UNIT-II

NC Part programming
MED, KITSW
Students will able to understand the
following by the end of the Lecture
 Basic of NC machines
 Types of Part programming
 Preparatory and Miscellaneous codes
 Manual part programming
 Computer assisted programming
Introduction
 NC part programming consists of planning
and documenting the sequence of processing
steps to be performed by an NC machine.
 The part programmer must have a
knowledge of machining (or other
processing technology for which the NC
machine is designed), as well as geometry
and trigonometry.
 The documentation portion of part
programming involves the input medium
used to transmit the program of instructions
to the NC machine control unit.
NC Coordinate Systems
 To program the NC processing equipment, a part
programmer must define a standard axis system
by which the position of the work head relative
to the work part can be specified.
 There are two axis systems used in NC, one for
flat and prismatic work parts and the other for
rotational parts. Both systems are based on the
Cartesian coordinates.
 The axis system for flat and block-like parts
consists of the three linear axes (x, y, z) in the
Cartesian coordinate system, plus three
rotational axes (a, b, c), as shown in Figure .
NC Coordinate Systems

Fig: Coordinate systems used in NC (a) for flat and prismatic work and (b) for
rotational work. (On most turning machines, the z-axis is horizontal rather
than vertical as shown here.)
Finding directions in a Right
Hand Co-ordinate System
NC Coordinate Systems
 In most machine tool applications, the x- and y-axes are used
to move and position the worktable to which the part is
attached, and the z-axis is used to control the vertical
position of the cutting tool.
 Such a positioning scheme is adequate for simple NC
applications such as drilling and punching of flat sheet metal.
 Programming these machine tools consists of little more
than specifying a sequence of x–y coordinates.
 The a-, b-, and c-rotational axes specify angular positions
about the x-, y-, and z- axes, respectively.
 To distinguish positive from negative angles, the right-hand
rule is used: Using the right hand with the thumb pointing in
the positive linear axis direction (+x, +y, or +z), the fingers of
the hand are curled in the positive rotational direction.
NC Coordinate Systems
 The rotational axes can be used for one or both
of the following:
(1) orientation of the work part to present
different surfaces for machining or
(2) orientation of the tool or work head at some
angle relative to the part.
 These additional axes permit machining of
complex work part geometries.
 Machine tools with rotational axis capability
generally have either four or five axes: three linear
axes plus one or two rotational axes.
 The coordinate axes for a rotational NC system
are illustrated in Figure 7.2(b).
NC Coordinate Systems
 These systems are associated with NC
lathes and turning machines.
 Although the workpiece rotates, this is not
one of the controlled axes on most turning
machines.
 Consequently, the y-axis is not used.
 The path of the cutting tool relative to the
rotating workpiece is defined in the x–z
plane, where the x-axis is the radial location
of the tool and the z-axis is parallel to the
axis of rotation of the part.
NC part programming
 A group of commands given to the CNC or NC
for operating the machine is called the program.
 NC part programming creates NC codes, which
provide the instructions that drive cutters and
control machine operations.

 In general, there are three approaches supporting

NC programming:
 manual,
 computer-assisted,
 and CAD/CAM.
NC part programming
 The traditional input medium dating back to the
first NC machines in the 1950s is punched tape.
 More recently, magnetic tape, floppy disks, and
portable solid-state memory devices have been
used for NC due to their much higher data
density.
 Distributed numerical control is also commonly
used to transmit part programs from a central
storage unit
 Part programming can be accomplished using a
variety of procedures ranging from highly manual
to highly automated methods.
Absolute Versus Incremental
Positioning
 Another aspect of motion control is
concerned with whether positions are
defined relative to the origin of the
coordinate system (absolute positioning) or
relative to the previous location of the tool
(incremental positioning).
 In absolute positioning, the work head
locations are always defined with respect to
the origin of the axis system.
 In incremental positioning, the next work
head position is defined relative to the
present location.
Absolute Versus Incremental
Positioning
• Absolute versus incremental
positioning.
• The work head is presently
at point (20, 20) and is to be
moved to point (40, 50).
• In absolute positioning, the
move is specified by x = 40, y
= 50; whereas in incremental
positioning, the move is
specified by x = 20, y = 30.
 NC part programming
Configuration of a typical NC machine: (a) the machine control unit,
(b) hand wheel dial, and (c) closed-loop control.
Analysis of Positioning Systems
 An NC positioning system converts the
coordinate axis values in the NC part
program into relative positions of the tool
and work part during processing.
Two types of control systems are
used in positioning systems

Fig: (a) open loop and (b) closed loop

Open-Loop Positioning
Systems
 An open-loop positioning system typically
uses a stepper motor to rotate the lead
screw or ball screw.
 A stepper motor is driven by a series of
electrical pulses, which are generated by
the MCU in an NC system. Each pulse
causes the motor to rotate a fraction of
one revolution, called the step angle.
Closed-Loop Positioning
Systems
 A closed-loop NC system, illustrated in
Figure (b), uses servomotors and
feedback measurements to ensure that
the worktable is moved to the desired
position.
 A common feedback sensor used for NC
(and also for industrial robots) is an
optical encoder, depicted in Figure
Closed-Loop Positioning
Systems

Figure Optical encoder: (a)

apparatus and (b) series of
pulses emitted to measure
rotation of disk.
optical encoder
• An optical encoder is a device for measuring rotational speed that consists
of a light source and a photo detector on either side of a disk.
• The disk contains slots uniformly
• spaced around the outside of its face.
• These slots allow the light source to shine through and energize the
photodetector.
• The disk is connected to a rotating shaft whose angular position and
velocity are to be measured.
 As the shaft rotates, the slots cause the light source to be seen by the
photocell as a series of flashes.
 The flashes are converted into an equal number of electrical pulses.
 The optical encoder is connected directly to the leadscrew or ball screw,
which drives the worktable.
 By counting the pulses and computing the frequency of the pulse train, the
worktable position and velocity can be determined.
 There is usually a gear reduction between the servomotor and the screw
driving the worktable.
NC part programming
 The MCU gives instructions to the servo system, monitors
both the position and velocity output of the system, and
uses this feedback to compensate for errors between the
program command and the system response.

 The instructions given to the servos are modified according

to the measured response of the system, called closed-loop
control.

 Each axis of motion is equipped with a driving (actuation)

device.

 The primary three axes of motion are referred to as the X-,

Y-, and Z-axes. They form the machine tool coordinate
system.
NC part programming
 The XYZ system is a right-hand system and the
location of its original may be fixed (older machine)
or adjustable (floating zero).

 The Z-axis is the most important axis for machining.

 This axis is always aligned with the spindle that

imparts power.

 The spindle may rotate workpiece such as in a lathe

or it may rotate a tool as in a milling machine.
NC part programming
 Usually, the direction that moves away from the workpiece is
defined as positive.

 On a workpiece-rotating machine (e.g., lathe), the X-axis is

the direction of tool movement, and a motion along its
positive direction moves the tool away from the workpiece.

 On a milling or drilling machine, the positive X-axis points to

the right when the programmer is facing the machine.

 Note that the definition of the

positive X-axis is not universal.

 Y-axis is determined by X- and Z-axes through the right-

hand rule.
NC part programming
 By looking at its cutting path, a NC
machine can be a PTP (point-to-point)
 or continuous path.
 Types of NC machines: (a) point-to-point
and (b) continuous path
Different axes
Manual Part Programming
 In manual part programming, the programmer
prepares the NC code using a low level machine
language.
 The coding system is based on binary numbers.
 This coding is the low-level machine language that
can be understood by the MCU.
 When higher level languages are used, such as
APT (automatically programmed tooling) and
CAD/CAM , the statements in these respective
programs are converted to this basic code.
Manual Part Programming
 NC uses a combination of the binary and
decimal number systems, called the binary-
coded decimal (BCD) system.
 In this coding scheme, each of the ten digits
(0–9) in the decimal system is coded as a
four digit binary number, and these binary
numbers are added in sequence as in the
decimal number system.
 Conversion of the ten digits in the decimal
number system into binary numbers.
NC part programming
 NC part programming consists of planning and
documenting the sequence of processing steps to be
performed on an NC machine.

 The outcome is an NC program used to machine a desired

part.
 An NC program describes the sequence of actions of the
controlled NC machine, which include but are not limited to
the following:
 Tool movements, including direction, velocity, and positioning
 Tool selection, tool change, tool offsets, and tool
compensation
 Spindle rotation direction and spindle rotation speed
 Cutting speed for different sequences
 Application of cutting fluid
FIXED ZERO v/s FLOATING ZERO
 Fixed zero:
 Origin is always located at some position on M/C
table (usually at south west corner/Lower left-
hand) of the tables & all tool location are defined
 W.R.T. this zero

 Floating Zero:
 Very common with CNC M/C used now a days.
 Operator sets zero point at any convenient
position on M/C table.
 The Coordinate system is knows as work
coordinate system (WCS)
Modal and Non modal commands
 Commands issued in the NC program may stay in effect indefinitely
(until they explicitly cancelled or changed by some other
command), or they may be effective for only the one time that
they are issued.

 The former are referred as Modal commands. Examples include

feed rate selection and coolant selection.

 Commands that are effective only when issued and whose effects
are lost for
 subsequent commands are referred to as non-modal commands.

 A dwell command, which instructs the tool to remain in a given

configuration for a given amount of time, is an example of a non-
modal command.
CNC program structure
 There are four basic terms used in CNC
programming
 Character -> Word -> Block -> Program

 Character is the smallest unit of CNC program. It can have

Digit / Letter / Symbol.

 Word is a combination of alpha-numerical characters. This

creates a single instruction to the CNC machine.

 Each word begins with a capital letter, followed by a

numeral.

 These are used to represent axes

positions, federate, speed, preparatory
commands, and miscellaneous functions.
CNC program structure
 Several commands are grouped together to accomplish a
specific machining operation, hence the use of a block of
information for each operation.

 Each command gives a specific element of control data, such

as dimension or a feed rate. Each command within a block is
also called a word.

 The way in which words are arranged within the block is

called block format.

 Three different block formats are commonly used, (Fixed

sequential format, Tab sequential format and Word address
format)
Steps in the development of a
program
Manual Part Programming Methods
 ISO standards for coding
 Co-ordinate function
 Feed function
 Speed function
 Tool function
 G Codes
 M Codes
Some Word addresses
Some Word addresses

Miscellaneous function
Sequence number
Reference rewind stop
Spindle speed function
Tool function
Secondary motion dimension parallel to X*
Secondary motion dimension parallel to Y*
Secondary motion dimension parallel to Z*
Primary X motion dimension
Primary Y motion dimension
G Codes or Preparatory Functions
G Codes or Preparatory Functions
Miscellaneous Functions, M
Commonly used word addresses
 F-CODE: Feed rate. The F code specifies the feed in the
machining operation.

 S-CODE: Spindle speed. The S code specifies the cutting

speed of the machining process.

 T-CODE: Tool selection. The T code specifies which tool is to

be used in a specific operation.

 M-CODE: Miscellaneous function. The M code is used to

designate a particular mode of operation for an NC machine
tool.

 I, J & K-CODES: They specify the centre of arc coordinates

from starting.
CNC program structure
XY plane selection for vertical axis
milling machines
XY plane selection for horizontal
axis milling machines
XZ plane selection for horizontal axis
milling machines
YZ plane selection for horizontal
Axis milling machines
G01 Linear interpolation
(feed traverse)
 The tool moves along a straight line in
one or two axis simultaneously at a
programmed linear speed, the feed rate.
 Syntax: N010[G90/G91] G01 X10 Y10 Z5
F25
G02/G03 Circular interpolation
G90 absolute position command
G91 incremental position command
 This code is modal and changes the way
axis motion commands are interpreted.
G91 makes all subsequent commands
incremental. Zero point shifts with the
new position.
 Syntax: N.. G91 X..Y.. Z.. A.. B.. C..
G70 & G71 (Inch & Metric)

G 70 Inch data input

G 71 Metric data input

syntax : N010 G70 G90 G94 G97 M04

Absolute (G90) and incremental
(G91) systems

N007 G90 G01 X5.0 Y10.0

N008 X25.0 Y15.0
N009 X35.0 Y5.0

N007 G91 G01 X5.0 Y10.0

N008 X20.0 Y5.0
N009 X10.0 Y-10.0
Canned Cycles
 Canned cycle or fixed cycles are the G-
codes used to combine a number of
common motions that are used with
some types of operations such as drilling
of holes.

N G81 X Y Z R
Manual Part Programming Ex
 Write a part program for step turning
operation of the figure shown below on
CNC lathe machine
 Part program
 G21 G98 - Initial setting, metric & mm per min.
 G28 U0W0 - Going to Home Position
 M06 T01 - Selecting Tool No.1 with off Set No.1
 M03 S1200 - setting spindle speed at 1200RPM.
 G00 X23 Z5 - Tool is moving to starting point at rapid rate.
 G90 X22 Z-45 F100 - G90-Box turning cycle (syntax : G90 X Z F)
 X21
 X20
 X19 Z-30
 X18
 X17
 X16
 X15
 X14 Z-15
 X13
 X12
 X11
 X10
 G28 U0 W0 - Going to Home position
 M05 - Stop Spindle
 M30 - Program stop and rewind
Assignment
Point-to-Point Drilling
example
 This example presents the NC part program in word address format for
drilling the three holes in the sample part shown in Figure P7A.3.
 The outside edges of the starting work part have been rough cut (by jig
sawing) and are slightly oversized for subsequent profile milling. The three
holes to be drilled in this example will be used to locate and fixture the
part for profile milling in the following example.
 For the present drilling sequence, the part is gripped in place so that its
top surface is 40 mm above the surface of the machine tool table to
provide ample clearance beneath the part for hole drilling. The x-, y-, and z-
axes are defined as shown in Figure P7A.4. A 7.0-mm diameter drill,
corresponding to the specified hole size, has been chucked in the CNC
drill press.
 The drill will be operated at a feed of 0.05 mm/rev and a spindle speed of
1,000 rev/min (corresponding to a surface speed of about 0.37 m/sec,
which is slow for the aluminum work material). At the beginning of the job,
the drill point will be positioned at a target point located at x = 0, y = -50,
and z = +10 (axis units are in millimeters). The program begins with the
tool positioned at this target point.
Explanation
Cutter path for profile milling
outside perimeter of sample part.
Explanation
Computer-Assisted Part
Programming
 APT or Automatically Programmed Tool, is a
high-level computer programming language most
commonly used to generate instructions for
numerically controlled machine tools.
 APT uses language statements to define part
shape and tool motion as well as machine tool-
dependent data (e.g., feed rates and spindle
speeds). The general procedures of generating
APT source codes involve the following steps:
1. Identify part geometry.
2. Identify cutter motions, feeds, speeds, and cutter
parameters.
3. Code the geometry, cutter motions, and general
machine instructions into the part programming
languages. The code is known as source
Computer-Assisted Part
Programming
4.Compile or process the source to produce the
machine-independent list of cutter movements and
auxiliary machine control information, known as the
cutter location data file (or CL data).
5. An APT processor program is used to read these
statements, interpret the meanings, and perform all
the necessary calculations to generate a series of
cutter location points that define the toolpath.
6. The generalized APT output (usually in CL
data) is converted to the particular format G-
code required by the CNC machine using a post-
processor program.
7. The CL data file contains (mainly) details of
cutter moves, either as a series of absolute linear
GOTO moves or relative GODLTA moves.
Computer-Assisted Part
Programming

• Sequence of activities in computer-assisted part programming

Automatically Programmed Tool
•A major advantage of APT is that it has
developed into an accepted standard for
machine tools, in addition to alleviating the
burden of coding at the very basic level.

•A prime disadvantage of APT is that it uses

English-like commands to define geometry
instead of the much more convenient
graphical methods.

• Note that the APT-type programming

approach is being gradually replaced
 by the more advanced CAD/CAM approach.
Automatically Programmed Tool
APT Source code
CAD/CAM Approach
 The CAD/CAM approach is the most popular and advanced
approach in generating CNC codes.

 The process starts with creating a reference

(or design) model and
 workpiece, and then assembling them in assembly mode.

 After the solid models are assembled, users define

manufacturing set up, including choosing a workcell (e.g., a 3-
axis mill) and coordinate system (or machine zero).

 Then, users create a machining sequence (e.g., a profile-

milling sequence).
CAD/CAM Approach
 In the meantime, users choose a cutter
and specify machining parameters (e.g.,
federate, spindle speed).

 At this point, a machining sequence is

completely defined. CAD/CAM will
generate a toolpath; the toolpath was
created using Pro/MFG for this example.
Robotics
 Learning Objectives
 Students can understand different types
of robots,
 configuration,
 sensor technology and
 applications
Introduction to Robots
 An industrial robot is defined as “an automatically
controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose
manipulator programmable in three or more axes,
which may be either fixed in place or mobile for
use in industrial automation applications.”
 It is a general-purpose machine possessing certain
anthropomorphic characteristics, the most
obvious of which is its mechanical arm.
 Other human-like characteristics are the robot’s
capabilities to respond to sensory inputs,
communicate with other machines, and make
decisions.
Introduction to Robots
 These capabilities permit robots to perform a variety
of industrial tasks.
 The development of robotics technology followed the
development of numerical control and the two
technologies are quite similar.
 They both involve coordinated control of multiple
axes (the axes are called joints in robotics), and they
both use dedicated digital computers as controllers.
 Whereas NC (numerical control) machines are
designed to perform specific processes (e.g.,
machining, sheet metal hole punching, and thermal
cutting), robots are designed for a wider variety of
tasks.
Introduction to Robots
 Typical production applications of
industrial robots include spot welding,
material transfer, machine loading, spray
painting, and assembly.
 Some of the qualities that make industrial
robots commercially and technologically
important are the following:
Introduction to Robots
 Robots can be substituted for humans in hazardous
or uncomfortable work environments.
 A robot performs its work cycle with a consistency
and repeatability that cannot be attained by humans.
 Robots can be reprogrammed.
 When the production run of the current task is
completed, a robot can be reprogrammed and
equipped with the necessary tooling to perform an
altogether different task.
 Robots are controlled by computers and can
therefore be connected to other computer systems
to achieve computer integrated manufacturing.
Types of Robots
 Mobile robots – robots that move freely in
their environment
 We can subdivide these into indoor robots,
outdoor robots, terrain robots, etc based on
the environment(s) they are programmed to
handle
• Robotic arms – stationary robots that have
manipulators, usually used in construction
(e.g., car manufacturing plants)
◦ These are usually not considered AI because they
do not perform planning and often have little to
no sensory input
Types of Robots
 Autonomous vehicles – like mobile robots,
but in this case, they are a combination of
vehicle and computer controller
 Autonomous cars, autonomous plane
drones, autonomous helicopters,
autonomous submarines, autonomous space
probes
 There are different classes of autonomous
vehicles based on the level of autonomy,
some are only semi-autonomous
Types of Robots
 Soft robots – robots that use soft computing
approaches (e.g., fuzzy logic, neural
networks)
• Mimicking robots – robots that learn by
mimicking
◦ For instance robots that learn facial gestures or
those that learn to touch or walk or play with
children
 Softbots – software agents that have some
degrees of freedom (the ability to move) or
in some cases, software agents that can
communicate over networks
Types of Robots
 Nanobots – theoretical at this point, but
like mobile robots, they will wander in an
environment to investigate or make
changes
 But in this case, the environment will be
microscopic worlds, e.g., the human body,
inside of machines
Robot Anatomy and Related
Attributes
 The arm or manipulator of an industrial
robot consists of a series of joints and
links.
 Robot anatomy is concerned with the
types and sizes of these joints and links
and other aspects of the manipulator’s
physical construction..
 The robot’s anatomy affects its capabilities
and the tasks for which it is best suited.
Joints and Links
 A robot’s joint, or axis as it is also called
in robotics, is similar to a joint in the
human body: It provides relative motion
between two parts of the body.
 Robots are often classified according to
the total number of axes they possess.
 Connected to each joint are two links, an
input link and an output link.
 Links are the rigid components of the
robot manipulator.
Joints and Links
 The purpose of the joint is to provide
controlled relative movement between
the input link and the output link.
 Most robots are mounted on a stationary
base on the floor.
 Let this base and its connection to the
first joint be referred to as link 0.
 It is the input link to joint 1
Joints and Links
 The first in the series of joints used in the
construction of the robot.
 The output link of joint 1 is link 1.
 Link1 is the input link to joint 2, whose
output link is link 2, and so forth.

Diagram of robot construction showing how a

robot is made up of a series of joint-link
combinations.
Joint types
 Nearly all industrial robots have
mechanical joints that can be classified
into one of five types: two types that
provide translational motion and three
types that provide rotary motion
Joint types
1. Linear joint (type L joint).
The relative movement between the input
link and the output link is a translational
telescoping motion, with the axes of the
two links being parallel.
Joint types
2. Orthogonal joint (type O joint).
This is also a translational sliding motion,
but the input and output links are
perpendicular to each other.
Joint types
3. Rotational joint (type R joint).
 This type provides rotational relative
motion, with the axis of rotation
perpendicular to the axes of the input and
output links.
Joint types
4. Twisting joint (type T joint).
 This joint also involves rotary motion, but
the axis of rotation is parallel to the axes
of the two links.
Joint types
5. Revolving joint (type V joint,V from the “v”
in revolving).
In this joint type, the axis of the input link is
parallel to the axis of rotation of the joint,
and the axis of the output link is
perpendicular to the axis of rotation.
Joint types
 Each of these joint types has a range over
which it can be moved.
 The range for a translational joint is
usually less than a meter, but for large
gantry robots, the range may be several
meters.
 The three types of rotary joints may have
a range as small as a few degrees or as
large as several complete revolutions.
Common Robot Configurations
 A robot manipulator can be divided into
two sections: a body-and-arm assembly
and a wrist assembly.
 There are usually three axes associated
with the body-and-arm, and either two or
three axes associated with the wrist.
 At the end of the manipulator’s wrist is a
device related to the task that must be
accomplished by the robot.
Common Robot Configurations
 The device, called an end effector is
usually either
(1) a gripper for holding a work part or
(2) a tool for performing some process.
 The body-and-arm of the robot is used to
position the end effector, and the robot’s
wrist is used to orient the end effector.
Body-and-Arm Configurations.
 Given the five types of joints defined
earlier, there are 5 * 5 * 5 = 125 possible
combinations of joints that could be used
to design the body-and-arm assembly for
a three-axis manipulator.
 In addition, there are design variations
within the individual joint types (e.g.,
physical size of the joint and range of
motion).
Body-and-Arm Configurations
It is somewhat remarkable, therefore, that only a
few configurations are commonly available in
commercial industrial robots. These configurations
are:
1. Articulated robot. Also known as a jointed-
arm robot it has the general configuration of a
human shoulder and arm.
It consists of an upright body that swivels about the
base using a T joint.
At the top of the body is a shoulder joint (shown as
an R joint in the figure), whose output link connects
to an elbow joint (another R joint).
Articulated robot.

Articulated robot
(jointed-arm robot).
Body-and-Arm Configurations
2. Polar configuration.
This configuration consists of a sliding arm
(L joint) actuated relative to the body,
which an rotate about both a vertical axis
(T joint) and a horizontal axis (R joint)

Polar configuration.
Body-and-Arm Configurations
3. SCARA:
 SCARA is an acronym for Selectively Compliant Arm
for Robotic Assembly.
 This configuration is similar to the jointed-arm
robot
 Except that the shoulder and elbow rotational
axes are vertical, which means that the arm is
very rigid in the vertical direction, but compliant
in the horizontal direction.
 This permits the robot to perform insertion tasks
(for assembly) in a vertical direction, where some
side-to-side alignment may be needed to mate the
two parts properly.
SCARA configuration
Body-and-Arm Configurations
4. Cartesian coordinate robot.
 Other names for this configuration include
gantry robot, rectilinear robot, and x–y–z
robot.
 As shown in Figure, it consists of three
orthogonal joints (type O) to achieve linear
motions in a three-dimensional rectangular
work space.
 It is commonly used for overhead access to
load and unload production machines.
Cartesian coordinate robot
Body-and-Arm Configurations
5. Delta robot.
 This unusual consists of three arms attached to
an overhead base.
 Each arm is articulated and consists of two
rotational joints (type R), the first of which is
powered and the second is unpowered. design,
depicted in Figure,
 All three arms are connected to a small platform
below, to which the end effector is attached.
 The platform and end effector can be
manipulated in three dimensions.
 The delta robot is used for high-speed movement
of small objects, as in product packaging.
5. Delta robot.
Wrist Configurations.
 The robot’s wrist is used to establish the
orientation of the end effector.
 Robot wrists usually consist of two or
three joints that almost always consist of
R and T type rotary joints.
 One possible configuration for a three-
axis wrist assembly is shown in figure.
Wrist Configurations

Typical configuration of a three-axis wrist

Assembly showing roll, pitch, and yaw.
Wrist Configurations
 The three joints are defined as follows:
(1) roll, using a T joint to accomplish
rotation about the robot’s arm axis;
(2) pitch, which involves up-and-down
rotation, typically using an R joint; and
(3) yaw, which involves right-and-left
rotation, also accomplished by means of
an R-joint.
 A two-axis wrist typically includes only
roll and pitch joints (T and R joints).
Wrist Configurations
 To avoid confusion in the pitch and yaw
definitions, the wrist roll should be assumed
in its center position, as shown in the figure.
 To demonstrate the possible confusion,
 consider a two-jointed wrist assembly. With
the roll joint in its center position, the
second joint (R joint) provides up-and-down
rotation (pitch).
 However, if the roll position were 90
degrees from center (either clockwise or
counterclockwise), the second joint would
provide a right-left rotation (yaw).
Work Volume
 The work volume (also known as work
envelope) of the manipulator is defined as
the three-dimensional space within which
the robot can manipulate the end of its
wrist.
 Work volume is determined by the number
and types of joints in the manipulator (body-
and-arm and wrist), the ranges of the various
joints, and the physical sizes of the links.
 The shape of the work volume depends
largely on the robot’s configuration, as
indicated in Table 8.1.
Joint Notations for the Five Common Robot
Body-and-Arm Configurations
Joint Drive Systems
 Robot joints are actuated using any of
three types of drive systems:
(1) electric,
(2) hydraulic, or
(3) pneumatic. Electric drive systems use
electric motors as joint actuators
e.g., servomotors or stepper motors
Joint Drive Systems
 The motors are connected to the joints
either using no gear reduction (called
direct drive) or with a gear reduction to
increase torque or force.
 Hydraulic and pneumatic drive systems
use devices such as linear pistons and
rotary vane actuators to move the joint.
 Pneumatic drive is typically limited to
smaller robots used in simple part
transfer applications.
Joint Drive Systems
 Electric drive and hydraulic drive are used on
more sophisticated industrial robots.
 Electric drive has become the preferred drive
system in commercially available robots, as
electric motor technology has advanced in recent
years.
 It is more readily adaptable to computer control,
which is the dominant technology used today for
robot controllers.
 Electric drive robots are relatively accurate
compared with hydraulically powered robots. By
contrast, hydraulic drive robots can be designed
with greater lift capacity.
Joint Drive Systems
 The drive system, position sensors (and
speed sensors if used), and feedback
control systems for the joints determine
the dynamic response characteristics of
the manipulator.
 The speed with which the robot can
move to a programmed position and the
stability of its motion are important
characteristics of dynamic response in
robotics.
Motion speed
 Motion speed refers to the absolute velocity
of the manipulator at its end-of-arm.
 The maximum speed of a large robot is
around 2 m/sec (6 ft/sec).
 Speed can be programmed into the work
cycle so that different portions of the cycle
are carried out at different velocities.
 What is sometimes more important than
speed is the robot’s capability to accelerate
and decelerate in a controlled manner.
Speed of response
 Speed of response: which is the time
required for the manipulator to move
from one point in space to the next.
 Speed of response is important because it
influences the robot’s cycle time, which in
turn affects the production rate in the
application.
Motion stability
 refers to the amount of overshoot and
oscillation that occurs in the robot motion
at the end-of-arm as it attempts to move to
the next programmed location.
 More oscillation in the motion is an
indication of less stability.
 The problem is that robots with greater
stability are inherently slower in their
response, whereas faster robots are
generally less stable.
Motion stability
 Load carrying capacity depends on the robot’s physical size
and construction as well as the force and power that can be
transmitted to the end of the wrist.
 The weight carrying capacity of commercial robots ranges
from less than 1 kg up to approximately 1,200 kg (2,600 lb)
 One factor that should be kept in mind when considering
load carrying capacity is that a robot usually works with a
tool or gripper attached to its wrist.
 Grippers are designed to grasp and move objects about the
work cell.
 The net load-carrying capacity of the robot is obviously
reduced by the weight of the gripper.
 If the robot is rated at 10 kg (22 lb) and the weight of the
gripper is 4 kg (9 lbs), then the net weight carrying capacity is
reduced to 6 kg (13 lb).
Sensors in Robotics
 Sensors used in industrial robotics can be classified
into two categories:
(1) internal and
(2) external.
Internal sensors: are components of the robot and
are used to control the positions and velocities of the
robot joints.
These sensors form a feedback control loop with the
robot controller.
Typical sensors used to control the position of the
robot arm include potentiometers and optical encoders.
Tachometers of various types are used to control the
speed of the robot arm
Sensors in Robotics
 External sensors are external to the
robot and are used to coordinate the
operation of the robot with other
equipment in the cell.
 In many cases, these external sensors are
relatively simple devices, such as limit
switches that determine whether a part
has been positioned properly in a fixture
or that a part is ready to be picked up at
a conveyor.
Sensors in Robotics
 Other situations require more advanced
sensor technologies, including the
following:
 Tactile sensors. These are used to
determine whether contact is made
between the sensor and another object.
 Tactile sensors can be divided into two
types in robot applications: (1) touch
sensors and (2) force sensors.
Touch sensors & Force sensors
 Touch sensors indicate simply that
contact has been made with the object.
 Force sensors indicate the magnitude of
the force with the object.
 This might be useful in a gripper to
measure and control the force being
applied to grasp a delicate object.
sensors.
Proximity sensors.
 These indicate when an object is close to
the sensor.
 When this type of sensor is used to indicate
the actual distance of the object, it is called a
range sensor.
Optical sensors.
 Photocells and other photometric devices
can be utilized to detect the presence or
absence of objects and are often used for
proximity detection.
sensors.
 Machine vision.
 Machine vision is used in robotics for
inspection, parts identification, guidance, and
other uses.
 Improvements in programming of vision-
guided robot (VGR) systems have made
implementations of this technology easier
and faster, and machine vision is being
implemented as an integral feature in more
and more robot installations, especially in
the automotive industry.
sensors.
 Other sensors
 A miscellaneous category includes other
types of sensors that might be used in
robotics, such as devices for measuring
temperature, fluid pressure, fluid flow,
electrical voltage, current, and various
other physical properties.
Applications of Industrial Robots
 Most of the current applications are in
manufacturing.
 The applications can usually be classified
into one of the following categories:
(1) material handling,
(2) processing operations, and
(3) Assembly and inspection.
Material Handling Applications
 In material handling applications, the robot
moves materials or parts from one place to
another.
 To accomplish the transfer, the robot is
equipped with a gripper that must be
designed to handle the specific part or parts
to be moved.
 Included within this application category are
(1) material transfer and
(2) machine loading and/or unloading.
Material Handling Applications
 In many material handling applications, the
parts must be presented to the robot in a
known position and orientation.
 This requires some form of material
handling device to deliver the parts into
the work cell in this position and
orientation.
Material Transfer
 These applications are ones in which the
primary purpose of the robot is to move
parts from one location to another.
 In many cases, reorientation of the part is
accomplished during the move.
 The basic application in this category is
called a pick-and-place operation, in
which the robot picks up a part and
deposits it at a new location.
Material Transfer
 Transferring parts from one conveyor to
another is an example.
 The requirements of the application are
modest; a low-technology robot (e.g.,
limited-sequence type) is often sufficient.
 Only two or three joints are required for
many of the applications, and
pneumatically powered robots are often
used.
Material Transfer
 A more complex example of material
transfer is palletizing, in which the robot
retrieves parts, cartons, or other objects
from one location and deposits them
onto a pallet or other container at
multiple positions on the pallet.
Material Transfer
 Although the pickup point is the same for
every cycle, the deposit location on the
pallet is different for each carton.
 This adds to the degree of difficulty of the
task.
 Either the robot must be taught each
position on the pallet using the powered-
lead through method or it must compute
the location based on the dimensions of the
pallet and the center distances between the
cartons in both x- and y- directions, and in
the z-direction if the pallet is stacked.
Material Transfer
 Other applications similar to palletizing include
depalletizing, which consists of removing parts
from an ordered arrangement in a pallet and
placing them at another location (e.g., onto a
moving conveyor)
 stacking operations, which involve placing flat
parts on top of each other, such that the vertical
location of the drop-off position is continuously
changing with each cycle; and
 insertion operations, in which the robot inserts
parts into the compartments of a divided carton.
Machine Loading and/or
Unloading
 In machine loading and/or unloading applications, the
robot transfers parts into and/or from a production
machine.
 The three possible cases are
(1) machine loading, in which the robot loads parts into
the production machine, but the parts are unloaded
from the machine by some other means;
(2) machine unloading, in which the raw materials are
fed into the machine without using the robot, and
the robot unloads the finished parts; and
(3) machine loading and unloading, which involves both
loading of the raw work part and unloading of the
finished part by the robot.
Machine Loading and/or
Unloading
 Industrial robot applications of machine
loading and/or unloading include the
following processes:
 Die casting
 Metal machining operations.
 Forging
 Press working
 Heat-treating
Processing Operations
 In processing applications, the robot
performs some operation on a work part,
such as grinding or spray painting.
 Spot Welding:
 Spot welding is a metal joining process in
which two sheet metal parts are fused
together at localized points of contact.
 Two electrodes squeeze the metal parts
together and then a large electrical current
is applied across the contact point to cause
fusion to occur.
Spot Welding:
 The electrodes, together with the
mechanism that actuates them, constitute
the welding gun in spot welding.
 widespread use in the automobile
industry for car body fabrication
 The end effector is the spot welding gun
used to pinch the car panels together and
perform the resistance welding process
Spot Welding:
 The welding gun used for automobile
spot welding is typically heavy.
 Prior to the application of robots, human
workers performed this operation, and
the heavy welding tools were difficult for
humans to manipulate accurately.
 No missed welds,
 No poorly located welds, and other
defects
Arc Welding.
 Arc welding is used to provide continuous
welds rather than individual spot welds at
specific contact points.
 Arc-welded joint is substantially stronger
than in spot welding.
 It can be used in airtight pressure vessels
and other weldments in which strength
and continuity are required.
Arc Welding.
 The working conditions for humans who perform
arc welding are not good.
 Welder must wear face helmet for eye protection
against the ultraviolet light.
 The helmet window must be dark enough to
mask the UV radiation.
 High electrical current is used in the welding
process, and this creates a hazard for the welder.
 danger from the high temperatures in the
process, high enough to melt the steel, aluminum,
or other metal that is being welded.
Arc Welding.
 Significant hand–eye coordination is required by
human welders to make sure that the arc follows
the desired path with sufficient accuracy to make
a good weld.
 worker fatigue
 welding process for perhaps 20–30% of the time.
 This arc-on time is defined as the proportion of
time during the shift when the welding arc is on
and performing the process.
 To assist the welder, a second worker is usually
present at the work site, called a fitter,
Arc Welding.
 Because of these conditions in manual arc
welding, automation is used where
technically and economically feasible.
 These machines are used for long straight
sections and regular round parts, such as
pressure vessels, tanks, and pipes.
 Industrial robots can also be used to
automate the arc welding process.
Arc Welding.
 The cell consists of the robot, the welding apparatus
(power unit, controller, welding tool, and wire feed
mechanism), and a fixture that positions the
components for the robot.
 The fixture might be mechanized with one or two
axes so that it can present different portions of the
work to the robot for welding (the term positioner is
used for this type of fixture).
 For greater productivity, two fixtures are often used
so that a human helper or another robot can unload
the completed job and load the components for the
next work cycle while the welding robot is
simultaneously welding the present job.
Arc welding workplace arrangement
Arc welding
 The robot used in arc welding must be
capable of continuous path control.
 Jointed arm robots consisting of six joints
are frequently used.
 Some robot vendors provide
manipulators that have hollow upper
arms, so that the cables connected to the
welding torch can be contained in the
arm for protection, rather than attached
to the exterior.
Spray Coating
 Spray coating directs a spray gun at the
object to be coated.
 Fluid flows through the nozzle of the
spray gun to be dispersed and applied
over the surface of the object.
 Spray painting is the most common
application in the category, but spray
coating refers to a broader range of
applications that includes painting.
Spray Coating
 The work environment for humans who perform
this process is filled with health hazards.
 harmful and noxious fumes in the air and noise
from the spray gun nozzle.
 To mitigate these hazards, robots are being used
more and more for spray coating tasks,
particularly in high-production operations.
 Robot applications include spray coating of
automobile car bodies appliances, engines, and
other parts; spray staining of wood products; and
spraying of porcelain coatings on bathroom
fixtures.
Spray Coating
 The robot must be capable of continuous path
control to accomplish the smooth motion sequences
required in spray painting.
 The use of industrial robots for spray coating offers a
number of benefits in addition to protecting workers
from a hazardous environment.
 These other benefits include
 greater uniformity in applying the coating than
humans can accomplish,
 reduced waste of paint,
 lower needs for ventilating the work area because
humans are not present during the process, and
greater productivity.
Other Processing Applications.
 Drilling, routing, and other machining
processes.
 Grinding, wire brushing, and similar
operations.
 Water jet cutting.
 Laser cutting.
Assembly and Inspection
 Assembly.
 Assembly involves the combining of two
or more parts to form a new entity, called
a subassembly or assembly.
 The new entity is made secure by
fastening the parts together using
mechanical fastening techniques (e.g.,
screws, bolts and nuts, rivets) or joining
processes (e.g., welding, brazing, soldering,
or adhesive bonding).
Assembly
 Fixed automation is appropriate in mass
production of relatively simple products,
such as pens, mechanical pencils, cigarette
lighters, and garden hose nozzles.
 Robots are usually at a disadvantage in these
high-production situations because they
cannot operate at the high speeds that fixed-
automated equipment can.
 The most appealing application of industrial
robots for assembly involves situations in
which a mix of similar models are produced
in the same work cell or assembly line.
Assembly
 What makes robots viable in mixed-model
assembly is their capability to execute
programmed variations in the work cycle to
accommodate different product configurations.
Industrial robots used for the types of assembly
operations described here are typically small, with
light load capacities.
 The most common configurations are jointed
arm, SCARA, and Cartesian coordinate.
 Accuracy and repeatability requirements in
assembly work are often more demanding than in
other robot applications,
Inspection
 There is often a need in automated
production to inspect the work that is done.
 Inspections accomplish the following
functions:
(1) making sure that a given process has been
completed,
(2) ensuring that parts have been assembled as
specified, and
(3) identifying flaws in raw materials and
finished parts.
Inspection
 Inspection tasks performed by robots can be divided into the
following two cases:
 The robot performs loading and unloading to support an
inspection or testing machine.
 This case is really machine loading and unloading, where the
machine is an inspection machine.
 The robot picks parts (or assemblies) that enter the cell,
loads and unloads them to carry out the inspection process,
and places them at the cell output.
 In some cases, the inspection may result in sorting of parts
that must be accomplished by the robot.
 Depending on the quality level of the parts, the robot places
them in different containers or on different exit conveyors.
Inspection
2. The robot manipulates an inspection device,
such as a mechanical probe or vision sensor, to
inspect the product.
 This case is similar to a processing operation
in which the end effector attached to the
robot’s wrist is the inspection probe.
 To perform the process, the part is delivered
to the workstation in the correct position
and orientation, and the robot must
manipulate the inspection device as required.