? + 42𝐻𝑒

Strategy
Nuclear equations must be balanced with respect to both total mass and charge. As long as only
one particle is missing from each equation, we can use these two criteria to determine its identity.
Solution
Consider the first reaction. Looking at the two isotopes shown, the difference in atomic number
is 84 – 82=2, and the difference in mass number is 210 - 206 = 4. That means that the missing particle
must have a mass number of four and an atomic number of two, making it an alpha particle. The
completed equation is:
210 206
84𝑃𝑜 → 82𝑃𝑏 + 42𝐻𝑒

Next consider the second reaction. Again, looking at the two species shown, the difference in
atomic number is 90 - 2 = 88 and the difference in mass number is 230 - 4 = 226. The fact that the atomic
number is 88 tells us the missing isotope is radium, Ra, and the mass number tells us it must be radium-
226. This lets us complete the equation:
230 226
90𝑇ℎ → 88𝑅𝑎 + 42𝐻𝑒

Beta Decay
- Emits beta particle or an electron is ejected from the nucleus
- A neutron must decay into an electron and a proton
- An additional particle with no charge and virtually no mass must be emitted called
antineutrino, 𝜈̅
1
0𝑛 → 11𝑝 + −10𝛽 + 𝜈̅

- Atomic number increases by 1

- Example:
14 14
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −10𝛽 + 𝜈̅

Example

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 Complete the equations for each of the following 𝛽− decay reactions using −10𝛽 to represent the
beta particle.
234 234
90𝑇ℎ → 91𝑃𝑎 +?

234
91𝑃𝑎 →? + −10𝛽 + 𝜈̅

Strategy
We can use the mass numbers and the charges given to determine the missing particles in the
equation.
Solution
Considering the first equation:
- Because Th and Pa both have mass number of 234, this indicates that the other particle has a
mass number of 0. Balancing the charges we get, 91-90 = 1. Both of these conditions are
consistent with beta decay. An antineutrino is also released and the equation is:
234 234
90𝑇ℎ → 91𝑃𝑎 + −10𝛽 + 𝜈̅

For the second equation:

- Because there is no change in mass number for beta decay, the mass number for the unknown
particle is 234. Balancing the charge on both sides (91-(-1)= 92). Thus, we get:
234 234
91𝑃𝑎 → 92𝑈 + −10𝛽 + 𝜈̅

Gamma Radiation
- The emission of a high-energy photon and tends to accompany other types of decay.
- Gamma radiation is released when alpha and beta particles leave the nucleus. When alpha
and beta particles leave the nucleus, some energy levels in the nucleus are no longer
occupied. The nucleus is in excited state. To return to its ground state, it emits a photon in
the form of very high energy gamma radiation.
- The wavelength of gamma radiation is 3x1020 /s which corresponds to energy of 108 kJ/mol
- Gamma radiation changes neither the mass number nor the atomic number of the nuclide.
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation; therefore they have neither mass nor charge.
- It accompanies the beta decay of most nuclei, including carbon-14
- We can write gamma decay as:
14 14
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −10𝛽 + 𝜈̅ + 00𝛾

Electron Capture
- The nucleus captures an electron from the first (n=1) shell in the atom.
- Because the first shell is also called the K shell, electron capture is also called K capture.
- A proton in the nucleus is converted into a neutron.
- A reverse of beta emission
- A particle is released to conserve energy. This particle is called a neutrino.
1
1𝑝 + −10𝑒 → 10𝑛 + 𝜈

- Nuclear charge decreases by 1. Example:

26
13𝐴𝑙 + −10𝑒 → 26
12𝑀𝑔 + 𝜈

Positron Emission
- Positron is a positively charged electron, 𝛽+ or 01𝛽.
- A positron and an electron form a matter-antimatter pair. Collisions of particles and
antiparticles results in the destruction of both particles and the transformation of the
combined masses into energy. The collision of a positron with an electron produces 511 kVe
of gamma ray photons, travelling in opposite directions
- In 𝛽+ decay, a proton decays into a neutron and a positron:
1
1𝑝 → 10𝑛 + 01𝛽 + 𝜈

Chemistry for Engineers / Week 5 - Topic 3 Nuclear Chemistry

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 - Nuclear charge decreases by one.
Example
Complete the following equations with the correct particles and identify the mode of decay.
(a) 158𝑂 → 157𝑁+ ?
(b) 40 0
19𝐾 →? + −1𝛽 + 𝜈̅
40 40
(c) 19𝐾+? → 18𝐴𝑟 + 𝜈

Strategy
Use the mass numbers and the charge numbers to identify the species missing on each equation.
Once the species has been identified, we can use the definitions of the various nuclear reactions to identify
the reaction.

Solution
(a) 158𝑂 → 157𝑁+ ?
There is no change in the mass numbers of from oxygen-15 to nitrogen-15, therefore, the
mass number of the unknown particle is 0. Balancing the charge number on each side of the
equation we can say that the charge of the particle is +1. Based on these two, we determine
the particle to be a positron, and the event is positron emission. We also add a neutrino to
complete the equation:
15 15
8𝑂 → 7𝑁 + 01𝛽 + 𝜈
40
(b) 19𝐾 →? + −10𝛽 + 𝜈̅
This is beta decay. There should be no change in the mass number. Balancing the charge
number for each side of the equation we get the mass number for the unknown particle as
20 (from 19=20-1). We identify the unknown particle as 40
20 𝐶𝑎. We get the final equation as:

40 40
19𝐾 → 20𝐶𝑎 + −10𝛽 + 𝜈̅
40 40
(c) 19𝐾+? → 18𝐴𝑟 +𝜈
There is no change in the mass number from potassium to argon; therefore, the unknown
particle has a mass number of 0. There is a decrease in the charge number, so the missing
particle is an electron. And this event is an electron capture. The equation should be:
40 40
19𝐾+? → 18𝐴𝑟 +𝜈

1.2. Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

The rate of a chemical reaction can be expressed in terms of either the rate at which the reactant
is consumed or the rate at which the product is formed. We study the rates of chemical reactions by
observing the concentration of one or more substances involved.
In studying radioactive decay, however, we can measure the rate directly. Each decay produces a
high-energy particle or a photon, the amount of which accounts for the decays in a given period of time.
Activity
- The rate at which a sample decays.
For a sample of N the rate of disintegration is given by:

∆𝑁
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (1)
∆𝑡

becquerel (Bq
- SI unit for nuclear activity
- One nuclear disintegration per second
curie (Ci)
- An older unit used to measure the activity
- Originally defined as the number of disintegrations per second of 1 gram of radium-226
- Equivalent to 3.7x1010 Bq.

The equation for a radioactive decay is:

𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡 (2)

Chemistry for Engineers / Week 5 - Topic 3 Nuclear Chemistry

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 Where 𝑁0 =initial number of the nuclei, 𝑘=decay constant
Taking the natural logarithm of each side and rearranging,

𝑙𝑛 𝑁 = 𝑙𝑛𝑁0 − 𝑘𝑡

𝑙𝑛 𝑁0 − 𝑙𝑛𝑁 = 𝑘𝑡

𝑁0
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑘𝑡 (3)
𝑁

Here we can see that nuclear decay is a first-order process. The half-life of the particle can be
obtained by:

𝑙𝑛 2 0.693
𝑡1/2 = = (4)
𝑘 𝑘

Example
The half-life of carbon-14, used in radiocarbon dating, is 5730 years. What is the decay constant
for carbon-14?
Strategy
The half-life and the decay constant are alternative ways of characterizing the rate of decay, so
knowing one allows us to find the other.
Solution

0.693
𝑡1/2 =
𝑘
0.693
𝑘= = 1.21𝑥10−4 𝑦𝑟 −1
5730 𝑦𝑟

Radiocarbon dating
- The ratio 14C/12C in living organisms remains relatively constant over time. When a plant or
animal dies, this ratio becomes the initial point for decay. If we can determine this ratio,
therefore, we have all the information needed to use the kinetic equations for radioactive
decay and determine the age of artifacts.
Example
A piece of cloth is discovered in a burial pit in the Palawan. A tiny sample of the cloth is burned to
CO2, and the 14C/12C ratio is 0.250 times the ratio in today’s atmosphere. How old is the cloth?
Solution

0.693
𝑡1 =
2 𝑘

0.693 0.693
𝑘= = = 1.21𝑥10−4 𝑦𝑟 −1
𝑡1/2 5730

The age of the artifact is given by:

𝑁0
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑘𝑡
𝑁
1 𝑁0
𝑡=
ln
𝑘 𝑁
1 1
𝑡= ln = 11500 𝑦𝑟
1.21𝑥10−4 𝑦𝑟 −1 250

Table 3 Half-lives of some radioactive isotopes (Brown & Holme, 2011)

Chemistry for Engineers / Week 5 - Topic 3 Nuclear Chemistry

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1.3. Nuclear Stability
To understand nuclear stability, we can use the chart of nuclides, a plot of the number of protons
versus the number of neutrons in all known stable nuclei.

Figure 2 The chart of the nuclides is a plot of atomic number (Z) versus neutron number (N) for all
known nuclides. All stable isotopes lie in the region shown in blue, which is referred to as the band of
stability. Many general chemistry textbooks reverse the axes in this chart so that N is on the y axis and Z
is on the x axis. But the form shown here is used throughout the nuclear science field, and we choose to
follow that convention.
Image source: (Brown & Holme, 2011)

Isotopes below or to the right of the band of stability tend to emit beta particles to gain stability,
whereas those above or to the left undergo positron emission or electron capture. Isotopes to the right
of the band have more neutrons than necessary, so beta emission occurs to produce an additional proton.
Isotopes to the left of the band, in contrast, have more protons than needed, so positron emission and
electron capture occur to produce an additional neutron and increase stability.

Rules in determining the nuclear stability

1. Nuclei that contain 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, or 126 protons or neutrons are generally more stable than
nuclei that do not possess these numbers. For example, there are 10 stable isotopes of tin
(Sn) with the atomic number 50 and only 2 stable isotopes of antimony (Sb) with the atomic
number 51. The numbers 2, 8, 20, 50, 82, and 126 are called magic numbers. The significance
of these numbers for nuclear stability is similar to the numbers of electrons associated with
the very stable noble gases (that is, 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, and 86 electrons).

Chemistry for Engineers / Week 5 - Topic 3 Nuclear Chemistry

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 2. Nuclei with even numbers of both protons and neutrons are generally more stable than those
with odd numbers of these particles (Table 4).
3. All isotopes of the elements with atomic numbers higher than 83 are radioactive. All isotopes
of technetium (Tc, Z = 43) and promethium (Pm, Z = 61) are radioactive.

Table 4 Number of stable isotopes with even and odd numbers of protons and neutrons
Protons Neutrons Number of Stable Isotopes
Odd Odd 4
Odd Even 50
Even Odd 53
Even Even 164

Strong force
- Holds nucleus together
- Acts over very short distances between any two nucleons.
- Attraction due to the strong force overcomes the repulsive coulombic force between protons
and binds the nucleus together.
- Arises from the interaction between fundamental particles called quarks and gluons.

Magic Numbers (Nuclear Magic Numbers, 2020)

In some cases, the isotopes can consist of magic numbers for both protons and neutrons; which
are called double magic numbers. The double numbers only occur for isotopes that are heavier, because
the repulsion of the forces between the protons. The magic numbers are:
- proton: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 114
- neutron: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126, 184

1.4. Energetics of Nuclear Reactions

Binding Energy
- Energy that released if the nucleus formed from a collection of free nucleons.
- The greater the binding energy, the more stable the nucleus
- It comes from:

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 (5)

Where c= 2.9979 x 108 m/s

We can calculate the amount of energy released by:

∆𝐸 = ∆𝑚𝑐 2 (6)

Where ∆𝑚=mass of product – mass of reactant, ∆𝐸= energy of product – energy of reactant

Mass defect
- The difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of the masses of its protons,
neutrons, and electrons

Example
The atomic mass of 208 5
51 𝑇𝑙 is 204.9744 amu. Calculate the nuclear binding energy of this nucleus
81
and the corresponding nuclear binding energy per nucleon.
Strategy
First, determine the difference between the mass of the nucleus and the mass of all the protons
and neutrons, which gives us the mass defect. Next, we apply Einstein’s mass-energy relationship ∆𝐸 =
(∆𝑚)𝑐 2 .
Solution
There are 81 protons and 124 neutrons in the thallium nucleus. The mass of 81 11𝐻 atoms is

81 × 1.007825 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 81.63383 𝑎𝑚𝑢

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 The mass of 124 neutrons is

124 × 1.008665 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 125.07446 𝑎𝑚𝑢

5
The predicted mass of 208
8 𝑇𝑙 is 81.63383 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 124.07446 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 206.70829
51
The mass defect is:

∆𝑚 = 204.9744 𝑎𝑚𝑢 − 206.70829 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = −1.7339 𝑎𝑚𝑢

The energy released is:

∆𝐸 = (∆𝑚 )𝑐 2

∆𝐸 = (−1.7339 𝑎𝑚𝑢)(3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)2

= −1.56 × 1017 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ∙ 𝑚 2 /𝑠 2

To convert, we use 1 J=1 kg.m2/s2

𝑚2 1𝑔 1𝑘𝑔
∆𝐸 = −1.56 × 1017 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ∙ × ×
𝑠 2 6.022 × 1023 𝑎𝑚𝑢 1000 𝑔

𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚 2
= −2.59 × 10−10 = 2.59 × 10−10 𝐽
𝑠2

The nuclear binding energy per nucleon is calculated by:

𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛 = (7)
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠

2.59 × 10−10 𝐽
𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛 =
205 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛𝑠
−12
𝐽
= 1.26 × 10
𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑜𝑛

1.5. Transmutation, Fission and Fusion

Transmutation
- one nucleus changes to another, either by natural decay or in response to some outside
intervention, such as neutron bombardment
- Example: Production of 14C is an example of natural transmutation, neutron capture by 10B:
10
5𝐵 + 10𝑛 → 11 ∗
5𝐵 → 73𝐿𝑖 + 42𝐻𝑒
11 ∗
5𝐵 is the unstable intermediate nucleus also called compound nucleus. It decays almost
instantly emitting particles and energy to produce a stable nucleus.
Transmutation reactions are used to produce a number of medically useful radioisotopes.

Fission
- a heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei
- Some fission reactions are spontaneous, while others are induced by neutron bombardment.
- In induced fission, a neutron is absorbed by a large fissile nucleus, such as 235𝑈, producing a highly
unstable intermediate compound nucleus, such as 236𝑈. This compound nucleus separates into two
smaller parts, emitting neutrons in the process. One of the many possible fission pairs that could be
formed from 236𝑈 is barium and krypton.
235
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 236 ∗
92𝑈 → 141
56𝐵𝑎
92
+ 36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 10𝑛
Example
Calculate the energy released by a nucleus of uranium-235 if it splits into a barium-141 nucleus and a krypton-92
nucleus according to the equation above.
Strategy

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 Einstein’s equation (𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 ) relates the energy released to the difference in mass between the
fissile uranium nuclide and the resulting fission products.
We just need to account for the masses of all participating particles.
Solution
The masses of various particles involved are shown below:

We can sum the appropriate particle masses to fi nd the masses of the reactants and the products.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 235.0439231 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 1.0086649 𝑎𝑚𝑢

= 236.0525880 𝑎𝑚𝑢

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 = 141.9144064 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 91.9261528 𝑎𝑚𝑢 + 3(1.0086649 𝑎𝑚𝑢)

= 235.8665539 𝑎𝑚𝑢

Now we subtract to find the mass defect.

∆𝑚 = 235.8665539 𝑎𝑚𝑢 − 236.0525880 𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 20.1860341 𝑎𝑚𝑢

𝐸 = (∆𝑚 )𝑐 2
2
1.66053886 × 1027 𝑘𝑔 2.99792458 × 108 𝑚
= 20.1860341 𝑎𝑚𝑢 × ×( )
𝑎𝑚𝑢 𝑠

= 22.776406 × 1011

Chain Reaction

Figure 3 Bombarding enriched uranium with neutrons induces the fission of 235𝑈, and each decay
produces additional neutrons. Because each of those neutrons can induce further fission, a self-
sustaining chain reaction is possible.
Critical Mass
- The amount of material required for a sustainable chain reaction

Fusion

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 - Light nuclei merge into a heavier nucleus.
- The energy of the sun originates in a fusion reaction in which four hydrogen nuclei combine
to form helium nucleus

4 11𝐻 → 42𝐻𝑒 + 2 −10𝛽 + 2𝜈 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

- Fusion does not produce the high-level radioactive waste that fission generates. The primary
product is ordinary helium, which poses no radiation threat. Energetic neutrons are also
produced does pose some problems. Neutron bombardment could induce nuclear reactions
in materials surrounding the fusion reactor, producing some level of radioactivity. But this
also exists in fission reactors, and careful choices of engineering materials can minimize the
risks involved.
1.6. The Interaction of Radiation and Matter
Ionizing Radiation
- The energy of the photon or particle is greater than the ionization energy of typical atoms or
molecules
- They could induce ionization in whatever material it encounters
- Example: X-rays and gamma rays, alpha and beta particles
- May cause damage to any material it encounters, i.e. living tissue
Non-ionizing radiation
- includes visible light, radio waves, and microwaves; all have photon energies smaller than
typical ionization energies

Figure 4 Possible health hazards from exposure to ionizing radiation. These hazards depend on
the penetrating power of radiation.

Methods of detecting radiation

Geiger counter
- is commonly used in laboratories and by radiation safety teams to measure radioactivity
(Figure 5). A glass tube containing a gas at a low pressure (about 0.1 atm) is coated on the
inside with a metal that acts as a cathode. A wire anode runs down the center of the tube. A
high voltage is applied across the electrodes. Alpha and beta particles enter a window in the
tube and ionize atoms of gas. Electrons released from the gas atoms are attracted to the
anode, and, as they travel to the anode, they cause the ionization of more gas atoms, releasing
more electrons. An avalanche of electrons reaches the anode, and a current pulse is recorded.
If it is connected to a speaker, the pulse is registered as an audible click.

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 (a)

(b)
Figure 5 (a) In a Geiger-Mueller tube, or Geiger counter, radiation passes through a thin window
into a gas-filled tube. Energy from the radiation produces ions in the gas, releasing electrons. The
resulting ions and electrons are then attracted to oppositely charged electrodes, producing a pulse of
electric current. In a typical Geiger counter, the current pulse is converted to an audible clicking sound.
(b) A "two-piece" bench type Geiger–Müller counter with end-window detector
Image Sources: (Brown & Holme, 2011) (Geiger Counter, 2020)

Dosimeter
- A film-badge dosimeter, commonly worn by people who work with radioactive isotopes, takes
advantage of Becquerel’s discovery that radiation darkens photographic plates (Figure 6). The
darkened badge, coupled with a record of each exposure to a radioactive species, provides a
warning mechanism if safe exposure levels are exceeded.

Figure 6 A film-badge dosimeter

Image source: (Dosimetry, 2020)
Measuring Radiation Dose
Exposure
- Measures the number of ions produced in air
Absorbed dose
- Measures the amount of radiation actually absorbed by a certain material
Equivalent dose
- Quantify the resulting damage to human tissue
Quality factor, Q
- Used in calculating the equivalent dose
- Aka relative biological effectiveness (RBE)

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 Table 5 Definitions and units to quantify exposure to radiation (Brown & Holme, 2011)

Supplemental Materials
- https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/nuclear-chemistry
- https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_M
aps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry

References
Brown, L. S., & Holme, T. A. (2011). Chemistry for Engineering Students, 2nd Edition. California:
Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Chang, R., & Overby, J. (2011). General Chemistry The Essential Concepts 6th edition. New York City:
McGraw-Hill.

Dosimetry. (2020, October 5). Retrieved from R.M Wester & Associates, Inc:
https://www.rmwester.com/radiation-safety-services/dosimetry/dosimetry-dosimeter-badge-
film-badge/

Geiger Counter. (2020, September 21). Retrieved from Wikipedia:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geiger_counter

Nuclear Magic Numbers. (2020, September 23). Retrieved from LibreTexts:

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/
Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry/Nuclear_En
ergetics_and_Stability/Nuclear_Magic_Numbers

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