Earthing & Shock
Earthing & Shock
NEUTRAL WIRE:
Ri = infinite
V
Ib= =0
∞+ Rb+ ℜ
Hence no current passes through the body and no shock is experienced by the
person.
F ig. 6.13 An unearthed apparatus F ig. 6.14 Electric circuit ant the
being touched by a person standing time of getting a shock
on the ground or earth.
When the insulation of the element becomes defective, the insulation resistance of
the apparatus will approach zero, and then the value of lb will be much dependent upon
the resistance Rb of the body and it may be quite sufficient to give a fatal shock to the
person. In this case, I b = V/ R b + Re
Now let the metal case be earthed as shown in fig. 6. 15 (a ) and fig. 6. 15 ( b )
represents the electrical circuit when any person standing on the earth touches the
apparatus.
Again the leakage current will largely be determined by the resistance R i , when the
insulation of the element is sound , the value of R i will be very high and the leakage
current I b will be almost negligible. When the insulation resistance deteriorates , the
value of R i approaches zero ; the value of the leakage current no doubt will be quite
sufficient to give a fatal shock , but at the junction A before it passes through the body ,
it divides into two paths open for it , one through the body offering resistance R b and
the other through the earth resistance R e 1 which is negligible. The resistance R e 1
comprises of the resistance of the earth electrode and resistance of the general mass of
earth which is denoted as R e . As R b and R e 1 are parallel, the effective resistance will be
approximately equal to R b .
Thus the equivalent resistance of the alternative path will be :
R = R i+ 1/ (1/R e 1 + 1/ R b ) = R i + ( R e1 x R b ) / ( R e1 +R b )
I b = V / R = V / [R i + ( R e1 x R b ) / ( R e1 +R b ) ] --------- ( i )
The current for which value has been arrived at in eq n. --- ( i ) will be divided in two
parts at junction A. If the value of the current through the body and earth be I e and I d
which adjust themselves in the inverse ratio of their resistance , then
I e = I b / (R e1 x R b ) x R e1 ---------- (ii)
I d = I b / (R e1 x R b ) x R b ---------- ( iii)
Eqn ( ii ) / ( iii ) I e / I d = R e1 / R b
Since the maximum value R e1 is of the order of 5 ohms , R b under worst condition
will be 1000 ohms, thus current I d will be much more than that of I e and this current will
not be sufficient to cause any shock.
Bonding Connection :
It will be observed from the above that the effective isolation of the plant from
the supply mains depend upon the earth resistance comprising the resistance of
earth electrodes and the resistance of general mass of the earth in between these
two points. If due to some reasons , the earth resistance rise above the safe limits, it
will cause the current through the body to increase to thus the possibility of the
shock further increases. Hence the arrangement is not fool-proof .
In order to make the arrangement absolutely safe from shock point of view,
an alternative arrangement is to run an earth wire between the electrical
apparatus to be protected and the neutral of the sources of supply called a
bonding connections, as shown in Fig.6.16(a). When any person touches the
metal case of the electrical apparatus, the circuit reduces as shown in Fig.
6.16(b).
insulated from the pole on which it is metallic contact with the support metals
supported. In this case, the insulator is work.
smaller in size than the one supporting
the phase conductors .
4. It may not be connected to earth at an It must be connected to earth at least at 3
intermediate point in the line . places in a Km or at 4 places an a mile.
Fire Hazards From Electricity :
Whenever there is a breakdown of insulation over the wires it is always accompanied by
generation of heat and increase of temperature near about the fault. If there is a fault
earth and there is no isolation of circuit due to fault current, then the fault persists which
further increases the temperature of the surrounding and if the temperature reaches
ignition point, the insulation starts burning , and fire breaks out.
In order to prove it, Let a fuse be inserted in the neutral of the supply as shown
in fig. 6.17 and let the metallic body of the electric appliance be earthened to
avoid electric shock . Let the insulation of the appliance deteriorate and there is
a leakage current and this makes the fuse in the neutral to melt first. But as soon
as the some one touches the electric appliance in order to know what was
happened, he will complete the circuit through his body to earth and source
and thus will get a severe shock since it is still not disconnected from the live
mains.
Hence for safety reasons, a fuse should never be used in the neutral
fig. 6.17
EARTH ELECTRODE : The conductor embedded in the ground for the purpose
of making connection with the general mass of earth is known as earth
electrode and the wire which connects overheads earth wire ( or any other
equipment to be earthed ) with earth electrode is known as earthing lead.
The earth resistance is dependent upon many factors as detailed below and as
such its value can vary:
(a) Material of electrodes and earth wire.
(b) Size of electrode and earth wire.
(c) Temperature of the soil.
(d) Moisture of the soil.
(e) Depth to which it is embedded .
(f) Quantity of coal and charcoal in t he earth electrode pit.
Maximum value beyond which the earth electrode resistance should not be
increased in 5 ohms. However for better performance at Power house and
substation, its value should be 0.5 ohm and 1.00 ohm respectively. Water is
poured in the earth pit containing electrode to improve the resistance.
POINTS TO REMEMBER WHILE PROVING EARTHING :
i.Distance : The distance of the electrode from the installation at the premises should
be more than 1.5 meters.
ii.Cross- section of the earthing lead : It should never be less than half the
cross-section of the mains wire or conductor. The selection should be made in such a
way that even in worst condition it shall not fuse out. The minimum size of the earthing
lead should not be less than electrical equivalent of copper conductor of 8 SWG (12.97
sq. mm cross-section ). Size of electrodes and earthing leads are different for different
type of loads.
iii.Cross -section of the earth continuity conductor :The size of the earth
continuity conductor should not be less than 14 SWG ( 2.894 sq. mm ).
iv. Electrode : earthing can be down either with plate or pipe electrode. It should be
remembered that the material for earth electrode and earth lead should be same and
the electrode should always be placed in vertical position.
V. Earth resistance : The earth resistance of any earthing should not br more than 5
ohms. For better performance at power house and substation or for high horse power
motor beyond 100 HP. The earth resistance should be upto .5 ohm and 1 ohm
respectively.
The resistance of earth is dependent upon area of electrode in contact with the
general mass of earth, the quantity of earth, coal and salt.
The resistance of an existing earth can be increased by pouring water for G.I.
plate earthing, salted water for copper plate earthing or by replacing the coke and
salt.
The low earthing resistance can be obtained by increasing the cross-sectional area
of electrodes and this can be achieved by connecting a number of electrodes in
parallel.
Plate Earthing.
The earth connection can again be provided with the help of a copper plate or a G.I.
plate. When G.I. plate is used it should not be less than 60 cm x 60 cm x 6.35 mm while
for copper plate these dimensions may be 60 cm x 60 cm x 3.18 mm. However , the use
of copper plate in these days, is limited.
The plate is kept with its face vertical at a depth of 3m.(10ft.) and is so arranged that it is
embedded in an alternate layer of coke and salt for a minimum thickness of about 15
cm. in case earthing is done by copper plate and in coke layers of 15 cm. if it is done
with G.I. plate.
The earth wire is securely bolted to the earth plate with the help of bolt nut and washer,
the details of which are shown in fig. 6.20 (a). It should be remember that the nuts and
bolts must be of copper for copper plate and should be of galvanized iron for
galvanized plate. The other details of plate earthing are same as that of G.I. pipe
earthing.
Earth Electrode: The conductor embedded in the ground for the purpose
of making connection with the general mass of earth is known as earth
electrode and the wire which connects overheads earth wire ( or any other
equipment to be earthed ) with earth electrode is known as earthing lead.
Where available underground water pipes or lead sheathed and steel armoured
cables should not be used as earth electrode . These are prohibited by ISI.
“ Sprinkler pipes or conveying gas, water or flammable liquid, conduit, metallic
enclosures of cable, conductors and lightning protection system, shall not be
used as a means of earthing an installation, or even as a link in earthing system”.
The reason is, the water pipes are not usually in direct contact with earth,
particularly if no-conducting joining have been used between section of water
main. The same is the case with lead sheath or steel armouring of cables.
(ii) Strip Electrodes. These consist of copper strips, not smaller than 25 mm x
1.6 mm in cross-section of bare copper conductor not less than 3 mm 2 in section.
They are buried in horizontal trenches, not less than.2.5 m deep. The length shall be
such as to give required earth resistance.
(vi) Sub-main earthing conductor : The earth wire which runs between
the main switch board to the distribution board or in other words along the sub-mains is
known as sub-main earthing conductor.
(vii).Earthing continuity conductor :The wire running between the
distribution board and various plugs and appliances is known as earth continuity
conductor.
The resistance of earth is dependent upon area of electrode in contact with the
general mass of earth, the quantity of earth, coal and salt.
The resistance of an existing earth can be increased by pouring water for
G.I. plate earthing, salted water for copper plate earthing or by replacing the
coke and salt.
The low earthing resistance can be obtained by increasing the cross-sectional
area of electrodes and this can be achieved by connecting a number of
electrodes in parallel.
Various size of earth lead and electrode for different type of loads are given in
table 1 below :
Type of loads and Size of the earth lead Size of the earth electrode
installation copper G.I wire
SWG Area in SW Area Copper G. I
sq. mm G in sq.
mm
Consumers residential 8 12.97 8 12.97 60 cm x 60 60 cm x 60
premises cm x 3.18 cm x 6.35
mm mm
Pole earthing of do do 8 12.97 do do
transmission or distribution
lines
Industrial loads upto 10 HP do do 8 12.97 do do
(a)The neutral conductor of a 3-phase four-wire system and the middle conductor of a
two phase 3-wire system shall be earthed by not less than two separate and distinct
connections with earth both at the generating station and at the substations. It may also
be earthed at one or more points along the distributions system or service line in
addition to any connection with earth which maybe at the consumer’s premises.
(b)The frame of every generator, stationary motor and so far as is practicable, portable
motor, and the metallic parts ( not intended as conductors ) of all transformers and any
other apparatuses used for regulating or controlling energy and all medium voltage
energy consuming apparatus shall be earthed by the owner by two separate and distinct
connection with earth.
(c)All metallic covering containing electric supply wires, metallic apparatus viz. iron clad
switches, distribution fuse boards, down rod of fan, water- tight switches etc. should be
earthed. In addition to running earth conductor, the main switch board at consumers
premises should be earthed with an earth electrode.
(d)All apparatus viz. refrigerator, energy meters, cooking range, oven, electric heaters,
press etc. should be earthed.
(e)In an underground cable, metallic sheath should be earthed by two separate and
distinct connection with earth.
(f)Iron clamps, brackets, steel poles, steel tower stay wires of a distribution and
transmission system should be earthed.
(h)In case of d.c. supply, the middle conductor should be earthed at the generating
stations
ELECTRIC SHOCK:
The fibrillation of the heart is the most serious cause of death and there is no cure,
although there is possibility of rescuing a man who has suffered by the latter two
causes. The seriousness of the electric shock is depend upon the following factors.
E
I= --------------- ( 1 )
R
iii) The path taken by the cur rent through the body. If the bath of the leakage
current is without involving the chest or heart, survival is possible but there are
severe burns on the parts of the body involved in the shock depending upon the
value of the current.
Table - 1 gives the results of shock under different conditions and under different
voltages. TABLE – 1( BELOW )
100 V 500 V 10000 V
Electric Curre Effect Current Effect Current Effect
Condition of nt A A
resistance of
body A
..
the body
ohms
Certain Burns, 10 Severe burns,
death and may survive
Totally wet 1000 0.1 0.5 A probable
· slight burns death
FAULTS
Introduction . The electrical energy or power generated at the power station and is
conveyed by transmission and distribution system before being delivered to the
consumers. There are various faults which may occur in the system during transmission
and distribution of electric power. Theses faults reduce the reliability of electric power.
To ensure better service, every effort is made to design the power system in which the
frequency of faults is minimum.
Types of Faults in Overhead system : The most common fault in the overhead
lines is short circuit fault. This may occur in the system due to insulation failure ( earth
fault ) caused by overvoltage ( i.e. due to lightning or surges ) or due to broken
conductors. The various types of faults that occur in a 3- phase overhead system are
given below :
1.Single phase to earth : This may occur when insulation of one of the line
conductor fails or when one of the line conductor breaks and falls on the ground or
guard wire.
2. Phase to phase : This may occur when one of the line conductor breaks and falls
on the other line conductor.
3. Two phases to earth : This may occur when insulators of two line conductor fail
simultaneously or when two line conductors break and fall on the ground or guard wire
simultaneously.
4.Phase to phase and third phase to earth :This may occur when one of line
conductor breaks and falls on the other conductor and simultaneously the insulator of
the third conductor fails.
5. All three phases short circuited : This may occur when two of the line
conductors break and fall on the third conductor.
6. All three phases to earth : This may occur when insulators of all the three line
conductors fail simultaneously.
All the above faults are shown in fig . 10. 9 . Whenever any one of the
above faults occurs, the line is disconnected from the power system by the protective
devices placed at the substation. Some times there may be a temporary fault which
may be developed by the birds. Therefore,
Fig. 10.9 Fault’s incircuit breaker
Over head Line is operated to energies the
line. If the circuit breaker could not hold, it means there is a permanent fault on the line .
Since the overhead line conductors are nacked, the fault is dected by patrolling the line.
Types of Faults in Underground Cables. The main faults which are likely to
occur in underground cables are :
1.Ground or earth faults : When the insulation of the cable between core and
armoring (armouring) fails or get damaged, current starts flowing from core to cable
sheath or earth. Such faults are known as ground or earth faults .
2. Short circuit faults : When the insulation between two cores of the multicore
cable fails or get damaged current starts flowing from one core to other instead of
flowing through the load. Such faults are known as short circuit faults.
However in single core cables such faults only occur when the insulation between the
two cables fails or get damaged
3. Open circuit faults : When a joint of the cable conductor is pulled out or when
the cables conductor breaks, no current flows in the cable. Such faults are known as
open circuit faults.
Before locating the point of fault in the cables it is necessary to determine the
nature of fault. For determination of fault, the insulation resistance of each core to
ground and between the cores is measured with the help of megger. If megger shows
low insulation resistance between any core and earth that indicates ground fault.
Whereas, if megger shows low insulation resistance between any two cores, keeping far
ends of the cable is isolated from load, that indicates short circuit fault.
To determine open circuit fault, the far end of a single core cable it earthed whereas the
far ends of the two cores of a multicore cable are interconnected and an ammeter is
connected in series with the cable. Then a low voltage supply it connected across core
and earth or between two cores. If the ammeter gives zero deflection that indicates
open circuit fault in the cable.
BLAVIER’S TEST
This test is used to locate the underground fault of a single core cable.
Fig. 10.10
In this test, the resistance between test end of the cable T 1 and earth is measured first
with far end T2 isolated from the earth as shown in fig-10.11. let this value of resistance
be R1.
R 1 = r1 + r ---------------- ( i )
Fig. 10. 11
Second time again resistance between test of the cable T 1 and earth is measured
with far end T2 connected to earth as shown in fig-10.12, let this value of
resistance be R2.
R 2 = r1 + R p [ r and r 2 parallel, 1/ R p = 1/ r + 1/ r 2
= r 1 + r x r 2 / r +r 2 ----- (ii) Or, 1/ R p = r + r 2 / r xr 2
Or, R p =r x r 2 / r +r 2 ]
Fig. 10.12