SNC2D Textbook notes (unit 1)

1.1 : Studying the Structure of Cells

Cell: Smallest unit that can perform the functions of life

Microscopy: Science of using microscopes to view samples or objects
● Advance medical diagnosis and the treatment of diseases caused by microorganisms

Cell structure
● Robert Hooke discovered cells in 1665 by examining piece of cork
● First cell structures discovered → nucleus ( organelle that controls cell
activity)
● Micrograph: Photograph taken with microscope
● Organelle: Specialized structure in a cell

Cell Theory (developed in mid 1800s)

1) All living organisms are made of one or more cells
2) The cell is the basic organizational unit of life
3) All cells come from pre-existing cells

Content of the cytoplasm

- CYTOSOL: fluid material between cell membrane and nucleus, filled with specialized
organelles
- Cytosol + Organelles = cytoplasm

Animal and Plant Cell Organelles

- All cells in body depends on protein- allows cells to carry out life processes to keep you
healthy
- Proteins are essential nutrients for growth and repair of body tissues

Organelles (In plant and animal cells)

Cell Membrane:
- Supports cell
- Allows diffusion of unwanted substances
- Semi-permeable membrance

Cytoplasm: Includes cytosol - organelles and other

life supporting materials (Sugar and water) all
contained by cell membrane)

Mitochondria: Where energy is released from

glucose to fuel cell activities
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Ribosomes: Help produce proteins which make up much of cell’s structure and required for
activities necessary for cell’s survival’; some ribosomes float in cytoplasm, others attached to
the endoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic reticulum: network of membrane covered channels that transport materials made
in the cell, connected to nucleus

Vesicles: Membrane covered sacs that transport and/or store materials inside cell and
sometimes help these materials cross the cell membrane to enter/exit the cell

Golgi body: sorts and packages proteins and other molecules for transport out of the cell

Nucleus: controls cell activities

Nucleolus: makes ribosomes, which help to make proteins

Nuclear membrane : protects contents of the nucleus

Vacuoles: contain water and other materials and are used to store or transport small molecules;
plant cells tend to have one large vacuole ; animal cells have several smaller vacuoles

Cytoskeleton: filaments and tubules that provide a framework for the cell, helping maintain its
structure and providing “tracks” along which vesicles and organelles can move

Cell wall: a tough rigid structure lying outside plants cell’s membrane, provide support

Chloroplasts: FOUND ONLY IN PLANT CELLS; trap energy from sun to make glucose which is
broken down in the mitochondria to power cell’s activities (animals get glucose from FOOD
THAT THEY EAT)

All cells use energy

- Some organelles are found in both plant and animal cells ( e.g; mitochondria)
- Most cells cannot survive without energy mitochondria release from glucose
→ cellular respiration

Cellular respiration - requires oxygen to occur, releases energy CO2 is waste product)
- We get rid of co2 and water vapour when we breathe out

C6H1206 + 6O2 ------> 6CO2 + 6H20 + energy

1.2 - Genes: Answers and Questions

 SNC2D Textbook notes (unit 1)

Chromosome: in a cell nucleus, a thread-like structure made mostly of DNA

- Every plant and animal has specific number of chromosomes in nucleus of each cell-
usually come in pairs -
- One of each pair come from each parent (sperm and egg)

Organism Chromosome number/cell

Human 46

Cow 60

Chicken 78

Corn 20

Butterfly 80

Fruit fly 8

The DNA code

- Chromosomes made of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

- each chromosome consists of single molecule of DNA, divided into segments called
genes
- Genes provide instructions for making PROTEINS → control cells activity and
structure by controlling WHAT proteins are made AND WHEN
- In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick built upon work of other scientists to create
model of DNA (double helix)

Building block molecules (ATCG) strung together form molecule of DNA

Genetic code: order in which ATCG strung together
- Different in everyone except identical twins
- “Message” determining production of specific proteins which combine to make organism
function

A- adenine
T- thymine
C- cytosine
G- guanine

Why is DNA important?

- DNA controls your features and whether you can digest certain foods
 SNC2D Textbook notes (unit 1)

- DNA exerts this control through genes which determine what kind of proteins your cells
can make therefore how your body functions/looks

Protein Production

- Each protein designed to do a specific job (build parts of your body, carry materials short
or long distances within your body, pick up or transfer signals from one part to another )
- Enzymes catalyze (speed up) various chemical reactions in your body e.g those that
help digest food.
- PROTEINS GET ORDERS FROM DNA

DNA Screening : the process of testing individuals to determine whether they have the gene or
genes associated with certain genetic disorders

- Some genetic disorders can be observed by looking at someones chromosomes

- Down syndrome : detected using amniocentesis - needle inserted through pregnant

woman’s abdominal wall to withdraw sample of fluid from the amniotic sac that
surrounds the fetus ------> cells from fetus are isolated and micrograph of chromosomes
is taken (KARYOTYPE) -------> scientists look at chromosome 21 (people with down
syndrome have 3 of these rather than normal 2)

- Karyotype can show if someone has too many or too few chromosomes or if any are
broken

Testing for PKU

- Detected by examining blood sample

- presences/absence of specific proteins in blood indicate if person’s genes functioning
normally
- Baby, e.g, enzyme needed to digest certain food protein. w/o enzyme substance called
phenylalanine builds up in baby’s blood (chance of tragic consequences)
- Each year one baby in 12 000 born with PKU
- Testing is inexpensive compared to cost of treatment if not detected early

Testing for Huntington disease

- Genetic disorder that affects nerve cells

- Symptoms usually appear in 40s (loss of muscle control and brain function) - worsen for
approx 15 years till leading to death
- Doctors find out if gene causing this disease is present
- If parent has the gene - child has 50% chance of developing disease
- If someone has the gene, they will develop the disease with certainty
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DNA screening in Canada

- Other conditions that can be determined with DNA screening include cystic fibrosis and
spina bifida

Ethical issues and Drug research

- Research for treatment of diseases carried out by drug companies - costly and time
consuming
- After developing drug→ clinical trial on humans → high financial risk→
companies recover costs of research with high price on product
- Health Canada approves drug trials
- Companies sometimes present data more positive than they really are
- Ethical issues - what a company may do if they discover an effective but extremely
expensive cure for cancer or diabetes.

Altering genes : benefits and controversies

- Genetic code is universal- same 4 DNA building block molecules ( ATCG) produce code
for proteins in all types of organisms
- Genetic code in one type of organism can be read in any other type of organisms
- If a particular gene could be transferred between 2 different types of organisms, one
species could the make proteins usually made only by the other species

Genetic engineering: combining DNA from different species

- Species whose genes are altered called GMO or Transgenic organisms

Transgenic organisms / GMO :

- E.coli bacteria injected with human proteins genetically engineered to produce

insulin→ used to treat diabetes

Benefit: human proteins manufactured by the bacteria are less likely to cause allergic
reactions or diseases , compared with proteins obtained from other sources such as animals or
dead bodies
- Many crops have had genes from bacteria or other plants inserted into their
chromosomes ( corn, canola, what, cotton, soy)
Benefit : resist pests, higher nutritional value, better withstand drought (lack of water), or cold

- Some animals injected with genes that code for a hormone that promotes growth
- grow faster, increasing human food supplies

Cloning - The process of creating identical genetic copies of an organism

- Gardeners taking cutting from plant, rooting them, producing plants that are exact copies
of parent plant
 SNC2D Textbook notes (unit 1)

Cloning a carrot

Pieces of carrot root ---> individual cells separated then grown in nutrient solution ---> carrot
embryos ---> plantlet ----> mature carrot

Cloning a mammal

- Cell nucleus of egg or female sheep removed

- cell removed from adult sheep and placed in chemical bath with egg cell
- jolt of electricity fuses cells
- fused cells divide, forming embryo
- embryo inserted into uterus of surrogate

Mutations - change in DNA of an organism

- Can alter the structure of the protein it produces, affect how well the protein does its job

SICKLE CELL ANEMIA: mutation in gene that codes for hemoglobin (protein in RBC)
- Less able to help blood carry oxygen to body cells

MUTAGEN: substance/factor causing a mutation in DNA

- E.g: electromagnetic radiations (x-rays and UV rays), chemicals: mercury and tar in
cigarettes)

CARCINOGEN: substance capable of causing cancer in living tissue

NON - HARMFUL MUTATIONS : occurs in non-genetic part of a DNA molecule

- Some mutations may help an organism adapt to a particular environment ( mutation in
bacteria resists antibiotics)

1.3 Cells from Cells

Cell reproduction: process by which new cells are formed

Difference between cell reproduction and reproduction of multicellular organisms : how many
parents are involved

BODY CELLS (only one parent cell) - divides into 2 new cells (daughter cells) that have the
same genes - are identical to each other and parent cells

CELL DIVISION: the process by which a parent cell divides into 2 daughter cells

Multicellular organism → cell division occurs when fertilized egg becomes an adult
with millions of cells
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CELL MEMBRANE AND DIFFUSION

- Cells divide when they are too large to perform efficiently the functions necessary for
their survival
- Cell membrane plays significant role
-
DIFFUSION: movement of molecules from high to low concentration
- Osmosis is the same process except for WATER

Moving from high to low concentration

- Cell membrane is permeable to certain substances
- Materials (O2) diffuse across the membrane from outside the cell (more concentrated) to
inside (less concentrated)
- Cell membrane is selectively permeable (not all materials can cross)
- Most cells surrounded by solutions containing water and dissolved nutrients/gases

Example of Osmosis- occurs over a cell membrane to equalize the number of water molecules
inside and outside the cell

Growing cells:
- Surface of cell must be big enough to allow for the entry of O2 and nutrients needed by
cell’s organelles, nucleus, and cytosol
- More nutrients = more organelles and cytosol = cell gets bigger (VOLUME INCREASES)
production of waste increases
Limiting cell size:
- Cell cannot get too big or there won’t be enough surface area for passage of all the
nutrients / waste it produces
- When a cell reaches a certain size it must divide to produce smaller cells ( each has
enough S.A to suit its needs)
‘
MITOSIS (cell division): process by which the duplicated content of the cell’s nucleus divide
into 2 equal parts
- Cell needs to have all genes required to make proteins
- Each daughter cell needs a copy of all 46 chromosomes from each parent cell
- Continuous- no breaks in between phases

DNA REPLICATION :
● Parent cell making copy of each chromosome before it divides- giving one copy to each
daughter cell
● Each chromosome is duplicated , sister chromatids joined at centromere
● Chromatid composed of tightly bunched thread-like material
● Centrosome doubles when DNA replicated
 SNC2D Textbook notes (unit 1)

● Centrosomes organize tubules that make up cytoskeleton

Prophase : sister chromatids condense and chromosomes become visible

- First phase
- Replicated chromosomes coil and condense and thicken to be
visible
- Centrosomes at opposite ends of cell

Metaphase: chromosomes aligned ACROSS CENTRE OF CELL

- Longest phase in mitosis
- Centrosomes at opposite ends of the cell
- Each centrosome becomes attached to 2 spindle-fibers from each
end of the cell

Anaphase: centromeres split apart and the chromatids are pulled to

opposite poles of the cell by spindle fibres
- Short
- Cell has twice as many chromosomes as usual

Telophase: 2 daughter nuclei are formed

- Spindle fibres start to disappear
- Within each nucleus, nucleolus appears,
chromosomes are less coiled and harder to see

CYTOKINESIS: following mitosis, division of cytosol and organelles (cytoplasm)

Animal cells:
- Specialized proteins around middle of cell contract, pinching cell membrane thus dividing
parent cell
PLant cells:
- Golgi body produces vesicles that line up and form cell plate
1.4 The cell cycle

- Continuous sequence of cell growth and division including interphase, mitosis, and
cytokinesis
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- 2 main phases: cell division and interphase (cells do activities they are designed to do
such as producing specific proteins)

Cell cycle checkpoints: point in the life of a cell when proteins determine whether cell division
should or should not occur
- There are not enough nutrients to support cell growth
- DNA not replicated
- DNA damaged

- First checkpoint after mitosis is most important - many cells leave cycle at this point
- Most cells in human body (nerve and muscle) in non-dividing stage

CELL DEATH:
- Cells damaged/beyond repair (physical forces or exposure to toxic chemicals)
- Content of cell leak out,irritating surrounding cells → swelling/redness on
body part

CELL SUICIDE:
- Cell breaks down in organized way
- Pre-programmed determined by “suicide genes”
- Responsible for toe/finger development
- Suicide if cell is infected with a virus to prevent threat to organism

CANCER AND THE CELL CYCLE:

- Ignore stop signs in cell cycle, divide repeatedly and excessively forming tumour (clump
of cells)
- Can become cancer- cells with abnormal genetic material dividing uncontrollably
- Tumours reduce effectiveness of other body tissues (e.g lung tumour replacing normal
cells using up nutrients)

Chapter 2 : “Plants from cells to systems”

Cell specialization: cells develop from similar cells into cells that have specific functions (within a
multicellular organism)
 SNC2D Textbook notes (unit 1)

- Factors influencing cell specialization :

- Contents of the cytoplasm (one daughter cell may have more vacuoles than
another)

- Environmental conditions ( temp, presence/absence of certain nutrients e.g- cells

produce darker hairs at cool temperatures in siamese cats)

- Influence of neighbouring cells (substances produced by one cell can diffuse

through a neighbouring cell’s membrane)

Cell differentiation : stage of development where specialized cells are formed

- Produce different kinds of proteins (turns genes on and off)
- Not all genes are turned on, proteins produced in cell determine the eventual function of
the cell (specialized for a given task)
- Cells will eventually have so many genes turned off they stop dividing and leave cell
cycle
- Tissues are formed by groups of similarly specialized cells
- Groups of tissue work together in organs (roots, stems, leaves)
- Organs work together for plant’s survival

Meristematic cells- responsible for plant’s constant growth (like stem cell)
- “Permanent embryos” --> lifelong ability to produce cells that can become new tissue
and organs in their part of a plant
- Combine to form 3 types of tissues found in plants
1) Dermal tissue
- Outermost covering of plant’s organs
- Barrier between plant and external environment
- Protects inner tissue and controls exchange of water and gases
between plant and environment
- MADE OF EPIDERMAL CELLS
2) Ground tissue
- All other plant tissue ( some made of cells that perform
photosynthesis)
- Some ground tissue provide support for the plant’s body
3) Vascular tissue
- Transports nutrients, waters,sugars and provides physical support
for plant
PLANT
Bud: swelling of stem that contains meristem for new,not yet developed tissues in organs such
as leaves and flowers
- Terminal bud: most active growth
- Lateral buds are dormant→ have potential to produce new branches, leaves,
flowers
- Auxin (plant hormone) - chemical given off in actively growing areas
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- Outward growth- terminal bud removed

- With terminal bud, auxin is produced (inhibits development of cells in lateral bud)-->
plants grow upward
- If lost auxin is replaced on tip, control is restored and bushing out will stop

PLANT TISSUE SYSTEM:

Vascular tissue: xylem (water) and phloem (food)

Xylem: dead tubular cells laid end to end that transport water and minerals from plant roots to
other parts
Phloem: living tubular cells also joined end to end that transport sugars from leaves to other
parts

PLANT ORGANS
- Leaves, stem, root (make possible for plant to live and grow)
- Flower - reproductive organ
Leaf
- Provides large S.A where photosynthesis occurs
- Excess glucose converted into starch and stored in leaf
Upper epidermis
- Secretes waxy cuticle that prevents water evaporation
- Sunlight passes through epidermal cells to photosynthesizing cells

Mesophyll tissue (middle)

- Palisade : perform photosynthesis in leaf , packed with mitochondria ( very
active) → perform cellular respiration
- Spongy parenchyma: loosely packed network with open spaces containing gasses

Vascular bundles
- Xylem and phloem
- Form veins dissecting interior of leaf
- Delivers water and nutrients around plant

Lower epidermis
- Critical for gas exchange between leaf and outside environment
Guard cells - allow gasses to move in/out
Stomata: pores in leaf
Guard cells + stomata → transpiration ( CO2 enters pores and O2 and H2O exits)

Root system : takes in water and minerals from soil, constantly growing
Taproot - allows plant to reach far underground for water
- Firmly anchors plant
Fibrous - spread out horizontally near soil’s surface
- Stabilize soil preventing erosion
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- Provide large S.A which water can be taken up from

Shoot system: supports plants, photosynthesizes, transports water, nutrients, and sugars
- Consists of leaf flower and stem
- Produces flowers
Root + Shoot: connects by flow of water, nutrients, hormones through vascular bundles
(containing xylem and phloem)

3.1: Cells and tissues

TISSUES IN HUMANS :
Epithelial : lines surface of body (body covering and internal organs)
Skin epithelia: made of thin,flat cells that form sheets and act as semi-permeable barrier
between inside and out of body

Columnar epithelia: made of columns of cells lining small intestine, stomach, and glands
May secret mucus, have finger like projections called cilia, absorb materials

Muscle: changes shape, act by shortening or lengthening

- Skeletal muscle: cells that line up in the same direction making tissue look striped
- Attaches to bone making it possible for body to move
- Found in limbs, arms,legs, places where support needed
Smooth muscle:
- Made of cells tapered at both ends, don’t have striated appearance
- Found in blood vessels, walls of esophagus and stomach
- Contract slower than skeletal muscle - action can be sustained for long time
Cardiac muscle:
- Made of cells whose nuclei sometimes appear between cells
- Branched and evenly striated
- Contracts as a unit
- Found ONLY IN HEART
Nervous tissue: made of neurons, have finger like projections
- Coordinates body movement
- Relay signals from brain/spinal cord to muscles and glands- detect info frm environment
(take hand away from stove)
Connective tissue: strengthens, supports, protects, binds, connects cells and tissues consists
of cells in extracellular matrix ranging from blood (liquid) to mineral deposits( bone)
- Bone: made of cells surrounded by calcium hardened tissue where blood vessels run
- Needed for movement, support, protection
Fat(adipose tissue) : large tightly packed cells
- Found under skin and around organs
- Needed for energy storage, padding, and insulation
Blood: RBC, WBC, PLatelets ( stored within straw colour matrix called plasma)
- Transports nutrients and O2
 SNC2D Textbook notes (unit 1)

- Clots when skin is cut

- Attacks bacteria and virus

STEM CELLS: an unspecialized cell that can produce various specialized cells
- Produce more cells so the animal can grow larger
- Mammals can only replace small amounts of tissue (bone &s skin repair)
- Cannot produce new organs
- Totipotent stem cells in human embryo- can become any kind of cell in the body
- Pluripotent- less versatile , can’t produce all types of cells
Medical discover: marrow transplanted from healthy animal can restore blood cells in animal
undergone radiation therapy (kills rapidly dividing cells)

Embryonic stem cells: unspecialized cell that can become any of an organism’s body cells
- Divide for a year or longer without differentiating

3.2 Organs and systems

Medical imaging technology ( MIT) - techniques used to form image of internal cells, tissues,
and organs
- X-ray: transmitting wavelength of electromagnetic radiation through the body exposing
photographic film on the other side (go through soft tissue)
- CT/ CAT scan : x-rays of thin slices of body parts then reconstructed by computer
forming 3-d image
- Ultrasound: high frequency sound waves, shows real time movement of body parts( e.g.
blood flow through neck artery)
- MRI: radio signals in magnetic field creating images of body parts

HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS:

- Circulatory: transports blood, nutrients,gases, and wastes
- Digestive: breaks down food, removes solid waste from body
- Respiratory: controls breathing, exchanges gases in lungs
- Excretory: removes liquid waste
- Immune: defends body against infections
- Muscular: works with bones, move parts of body
- Endocrine:manufactures/releases hormones that act along with nervous system keeping
body systems in balance
- Reproductive: including reproductive organs, produces offspring
- Integumentary:skin,hair,and nails , waterproof barrier around body
- Nervous: detects changes in environment,signals changes to body
- Skeletal : supports, protects, works with muscles to move parts of the body
Digestive system
- Mechanically & chemically break down food and produce nutrient molecules
- 4 processes: ingestion ( eat), digestion ( break down), absorption ( obtain
nutrients), elimination (excrete)
 SNC2D Textbook notes (unit 1)

- Mechanical digestion - in mouth (teeth breaking down food) and stomach

- Chemical digestion - begins in mouth , enzyme in saliva (amylase) starts chemical
breakdown
- Then moves through pharynx into esophagus that contracts and relaxes pushing
into stomach
Stomach : gastric juices secreted by epithelial tissue lining stomach
- HCL acid and pepsin (enzyme) ( acidic)
- Stomach lining also secretes mucus (protects wall from breaking down)
- Nerves in stomach wall sense presence of food signaling muscle tissue to
mix contents - continues mechanical breakdown - digested food turns
liquid
Small intestine :
- Sphincter (round muscle at bottom of stomach) relaxes when meal is mixed fully
- Some contents released to small intestine 1st metre: duodenum ( most digestion occurs)
- Pancreas, liver, and gallbladder release more digestive enzymes into
duodenum completing chemical breakdown
- Villi absorb nutrients, goes to all body cells
- Maximizes surface area
Large intestine : colon, rectum, anus (CRA)
- Larger diameter, shorter length than small intestine
- Absorbs water, vitamins, salts → eliminates undigested food as feces
(excreted through anus)
- Contains bacteria that finishes process of food breakdown, produces nutrients like
vitamin K (essential for blood clotting)
Excretory system
- Water & nutrients absorbed by large intestine move into blood vessels → pass
through kidneys then filtered and waste is removed
- Urine forms ( water and unneeded salts), stored in bladder then flushed from body

Circulatory system

- picks up and transports nutrients and oxygen to cells and

carries wastes to the organs responsible for eliminating
them from the body
- arteries carry blood from the heart to the rest of the body;
veins carry blood from the body back to the heart
- the blood interacts with every other organ system
- 4 chambers: left and right atrium; left and right ventricle
- contracts→ it produces pressure on the blood in the
system
- pressure pushes blood through the body
- flexible flaps of tissue, valves, are found throughout
the circulatory system, including the heart and veins
 SNC2D Textbook notes (unit 1)

- they open when blood is pushed through them, and then closed to
prevent blood from flowing backward
- process of blood going through the heart
- deoxygenated blood comes to the heart from body
- it goes through the right atrium and then down to the right ventricle
- the blood in right ventricle gets pumped through the pulmonary artery to the
lungs
- when at the lungs the blood eliminates the carbon dioxide and picks up the
oxygen
- the oxygenated goes back to the heart, through the left atrium and down the
left ventricle
- from the left ventricle, blood is pumped out through the aorta (a huge artery)
to the rest of the body
- some of this oxygenated blood goes to the heart itself
- all multicellular organisms have a way of getting oxygen to their cells
- some circulatory systems (insects) are said to be open—they have one major
vessel that empties oxygenated blood into body parts (cells are bathed with
blood); movements of body muscles take the blood back to be collected by
the single vessel
- mammals have the opposite—they have a closed circulatory system
(blood steins in vessels)
- fish have two chambered hearts, and amphibians have 3 (frogs)
- the frog has 2 atriums but 1 ventricle; this means there is some mixing
of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood (so some of blood pumped
back to body is deoxygenated—however oxygen also diffuses through
moist skin to make up for the mixing of blood)
- capillaries connect arteries and veins
- are very small (only one epithelial cell thick)
- areas where capillaries are close to one another are called capillary beds
- capillaries bring blood into close contact with the tissues in organs throughout
the body
- ex: capillaries bring blood into contact with the small intestine’s villi
and microvilli in order to pick up nutrients from digested food; also
bring blood into close contact with alveoli in lungs for gas exchange
- in every tissue of the body, capillaries deliver blood rich in oxygen and
nutrients; at the same time, blood in capillaries pick up wastes from
cells and transports them to the kidneys and lungs
- the delivery of blood is essential for the proper functioning of all other systems in the
human body
- heart disease can be caused by hypertension and arteriosclerosis (thickening
of the artery walls which narrows the passageway for blood)
- hypertension and arteriosclerosis can cause blood clots
- if a blood clot breaks free it can reach the brain and block a vessel
(resulting in stroke—stops blood flow to brain, starving cells of oxygen)
- angioplasty uses a balloon or laser to try and open up clogged arteries

Respiratory System
● responsible for the gas exchange—brings oxygen in and lets carbon dioxide
 SNC2D Textbook notes (unit 1)

out
● connected to the circulatory system—one system couldn’t do without the other
● when you breathe, muscle contractions cause your rib cage to move up and
out and your diaphragm moves down
● order of the respiratory system:
○ air is pulled into your body through nose/mouth
■ they pass by epithelial cells that have cilia (hair like
projections) which secrete mucus—mucus and cilia
keep foreign particles (dust, bacteria etc.) out of the
body
○ naval cavity (filters, warms and moistens air)
○ pharynx
○ epiglottis
■ prevents food from entering the trachea
○ larynx (contains vocal cords)
○ trachea
■ carries the air to the bronchi
○ bronchus (plural bronchi)
■ carries air to the lung
○ lung (bronchiole and alveoli)
■ bronchiole—leads air to alveolis
■ alveoli—a thin layer of epithelial tissue around alveoli
keeps inhaled bacteria and viruses inside outside the
bloodstream, while allowing gases to cross (oxygen
in and carbon dioxide out of blood)
○ diaphragm (located below lung)
● RBC contain a protein called hemoglobin (attached to oxygen molecules)
○ when deoxygenated red blood cells pass by the alveoli, the
hemoglobin they contain causes them to pick up oxygen
● when you exhale (chest muscles and diaphragm relax), the carbon dioxide is
exhaled as it’s carried out of alveoli and out the body
● the human body constantly monitors carbon dioxide levels—if they’re too high,
breathing rate increases to the waste products can be eliminated quicker
● smoking can cause many respiratory system problems
○ smoking damages the cilia—prevents them from sweeping foreign
particles out
○ contains 40 known carcinogens (cancer causes)
○ causes high levels of carbon monoxide to build up in body (bad for
body)
○ tar accumulates in lungs
● not all animals have lungs: some like fish have different ways for gas exchange
to occur (gills)

Anatomical Arrangements

● the efficiency in our organs and organ systems and their ability to interact is
due to their placement in the human body
○ example: close contact between capillaries and villi; close contact
 SNC2D Textbook notes (unit 1)

between capillary and alveoli

○ example: biceps contract, pulls bone in forearm up

How are digestive, respiratory, and circulatory system connected?:

- Respiratory system brings oxygen into lungs when you breathe and
delivered to the rest of the body via the circulatory system (hemoglobin in
RBC attached to O2)--> as blood travels through body it transports O2 to
cells then picks up CO2 for exhalation (by respiratory system) → some O2
used during digestive processes for cellular respiration (glucose + O2
make CO2 water and energy)