CAGAYAN STATE UNIVERSITY

CARIG CAMPUS

HYDROLOGY
2ND SEMESTER AY 2020-2021

UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION
Hydrological Cycle, Water Balance
 MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION
Hydrological Cycle

In this chapter, we provide a summary of the fundamental processes that contribute to the
formation of surface and groundwater flows and a discussion of the key parameters of the process.
An understanding of these parameters facilitates hydrologic analyses and planning.

Learning Objectives:

At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to:

1. Describe and understand the hydrologic cycle
2. To be able to solve different cases for Water Balance equations.

1.1. Definition and Scope

Hydrology is literally the science of water. Etymologically, the word has its roots in ancient Greek,
and is a composite, made up of υδωρ ´ , water, and λo´γoς, word.

Actually, the word hydrology has not always been well defined and even as recently as the 1960s it
was not very clear exactly what hydrology was supposed to cover and encompass. Price and Heindl (1968),
in a survey of many of the definitions that had appeared in the literature over the previous 100 years, were
compelled to conclude that the question “What is Hydrology?” had not been resolved by their review. Still,
they felt that, in general, there seemed to be a consensus that hydrology is a physical science, which is
concerned mainly with the water cycle of land and near-shore areas.

1.2. Elements of Hydrology

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1.3. Hydrology for Water Resources Management

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1.4 Hydrologic Cycle

Precipitation at any place is distributed as follows:

1. A portion known as the interception is retained on buildings, trees, shrubs, and plants. This is
eventually evaporated.
2. Some of the remaining precipitation is evaporated back into the atmosphere directly.
3. Another portion infiltrates into the ground. A part of the infiltration in the root zone is consumed by
plants and trees and ultimately transpired into the atmosphere.
4. The water that percolates deeper into the ground constitutes the groundwater flow. It may ultimately
appear as the baseflow in streams.
5. If the precipitation exceeds the combined evaporation and infiltration, puddles known as depression
storage are formed. Evaporation takes place from these puddles.
6. After the puddles are filled, the water begins flowing over the surface to join a stream channel. With
reference to precipitation this is called the precipitation excess. From a consideration of the surface
water flow, this is known as direct runoff. Some evaporation takes place from the stream surface.
7. A layer of water is formed as runoff occurs. The water in this layer is known as detention storage.
Evaporation takes place from this storage as well. When precipitation ceases, the water in detention
storage eventually joins the stream channel.
8. The destination of all streams is open bodies of water, such as oceans, seas, and lakes, which are
subject to extensive evaporation.
9. The evaporation from all the sources above, together with the transpiration, carries moisture into
the atmosphere. This results in the formation of clouds that contribute to precipitation, through
which steps 1 through 9 repeat.

This chain process, driven principally by energy from the sun, is known as the hydrologic cycle. The
complete cycle is global in nature. Subcycles with smaller boundary limits also exist.

Figure 1: Hydrologic cycle with global annual average water balance given in units relative to a value of 100
for the rate of precipitation on land.
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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION HYDROLOGY MODULE 1
1.5 Water Balance Equation
In quantitative terms the hydrologic cycle can be represented by a closed equation which
represents the principle of conservation of mass, often referred to in hydraulics as the continuity equation.
Many forms of this expression, called the water balance equation, are possible by subdividing, consolidating,
or eliminating some of the terms, depending on the purpose of computation.
The water balance can be expressed:
1. for a short interval or for a long duration;
2. for a natural drainage basin or an artificially separated boundary or with respect to water bodies
such as lakes, reservoirs, and groundwater basins; and
3. For the phase above the ground surface, that below the surface, or the entire phase.
Three applications of the water balance equation are common:
1. a water balance equation for large basin areas,
2. a water balance equation for water bodies, and
3. a water balance equation for direct runoff.

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 In the first two cases the entire phase above and below the ground surface is considered in the equation
in terms of the streamflows. The infiltration term, I, that drops out in the entire phase appears in the direct
runoff case above the ground surface.
In its general form, the water balance equation may be represented by
𝑬 = 𝑷 + [(𝑸𝑺𝑰 + 𝑸𝑮𝑰 ) − (𝑸𝑺𝑶 +𝑸𝑮𝑶 )] − ∆𝒔 − 𝒏 [𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐿 𝑇 ]

or

𝑬 = 𝑷 + 𝑸𝑺𝑰 + 𝑸𝑮𝑰 − 𝑸𝑺𝑶 −𝑸𝑮𝑶 − ∆𝒔 − 𝒏 [𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝐿 𝑇 ]

where

The components of equation are expressed as a volume of water or in the form of flow rates or as a
mean depth over the basin.

1.2.1 Balance Equation for Water Bodies for Short Duration

The water balance equation for reservoirs, lakes, streams, and groundwater reservoirs is used to
predict the consequences of the prevailing inflow and outflow conditions on the body of water.
If the area is a natural river basin or some other hydrologic catchment, bounded by natural divides,
the groundwater terms are normally negligible and the surface inflow Qsi is zero or, in case of artificial
interbasin water exchange, it is usually known exactly. Hence, if: 𝑅 = 𝑄 − 𝑄 is the mean net surface runoff
rate per unit area from the basic, the equation above can be simplified to
𝑷 − 𝑬 − 𝑹 − ∆𝒔 = 𝟎
When only a segment of a river is involved, the terms P and E within the river reach can be dropped.

Example 1
At a particular time the storage in a river reach is 55.3 acre-ft. At that instant, the inflow into the reach
is 375 cfs and the outflow is 563 cfs. After 2 hours, the inflow and outflow are 600 cfs and 675 cfs,
respectively. Determine (a) the change of storage during 2 hours and (b) the storage volume after 2 hours.

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Solution:

5. From the equation: 𝑷 − 𝑬 − 𝑄 + 𝑄 − ∆𝒔 = 𝟎

1.2.2 Balance Equation for Large River Basins for Long Duration
In large river basins, the water balance equation is used for the quantitative evaluation of basin
resources and for substantiation of projects for their intended use and proposed modifications. The study of
mean water balances is usually performed on a long-duration basis (for an annual cycle). Over a long period,
positive and negative water storage variations tend to balance, and the change in storage, Δs, may be
disregarded. The groundwater exchange in large basins with neighboring basins is ignored i.e. 𝑄 − 𝑄 =
0. There is no surface water inflow into a basic=n with distinct watershed divide. 𝑄 = 0

𝑷– 𝑬– 𝑸 = 𝟎 [𝑳𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳]
Where Q is the discharge volume from the basin into the river.

1.2.3 Balance Equation for Direct Runoff within a Basin during a Storm
Surface contribution to streamflow and direct runoff are synonymous terms. In terms of
runoff, the water balance from a storm over the ground surface is
𝑷 – 𝑬 – 𝑰 – 𝑺𝑫 – 𝑹 = 𝟎 [𝑳]

Where

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 The storm evaporation during the short period is small and can be disregarded. If the interception
and depression storage can also be ignored in comparison with the infiltration (in a more exact
determination, these terms are estimated separately), the equation reduces to:
𝑹 = 𝑷– 𝑰 [𝑳]

1.2.4 Water Balance Equation for Direct Runoff within a Basin for Longer than Storm Duration

The long duration in this balance equation means a period longer than the storm duration, for which
the evapotranspiration component cannot be neglected. The values of the water balance components are
averaged for this period. This can be a daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly duration.
Conceptually, these models consider that moisture is either added to or subtracted from the soil,
depending on whether precipitation for a period is greater than or less than the potential evapotranspiration.
When precipitation is less than the potential evapotranspiration, actual evapotranspiration in these
models is treated as a function of the soil moisture content. This results in the loss of soil moisture and an
increased moisture deficit; that is, the difference between the soil moisture capacity and the soil moisture
storage at a given time.
When precipitation for a period exceeds the potential evapotranspiration, moisture is added to the
soil until it attains its capacity. Any excess water contributes to runoff.
A model presented by Thomas (1981), known as the abcd model, places an upper limit on the sum of
evapotranspiration and soil moisture storage rather than only on the soil moisture storage to its capacity.
This provides a value of actual evapotranspiration less than the potential evapotranspiration and can
simulate a decrease in soil moisture storage even when precipitation is in excess of potential
evapotranspiration.
The Thomas model defines two state variables. One, known as the available water, is the sum of the
precipitation to the end of a period i and the soil moisture storage to the end of the previous period (i – 1);
that is,

𝑾𝒊 = 𝑷𝒊 + 𝑺𝒊–𝟏 [ 𝑳𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳]
The other state variable, Yi, is the sum if actual evapotranspiration and soil moisture storage at the
end of period i; that is

𝒀𝒊 = 𝑬𝒊 + 𝑺𝒊 [ 𝑳𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳]
Thomas has suggested the following nonlinear relation between the two state variables.
𝟎.𝟓
𝑾𝒊 + 𝒃 𝑾𝒊 + 𝒃 𝟐
𝑾𝒊 𝒃
𝒀𝒊 = − − [𝑳𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳]
𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂 𝒂
where a and b are the model parameters. Parameter a, according to Thomas, reflects the propensity
of runoff to occur before the soil is fully saturated. Its value of less than 1 results in runoff for Wi < b.
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Parameter b is an upper limit on the sum of evapotranspiration and soil moisture storage. Equation 𝒀𝒊 =
𝑾𝒊 𝒃 𝑾𝒊 𝒃 𝟐 𝑾𝒊 𝒃 𝟎.𝟓
− − assures that Yi < Wi.
𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂 𝟐𝒂

In order to allocate Yi of eq. 𝑌 = 𝐸 + 𝑆 between evapotranspiration and soil moisture storage at

the end of the period, it is assumed that the rate of loss of soil moisture due to evapotranspiration is
proportional to the soil moisture storage and potential evapotranspiration (PE), which leads to the relation
𝑷𝑬𝒊 /𝒃
𝑺𝒊 = 𝒀𝒊 𝒆 [𝑳𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳]

The difference Wi – Yi represents the sum of direct runoff (DR)i and infiltration contributing to groundwater
recharge (GR)i, since a part of the infiltrated water results in a change of soil moisture storage (Si – Si–1). The
allocation between the direct runoff and groundwater recharge is suggested as follows:
(𝐆𝐑)𝒊 = 𝒄(𝑾𝒊 – 𝒀𝒊) [𝑳𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳]

(𝑫𝑹)𝒊 = (𝟏 – 𝒄)(𝑾𝒊 – 𝒀𝒊) [𝑳𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳]

Where c is a model parameter that is related to the fraction of mean runoff that comes from
groundwater.
If Gi denotes the groundwater storage at the end of period i, then
(𝐆𝐑)𝒊 + 𝑮𝒊 𝟏
𝑮𝒊 = [𝑳𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳]
𝒅+𝟏
The ground water discharge is given by

(𝐐𝐆)𝒊 = 𝒅𝑮𝒊 [𝑳𝟑 𝒐𝒓 𝑳]

The streamflow at the end of period i is equal to (DR)i + (QG)i. Thus the model is applied to determine
the averaged streamflow.
The values of parameters a, b, c, and d are obtained by calibrating the model from the known data for
the water balance components.
Example 2
The average monthly precipitation data recorded at the Whippany River Basin (drainage area 29.4 mi2) at
Morristown, New Jersey, during 2015 are given below. The monthly computed potential
evapotranspiration values for the basin are also indicated. The model parameters are: a = 0.98, b = 25, c =
0.10, and d = 0.35. Initial soil moisture storage and groundwater storage are ascertained to be 7.8 and 1.5
in., respectively. For each month, determine (a) moisture storage, (b) direct runoff, (c) groundwater
recharge, (d) groundwater storage, (e) groundwater discharge, and (f) streamflow.

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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION HYDROLOGY MODULE 1
Solution

𝑊 = 𝑃 + 𝑆–

.
𝑊 +𝑏 𝑊 𝑏 𝑊 𝑏
𝑌 = − −
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎
.
9.0 + 25 9.0 + 25 9.0𝑥25
𝑌 = − − = 8.90𝑖𝑛.
2(0.98) 2(0.98) (0.98)

For Soil moisture storage:

/
𝑆 = 𝑌𝑒

For ground water recharge

(GR)𝑖 = 𝑐(𝑊𝑖 – 𝑌𝑖)

For direct run-off

(𝐷𝑅)𝑖 = (1 – 𝑐)(𝑊𝑖 – 𝑌𝑖)
(𝐷𝑅)𝑖 = (1 – 0.10)(9.0 – 8.90) = 0.09 𝑖𝑛

or

or

For groundwater storage

(GR)𝑖 + 𝐺
𝐺 =
𝑑+1
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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION HYDROLOGY MODULE 1
 0.01 + 1.5
𝐺 = = 1.12𝑖𝑛
1 + 0.35
or

For groundwater discharge

3. Similar computations are performed for the month of February with starting values of S and G as 8.24
and 1.12, respectively, and so on.

HOMEWORK:
Finish February to December

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Other Terms
1. Transpiration ion through plant leaves by plant respiration
2. Evapotranspiration - the loss of water vapor from plants to the atmosphere
- Another source tells that this is the total evaporation from BOTH soil and
plants.
3. Percolation pertains to a deeper infiltration
4. The constant low-level flow in streams due to the subsurface feed is called base
flow, and the quick surge due to overland flow is called direct runoff.
5. Hydrology is now widely (see, for example, Eagleson, 1991) accepted to be the science that deals
with those aspects of the cycling of water in the natural environment that relate specifically with
– the continental water processes, namely the physical and chemical processes along the various
pathways of continental water (solid, liquid and vapor) at all scales, including those biological
processes that influence this water cycle directly; and with
– the global water balance, namely the spatial and temporal features of the water transfers (solid,
liquid and vapor) between all compartments of the global system, i.e. atmosphere, oceans and
continents, in addition to stored water quantities and residence times in these compartments.

Figure: Another example or diagram of the Hydrologic Cycle

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